CHAPTER THREE

MOTION IN A PLANE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to
3.1 Introduction describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We
3.2 Scalars and vectors found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be
3.3 Multiplication of vectors by taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two
real numbers directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an
3.4 Addition and subtraction of object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
vectors — graphical method (space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-
3.5 Resolution of vectors mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary
3.6 Vector addition — analytical to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to
method add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of
3.7 Motion in a plane multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this
3.8 Motion in a plane with to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and
constant acceleration acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object
3.9 Projectile motion in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall
3.10 Uniform circular motion discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail
the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of
Summary motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.
Points to ponder We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.
Exercises
The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a
plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.

3.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or
vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is
associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar
quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper
unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,
mass of an object, the temperature of a body and the
time at which a certain event happened. The rules for
combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

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28 PHYSICS

just as the ordinary numbers*. For example, represented by another position vector, OP′
if the length and breadth of a rectangle are denoted by r′. The length of the vector r
1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then its represents the magnitude of the vector and its
perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the direction is the direction in which P lies as seen
four sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m = from O. If the object moves from P to P′, the
3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′) is called
and the perimeter is also a scalar. Take the displacement vector corresponding to
another example: the maximum and motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′).
minimum temperatures on a particular day
are 35.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively. Then,
the difference between the two temperatures
is 11.4 °C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cube
of aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of
2.7 kg, then its volume is 10–3 m3 (a scalar)
and its density is 2.7×103 kg m –3 (a scalar).
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both
a magnitude and a direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or equivalently the Fig. 3.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors.
parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is (b) Displacement vector PQ and different
specified by giving its magnitude by a number courses of motion.
and its direction. Some physical quantities that It is important to note that displacement
are represented by vectors are displacement, vector is the straight line joining the initial and
velocity, acceleration and force. final positions and does not depend on the actual
To represent a vector, we use a bold face type path undertaken by the object between the two
in this book. Thus, a velocity vector can be
positions. For example, in Fig. 3.1(b), given the
represented by a symbol v. Since bold face is
initial and final positions as P and Q, the
difficult to produce, when written by hand, a
displacement vector is the same PQ for different
vector is often represented by an arrow placed
r r paths of journey, say PABCQ, PDQ, and PBEFQ.
over a letter, say v . Thus, both v and v
Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is
represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of
either less or equal to the path length of an
a vector is often called its absolute value,
object between two points. This fact was
indicated by |v| = v. Thus, a vector is
emphasised in the previous chapter also while
represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...
x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light discussing motion along a straight line.
face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y. 3.2.2 Equality of Vectors
3.2.1 Position and Displacement Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
To describe the position of an object moving in only if, they have the same magnitude and the
a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, same direction.**
say O as origin. Let P and P′ be the positions of Figure 3.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and
the object at time t and t′, respectively [Fig. 3.1(a)]. B. We can easily check their equality. Shift B
We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP is parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that
the position vector of the object at time t. An of A, i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their
arrow is marked at the head of this line. It is tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors are
represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r. Point P′ is said to be equal. In general, equality is indicated

* Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply
and divide scalars of different units.
** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector
unchanged. Such vectors are called free vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of
application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 29

The factor λ by which a vector A is multiplied

could be a scalar having its own physical
dimension. Then, the dimension of λ A is the
product of the dimensions of λ and A. For
example, if we multiply a constant velocity vector
by duration (of time), we get a displacement
vector.
3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD
Fig. 3.2 (a) Two equal vectors A and B. (b) Two As mentioned in section 4.2, vectors, by
vectors A′ and B′ are unequal though they definition, obey the triangle law or equivalently,
are of the same length. the parallelogram law of addition. We shall now
describe this law of addition using the graphical
as A = B. Note that in Fig. 3.2(b), vectors A′ and method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that
B′ have the same magnitude but they are not lie in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The lengths
equal because they have different directions. of the line segments representing these vectors
Even if we shift B′ parallel to itself so that its tail are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors.
Q′ coincides with the tail O′ of A′, the tip S′ of B′ To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that
does not coincide with the tip P′ of A′. its tail is at the head of the vector A, as in
3.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL Fig. 3.4(b). Then, we join the tail of A to the head
NUMBERS of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is,
Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ the sum of the vectors A and B. Since, in this
gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by procedure of vector addition, vectors are
the factor λ but the direction is the same as that
of A :
λ A = λ A if λ > 0.
For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant
vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has
a magnitude twice of |A| as shown in Fig. 3.3(a).
Multiplying a vector A by a negative number
−λ gives another vector whose direction is
opposite to the direction of A and whose
magnitude is λ times |A|.
Multiplying a given vector A by negative
numbers, say –1 and –1.5, gives vectors as
shown in Fig 3.3(b).

(c) (d)
Fig. 3.3 (a) Vector A and the resultant vector after
multiplying A by a positive number 2. Fig. 3.4 (a) Vectors A and B. (b) Vectors A and B
(b) Vector A and resultant vectors after added graphically. (c) Vectors B and A
multiplying it by a negative number –1 added graphically. (d) Illustrating the
and –1.5. associative law of vector addition.

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30 PHYSICS

arranged head to tail, this graphical method is What is the physical meaning of a zero vector?
called the head-to-tail method. The two vectors Consider the position and displacement vectors
and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.1(a). Now suppose
so this method is also known as triangle method that an object which is at P at time t, moves to
of vector addition. If we find the resultant of P′ and then comes back to P. Then, what is its
B + A as in Fig. 3.4(c), the same vector R is displacement? Since the initial and final
obtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative: positions coincide, the displacement is a “null
A+B=B+A (3.1) vector”.

The addition of vectors also obeys the associative Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms
law as illustrated in Fig. 3.4(d). The result of of addition of vectors. We define the difference
adding vectors A and B first and then adding of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
vector C is the same as the result of adding B A and –B :
and C first and then adding vector A : A – B = A + (–B) (3.5)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (3.2) It is shown in Fig 3.5. The vector –B is added to
What is the result of adding two equal and vector A to get R2 = (A – B). The vector R1 = A + B
opposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
–A shown in Fig. 3.3(b). Their sum is A + (–A). We can also use the parallelogram method to
Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the find the sum of two vectors. Suppose we have
same, but the directions are opposite, the two vectors A and B. To add these vectors, we
resultant vector has zero magnitude and is bring their tails to a common origin O as
represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero shown in Fig. 3.6(a). Then we draw a line from
vector : the head of A parallel to B and another line from
the head of B parallel to A to complete a
A–A=0 |0|= 0 (3.3)
parallelogram OQSP. Now we join the point of
Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its the intersection of these two lines to the origin
direction cannot be specified. O. The resultant vector R is directed from the
The null vector also results when we multiply common origin O along the diagonal (OS) of the
a vector A by the number zero. The main parallelogram [Fig. 3.6(b)]. In Fig.3.6(c), the
properties of 0 are : triangle law is used to obtain the resultant of A
A+0=A and B and we see that the two methods yield the
λ0=0 same result. Thus, the two methods are
0A=0 (3.4) equivalent.

Fig. 3.5 (a) Two vectors A and B, – B is also shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A – the result is R2. For
comparison, addition of vectors A and B, i.e. R1 is also shown.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 31

Fig. 3.6 (a) Two vectors A and B with their tails brought to a common origin. (b) The sum A + B obtained using
the parallelogram method. (c) The parallelogram method of vector addition is equivalent to the triangle
method.

⊳
Example 3.1 Rain is falling vertically with 3.5 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
a speed of 35 m s–1. Winds starts blowing Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a
after sometime with a speed of 12 m s–1 in plane with different directions and let A be
east to west direction. In which direction another vector in the same plane (Fig. 3.8). A
should a boy waiting at a bus stop hold can be expressed as a sum of two vectors — one
his umbrella ? obtained by multiplying a by a real number and
the other obtained by multiplying b by another
real number. To see this, let O and P be the tail
and head of the vector A. Then, through O, draw
a straight line parallel to a, and through P, a
straight line parallel to b. Let them intersect at
Q. Then, we have
A = OP = OQ + QP (3.6)
But since OQ is parallel to a, and QP is parallel
to b, we can write :

Fig. 3.7 OQ = λ a, and QP = µ b (3.7)

where λ and µ are real numbers.
Answer The velocity of the rain and the wind
are represented by the vectors vr and vw in Fig. Therefore, A = λ a + µ b (3.8)
3.7 and are in the direction specified by the
problem. Using the rule of vector addition, we
see that the resultant of vr and vw is R as shown
in the figure. The magnitude of R is
2 2 2 2 −1 −1
R = vr + vw = 35 + 12 ms = 37 m s

The direction θ that R makes with the vertical

is given by
vw 12
tan θ = = = 0.343 Fig. 3.8 (a) Two non-colinear vectors a and b.
vr 35 (b) Resolving a vector A in terms of vectors
a and b.
θ = tan ( 0.343) = 19°
Or, -1

Therefore, the boy should hold his umbrella We say that A has been resolved into two
in the vertical plane at an angle of about 19o component vectors λ a and µ b along a and b
with the vertical towards the east. ⊳

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32 PHYSICS

respectively. Using this method one can resolve

and A2 is parallel to ɵj , we have :
a given vector into two component vectors along
a set of two vectors – all the three lie in the same A1= Ax ɵi , A2 = Ay ɵj (3.11)
plane. It is convenient to resolve a general vector
where Ax and Ay are real numbers.
along the axes of a rectangular coordinate
system using vectors of unit magnitude. These Thus, A = Ax ɵi + Ay ɵj (3.12)
are called unit vectors that we discuss now. A
unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and This is represented in Fig. 3.9(c). The quantities
points in a particular direction. It has no Ax and Ay are called x-, and y- components of the
dimension and unit. It is used to specify a vector A. Note that Ax is itself not a vector, but
direction only. Unit vectors along the x-, y- and
A ɵi is a vector, and so is A ɵj . Using simple
z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system are x y
trigonometry, we can express Ax and Ay in terms
denoted by ɵi , ɵj and k̂ , respectively, as shown of the magnitude of A and the angle θ it makes
in Fig. 3.9(a). with the x-axis :
Since these are unit vectors, we have Ax = A cos θ
Ay = A sin θ (3.13)
 î  =  ĵ  =  k̂ =1 (3.9)
As is clear from Eq. (3.13), a component of a
These unit vectors are perpendicular to each vector can be positive, negative or zero
other. In this text, they are printed in bold face depending on the value of θ.
with a cap (^) to distinguish them from other Now, we have two ways to specify a vector A
vectors. Since we are dealing with motion in two in a plane. It can be specified by :
dimensions in this chapter, we require use of (i) its magnitude A and the direction θ it makes
only two unit vectors. If we multiply a unit vector, with the x-axis; or
say n̂ by a scalar, the result is a vector (ii) its components Ax and Ay
λ = λ n̂. In general, a vector A can be written as If A and θ are given, Ax and Ay can be obtained
using Eq. (3.13). If Ax and Ay are given, A and θ
A = |A| n̂ (3.10) can be obtained as follows :
where n̂ is a unit vector along A. 2 2 2 2 2 2
A x + Ay = A cos θ + A sin θ
We can now resolve a vector A in terms
= A2
of component vectors that lie along unit vectors
î and ɵj . Consider a vector A that lies in x-y Or, A= A 2x + Ay2 (3.14)
plane as shown in Fig. 3.9(b). We draw lines from
the head of A perpendicular to the coordinate Ay Ay
And tan θ = , θ = tan− 1 (3.15)
axes as in Fig. 3.9(b), and get vectors A1 and A2 Ax Ax
such that A + A = A. Since A is parallel to ɵi
1 2 1

Fig. 3.9 (a) Unit vectors ɵi , ɵj and kɵ lie along the x-, y-, and z-axes. (b) A vector A is resolved into its
components Ax and Ay along x-, and y- axes. (c) A1 and A2 expressed in terms of ɵi and ɵj .

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MOTION IN A PLANE 33

So far we have considered a vector lying in

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj
an x-y plane. The same procedure can be used
to resolve a general vector A into three Let R be their sum. We have
components along x-, y-, and z-axes in three R=A+B
dimensions. If α , β, and γ are the angles *
between A and the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively
( ) (
= A x ɵi + Ay ɵj + B x iɵ + By ɵj ) (3.19a)
[Fig. 3.9(d)], we have Since vectors obey the commutative and
associative laws, we can arrange and regroup
the vectors in Eq. (3.19a) as convenient to us :

(
R = ( A x + B x ) ɵi + Ay + By ɵj ) (3.19b)

Since R = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj (3.20)

we have, R x = A x + B x , R y = Ay + B y (3.21)
Thus, each component of the resultant
vector R is the sum of the corresponding
components of A and B.
In three dimensions, we have
A = A iɵ + A ɵj + A kɵ
x y z

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj + Bz kɵ
(d)
R = A + B = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj + Rz kɵ
Fig. 3.9 (d) A vector A resolved into components along
x-, y-, and z-axes
with Rx = Ax + Bx
A x = A cos α , A y = A cos β , A z = A cos γ (3.16a) Ry = Ay + By
In general, we have Rz = Az + Bz (3.22)
A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k
ˆ (3.16b) This method can be extended to addition and
The magnitude of vector A is subtraction of any number of vectors. For
A = A x2 + Ay2 + Az2 (3.16c) example, if vectors a, b and c are given as
A position vector r can be expressed as a = a iɵ + a ɵj + a kɵ
x y z
r = x ɵi + y ɵj + z k
ɵ (3.17)
b = b x iɵ + by ɵj + bz kɵ
where x, y, and z are the components of r along
x-, y-, z-axes, respectively. c = c x iɵ + c y ɵj + c z kɵ (3.23a)
3.6 VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL then, a vector T = a + b – c has components :
METHOD Tx = a x + b x − c x
Although the graphical method of adding vectors Ty = a y + by − c y (3.23b)
helps us in visualising the vectors and the
Tz = a z + b z − c z .
resultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and has
limited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors ⊳
by combining their respective components. Example 3.2 Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of two vectors A
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with
and B in terms of their magnitudes and
components Ax, Ay and Bx, By :
angle θ between them.
A = A x iɵ + Ay ɵj (3.18)

* Note that angles α, β, and γ are angles in space. They are between pairs of lines, which are not coplanar.

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34 PHYSICS

⊳
Example 3.3 A motorboat is racing
towards north at 25 km/h and the water
current in that region is 10 km/h in the
direction of 60° east of south. Find the
resultant velocity of the boat.

Answer The vector vb representing the velocity

of the motorboat and the vector vc representing
Fig. 3.10
the water current are shown in Fig. 3.11 in
Answer Let OP and OQ represent the two vectors directions specified by the problem. Using the
A and B making an angle θ (Fig. 3.10). Then, parallelogram method of addition, the resultant
using the parallelogram method of vector R is obtained in the direction shown in the
addition, OS represents the resultant vector R : figure.
R=A+B
SN is normal to OP and PM is normal to OS.
From the geometry of the figure,
OS2 = ON2 + SN2
but ON = OP + PN = A + B cos θ
SN = B sin θ
OS2 = (A + B cos θ)2 + (B sin θ)2
or, R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

R= A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ (3.24a)

In ∆ OSN, SN = OS sinα = R sinα, and
in ∆ PSN, SN = PS sin θ = B sin θ
Therefore, R sin α = B sin θ
R B
or, = (3.24b)
sin θ sin α
Fig. 3.11
Similarly,
PM = A sin α = B sin β
We can obtain the magnitude of R using the Law
A B of cosine :
or, = (3.24c)
sin β sin α
Combining Eqs. (3.24b) and (3.24c), we get R = v 2b + v c2 + 2v bv c cos120o
R A B
= = (3.24d) = 252 + 102 + 2 × 25 × 10 ( -1/2 ) ≅ 22 km/h
sin θ sin β sin α
To obtain the direction, we apply the Law of sines
Using Eq. (3.24d), we get:
R vc vc
B = or, sin φ = sin θ
sin α = sin θ (3.24e) sin θ sin φ R
R
where R is given by Eq. (3.24a). 10 × sin120 10 3
= = ≅ 0.397
SN B sin θ 21.8 2 × 21.8
or, tan α = = (3.24f)
OP + PN A + B cos θ
φ ≅ 23.4 ⊳
Equation (3.24a) gives the magnitude of the
resultant and Eqs. (3.24e) and (3.24f) its direction. 3.7 MOTION IN A PLANE
Equation (3.24a) is known as the Law of cosines In this section we shall see how to describe
and Eq. (3.24d) as the Law of sines. ⊳ motion in two dimensions using vectors.

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MOTION IN A PLANE 35

3.7.1 Position Vector and Displacement Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown
The position vector r of a particle P located in a by the thick line and is at P at time t and P′ at
plane with reference to the origin of an x-y time t′ [Fig. 3.12(b)]. Then, the displacement is :
reference frame (Fig. 3.12) is given by ∆r = r′ – r (3.25)
and is directed from P to P′.
r = x iɵ + y ɵj
We can write Eq. (3.25) in a component form:
where x and y are components of r along x-, and
y- axes or simply they are the coordinates of
the object.
∆r ( ) (
= x' ɵi + y' ɵj − x iɵ + y ɵj )
= ɵi∆x + ɵj∆y
where ∆x = x ′ – x, ∆y = y′ – y (3.26)
Velocity
The average velocity ( v ) of an object is the ratio
of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval :
∆r ∆x ɵi + ∆y ɵj ∆x ɵ ∆y
v= = = iɵ +j (3.27)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

Or, v = v x ˆi + v y j
(a)
∆r
Since v = , the direction of the average velocity
∆t
is the same as that of ∆r (Fig. 3.12). The velocity
(instantaneous velocity) is given by the limiting
value of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero :
∆ r dr
v = lim = (3.28)
∆t → 0 ∆ t dt
The meaning of the limiting process can be easily
understood with the help of Fig 3.13(a) to (d). In
these figures, the thick line represents the path
of an object, which is at P at time t. P1, P2 and
(b) P3 represent the positions of the object after
Fig. 3.12 (a) Position vector r. (b) Displacement ∆r and times ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3. ∆r1, ∆r2, and ∆r3 are the
average velocity v of a particle. displacements of the object in times ∆t1, ∆t2, and

Fig. 3.13 As the time interval ∆t approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the velocity v. The direction
of v is parallel to the line tangent to the path.

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36 PHYSICS

∆t3, respectively. The direction of the average

velocity v is shown in figures (a), (b) and (c) for
three decreasing values of ∆t, i.e. ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3,
( ∆ t 1 > ∆ t 2 > ∆ t 3 ). As ∆ t → 0, ∆ r → 0
and is along the tangent to the path [Fig. 3.13(d)].
Therefore, the direction of velocity at any point
on the path of an object is tangential to the
path at that point and is in the direction of
motion.
We can express v in a component form : Fig. 3.14 The components vx and vy of velocity v and
the angle θ it makes with x-axis. Note that
dr vx = v cos θ, vy = v sin θ.
v=
dt
The acceleration (instantaneous acceleration)
 ∆x ∆y ɵ  is the limiting value of the average acceleration
= lim  iɵ + j (3.29)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t  as the time interval approaches zero :
∆v
∆x ɵ ∆y a = lim
= iɵ lim + j lim (3. 32a)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dx ɵ dy Since ∆v = ∆v x iɵ + ∆v y ɵj, we have
Or, v = iɵ +j = v x iɵ + vy ɵj.
dt dt ∆v y
∆v x
dx dy a = iɵ lim + ɵj lim
where v x = , vy = (3.30a) ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dt dt
So, if the expressions for the coordinates x and Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj (3.32b)
y are known as functions of time, we can use
these equations to find vx and vy. dv x dv y
where, a x = , ay = (3.32c)*
The magnitude of v is then dt dt
2 2 As in the case of velocity, we can understand
v= v x + vy (3.30b)
graphically the limiting process used in defining
and the direction of v is given by the angle θ : acceleration on a graph showing the path of the
object’s motion. This is shown in Figs. 3.15(a) to
vy v 
−1  y
 (d). P represents the position of the object at
tanθ = , θ = tan (3.30c)
  time t and P1, P2, P3 positions after time ∆t1, ∆t2,
vx  vx 
∆t3, respectively (∆t 1> ∆t2>∆t3). The velocity vectors
vx, vy and angle θ are shown in Fig. 3.14 for a at points P, P1, P2, P3 are also shown in Figs. 3.15
velocity vector v at point p. (a), (b) and (c). In each case of ∆t, ∆v is obtained
using the triangle law of vector addition. By
Acceleration
definition, the direction of average acceleration
The average acceleration a of an object for a is the same as that of ∆v. We see that as ∆t
time interval ∆t moving in x-y plane is the change decreases, the direction of ∆v changes and
in velocity divided by the time interval : consequently, the direction of the acceleration

a=
∆v
=
(
∆ v x iɵ + v y ɵj ) = ∆v x
iɵ +
∆v y
ɵj (3.31a)
changes. Finally, in the limit ∆t g0 [Fig. 3.15(d)],
the average acceleration becomes the
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t instantaneous acceleration and has the direction
as shown.
Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj . (3.31b)

* In terms of x and y, ax and ay can be expressed as

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MOTION IN A PLANE 37

x (m)

Fig. 3.15 The average acceleration for three time intervals (a) ∆t1, (b) ∆t2, and (c) ∆t3, (∆t1> ∆t2> ∆t3). (d) In the
limit ∆t g0, the average acceleration becomes the acceleration.

Note that in one dimension, the velocity and

the acceleration of an object are always along  vy  −1  4  °
θ = tan-1   = tan   ≅ 53 with x-axis.
the same straight line (either in the same  x
v  3 
direction or in the opposite direction).
However, for motion in two or three ⊳
dimensions, velocity and acceleration vectors
may have any angle between 0° and 180° 3.8 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT
between them. ACCELERATION
⊳
Example 3.4 The position of a particle is Suppose that an object is moving in x-y plane
given by and its acceleration a is constant. Over an
interval of time, the average acceleration will
r = 3.0t ˆi + 2.0t 2ˆj + 5.0 kˆ equal this constant value. Now, let the velocity
where t is in seconds and the of the object be v0 at time t = 0 and v at time t.
coefficients have the proper units for r to Then, by definition
be in metres. (a) Find v(t) and a(t) of the v − v0 v − v0
particle. (b) Find the magnitude and a= =
t−0 t
direction of v(t) at t = 1.0 s.
Or, v = v 0 + at (3.33a)
Answer In terms of components :
v x = v ox + a x t
v( t ) =
dr
dt
=
d
dt
(3.0 t iɵ + 2.0t 2 ɵj + 5.0 kɵ
) v y = v oy + a y t (3.33b)

= 3.0iɵ + 4.0t ɵj
Let us now find how the position r changes with
dv time. We follow the method used in the one-
a (t ) = = +4.0 ɵj
dt dimensional case. Let ro and r be the position
a = 4.0 m s–2 along y- direction vectors of the particle at time 0 and t and let the
velocities at these instants be vo and v. Then,
At t = 1.0 s, v = 3.0ˆi + 4.0ˆj over this time interval t, the average velocity is
-1 (vo + v)/2. The displacement is the average
It’s magnitude is v = 3 + 4 = 5.0 m s
2 2
velocity multiplied by the time interval :
and direction is

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38 PHYSICS

 v + v0   ( v + at ) + v 0  ( )
= 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 ˆi + 1.0 t 2 ˆj
r − r0 =   t= 0 t
 2   2 
Therefore, x (t ) = 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2

= v0t +
1 2
at y (t ) = +1.0 t 2
2 Given x (t) = 84 m, t = ?

1 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 = 84 ⇒ t = 6 s
Or, r = r0 + v 0t + at 2 (3.34a) At t = 6 s, y = 1.0 (6)2 = 36.0 m
2
dr
It can be easily verified that the derivative of Now, the velocity v = = (5.0 + 3.0 t ) ˆi + 2.0 t ˆj
dt
dr
Eq. (3.34a), i.e. gives Eq.(3.33a) and it also At t = 6 s, v = 23.0iɵ + 12.0 ɵj
dt
satisfies the condition that at t=0, r = r o . speed = v = 232 + 122 ≅ 26 m s−1 .
Equation (3.34a) can be written in component ⊳
form as 3.9 PROJECTILE MOTION
1
x = x 0 + v ox t + a x t 2 As an application of the ideas developed in the
2 previous sections, we consider the motion of a
1 projectile. An object that is in flight after being
y = y0 + v oy t + ayt 2 (3.34b) thrown or projected is called a projectile. Such
2
a projectile might be a football, a cricket ball, a
One immediate interpretation of Eq.(3.34b) is that baseball or any other object. The motion of a
the motions in x- and y-directions can be treated projectile may be thought of as the result of two
independently of each other. That is, motion in separate, simultaneously occurring components
a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two
of motions. One component is along a horizontal
separate simultaneous one-dimensional
direction without any acceleration and the other
motions with constant acceleration along two
along the vertical direction with constant
perpendicular directions. This is an important
acceleration due to the force of gravity. It was
result and is useful in analysing motion of objects
Galileo who first stated this independency of the
in two dimensions. A similar result holds for three
dimensions. The choice of perpendicular horizontal and the vertical components of
directions is convenient in many physical projectile motion in his Dialogue on the great
situations, as we shall see in section 3.9 for world systems (1632).
projectile motion. In our discussion, we shall assume that the
air resistance has negligible effect on the motion
⊳ Example 3.5 A particle starts from origin of the projectile. Suppose that the projectile is
at t = 0 with a velocity 5.0 î m/s and moves launched with velocity vo that makes an angle
in x-y plane under action of a force which θo with the x-axis as shown in Fig. 3.16.
produces a constant acceleration of
After the object has been projected, the
(3.0iɵ +2.0jɵ ) m/s 2 . (a) What is the
acceleration acting on it is that due to gravity
y-coordinate of the particle at the instant which is directed vertically downward:
its x-coordinate is 84 m ? (b) What is the
speed of the particle at this time ? a = −g ɵj
Or, ax = 0, ay = – g (3.35)

Answer From Eq. (3.34a) for r0 = 0, the position The components of initial velocity vo are :
of the particle is given by
1 2
r (t ) = v 0 t + at vox = vo cos θo
2 voy= vo sin θo (3.36)
( )
= 5.0ˆi t + (1/2) 3.0ˆi + 2.0ˆj t 2

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MOTION IN A PLANE 39

Now, since g, θo and vo are constants, Eq. (3.39)

is of the form y = a x + b x2, in which a and b are
constants. This is the equation of a parabola,
i.e. the path of the projectile is a parabola
(Fig. 3.17).

Fig 3.16 Motion of an object projected with velocity

vo at angle θ0.
If we take the initial position to be the origin of
the reference frame as shown in Fig. 3.16, we
have :
xo = 0, yo = 0
Then, Eq.(3.34b) becomes :
x = vox t = (vo cos θo ) t
and y = (vo sin θo ) t – ( ½ )g t2 (3.37) Fig. 3.17 The path of a projectile is a parabola.

The components of velocity at time t can be Time of maximum height

obtained using Eq.(3.33b) : How much time does the projectile take to reach the
vx = vox = vo cos θo maximum height ? Let this time be denoted by tm.
Since at this point, vy= 0, we have from Eq. (3.38):
vy = vo sin θo – g t (3.38) vy = vo sinθo – g tm = 0
Equation (3.37) gives the x-, and y-coordinates Or, tm = vo sinθo /g (3.40a)
of the position of a projectile at time t in terms of
The total time Tf during which the projectile is
two parameters — initial speed vo and projection
in flight can be obtained by putting y = 0 in
angle θo. Notice that the choice of mutually
Eq. (3.37). We get :
perpendicular x-, and y-directions for the
analysis of the projectile motion has resulted in Tf = 2 (vo sin θo )/g (3.40b)
a simplification. One of the components of Tf is known as the time of flight of the projectile.
velocity, i.e. x-component remains constant We note that Tf = 2 tm , which is expected
throughout the motion and only the because of the symmetry of the parabolic path.
y- component changes, like an object in free fall Maximum height of a projectile
in vertical direction. This is shown graphically
The maximum height h m reached by the
at few instants in Fig. 3.17. Note that at the point
projectile can be calculated by substituting
of maximum height, vy= 0 and therefore,
t = tm in Eq. (3.37) :
vy
θ = tan-1 =o  v sinθ  g  v sinθ 2
vx (
y = hm = v0 sinθ 0 
0
)
0
− 
 0 0

Equation of path of a projectile  g  2 g 

What is the shape of the path followed by the

( v 0 sin θ 0 ) 2
projectile? This can be seen by eliminating the Or, hm = (3.41)
time between the expressions for x and y as 2g
given in Eq. (3.37). We obtain: Horizontal range of a projectile
g
y = ( tan θo ) x −
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from
x2
2 (v o cosθo )
2 (3.39) its initial position (x = y = 0) to the position where it
passes y = 0 during its fall is called the horizontal

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40 PHYSICS

range, R. It is the distance travelled during the time y (t) = yo + voy t +(1/2) ay t2
of flight Tf . Therefore, the range R is Here, xo = yo = 0, voy = 0, ay = –g = –9.8 m s-2,
R = (vo cos θo) (Tf ) vox = 15 m s-1.
=(vo cos θo) (2 vo sin θo)/g The stone hits the ground when y(t) = – 490 m.
– 490 m = –(1/2)(9.8) t2.
2
v0 sin 2θ 0 This gives t =10 s.
Or, R= (3.42a) The velocity components are vx = vox and
g
vy = voy – g t
Equation (3.42a) shows that for a given so that when the stone hits the ground :
projection velocity vo , R is maximum when sin vox = 15 m s–1
2θ0 is maximum, i.e., when θ0 = 450. voy = 0 – 9.8 × 10 = – 98 m s–1
The maximum horizontal range is, therefore, Therefore, the speed of the stone is
2
Rm =
v0 v x2 + vy2 = 152 + 982 = 99 m s −1 ⊳
(3.42b)
g
⊳
Example 3.6 Galileo, in his book Two new ⊳ Example 3.8 A cricket ball is thrown at a
sciences, stated that “for elevations which speed of 28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above
exceed or fall short of 45° by equal amounts, the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum
the ranges are equal”. Prove this statement. height, (b) the time taken by the ball to
return to the same level, and (c) the
distance from the thrower to the point
Answer For a projectile launched with velocity
where the ball returns to the same level.
vo at an angle θo , the range is given by

v02 sin 2θ0

R= Answer (a) The maximum height is given by
g
hm =
(v0 sinθo )2 = (28 sin 30°)2
Now, for angles, (45° + α ) and ( 45° – α), 2θo is m
2g 2 (9.8 )
(90° + 2α ) and ( 90° – 2α ) , respectively. The
values of sin (90° + 2α ) and sin (90° – 2α ) are 14 × 14
the same, equal to that of cos 2α. Therefore, = = 10.0 m
2 × 9.8
ranges are equal for elevations which exceed or
fall short of 45° by equal amounts α. ⊳ (b) The time taken to return to the same level is
Tf = (2 vo sin θo )/g = (2× 28 × sin 30° )/9.8
⊳ = 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s
Example 3.7 A hiker stands on the edge (c) The distance from the thrower to the point
of a cliff 490 m above the ground and where the ball returns to the same level is
throws a stone horizontally with an initial
speed of 15 m s-1. Neglecting air resistance,
find the time taken by the stone to reach R=
(v sin 2θ )
2
o o
=
28 × 28 × sin 60o
= 69 m ⊳
g 9.8
the ground, and the speed with which it
hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m s-2 ).
3.10 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Answer We choose the origin of the x-,and y-
When an object follows a circular path at a
axis at the edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the
constant speed, the motion of the object is called
instant the stone is thrown. Choose the positive
uniform circular motion. The word “uniform”
direction of x-axis to be along the initial velocity refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant)
and the positive direction of y-axis to be the throughout the motion. Suppose an object is
vertically upward direction. The x-, and y- moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius
components of the motion can be treated R as shown in Fig. 3.18. Since the velocity of the
independently. The equations of motion are : object is changing continuously in direction, the
x (t) = xo + vox t object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the
magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

LAWS OF MOTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding Chapter, our concern was to describe the
motion of a particle in space quantitatively. We saw that
4.1 Introduction uniform motion needs the concept of velocity alone whereas
4.2 Aristotle’s fallacy non-uniform motion requires the concept of acceleration in
4.3 The law of inertia addition. So far, we have not asked the question as to what
4.4 Newton’s first law of motion governs the motion of bodies. In this chapter, we turn to this
4.5 Newton’s second law of
basic question.
motion Let us first guess the answer based on our common
4.6 Newton’s third law of motion experience. To move a football at rest, someone must kick it.
To throw a stone upwards, one has to give it an upward
4.7 Conservation of momentum
push. A breeze causes the branches of a tree to swing; a
4.8 Equilibrium of a particle strong wind can even move heavy objects. A boat moves in a
4.9 Common forces in mechanics flowing river without anyone rowing it. Clearly, some external
4.10 Circular motion agency is needed to provide force to move a body from rest.
4.11 Solving problems in Likewise, an external force is needed also to retard or stop
mechanics motion. You can stop a ball rolling down an inclined plane by
Summary applying a force against the direction of its motion.
Points to ponder In these examples, the external agency of force (hands,
Exercises wind, stream, etc) is in contact with the object. This is not
always necessary. A stone released from the top of a building
accelerates downward due to the gravitational pull of the
earth. A bar magnet can attract an iron nail from a distance.
This shows that external agencies (e.g. gravitational and
magnetic forces ) can exert force on a body even from a
distance.
In short, a force is required to put a stationary body in
motion or stop a moving body, and some external agency is
needed to provide this force. The external agency may or may
not be in contact with the body.
So far so good. But what if a body is moving uniformly (e.g.
a skater moving straight with constant speed on a horizontal
ice slab) ? Is an external force required to keep a body in
uniform motion?

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50 PHYSICS

4.2 ARISTOTLE’S FALLACY true law of nature for forces and motion, one has
The question posed above appears to be simple. to imagine a world in which uniform motion is
However, it took ages to answer it. Indeed, the possible with no frictional forces opposing. This
correct answer to this question given by Galileo is what Galileo did.
in the seventeenth century was the foundation 4.3 THE LAW OF INERTIA
of Newtonian mechanics, which signalled the
Galileo studied motion of objects on an inclined
birth of modern science.
plane. Objects (i) moving down an inclined plane
The Greek thinker, Aristotle (384 B.C– 322
accelerate, while those (ii) moving up retard.
B.C.), held the view that if a body is moving,
(iii) Motion on a horizontal plane is an interme-
something external is required to keep it moving.
diate situation. Galileo concluded that an object
According to this view, for example, an arrow
moving on a frictionless horizontal plane must
shot from a bow keeps flying since the air behind
neither have acceleration nor retardation, i.e. it
the arrow keeps pushing it. The view was part of
an elaborate framework of ideas developed by should move with constant velocity (Fig. 4.1(a)).
Aristotle on the motion of bodies in the universe.
Most of the Aristotelian ideas on motion are now
known to be wrong and need not concern us.
For our purpose here, the Aristotelian law of
motion may be phrased thus: An external force
is required to keep a body in motion. (i) (ii) (iii)
Aristotelian law of motion is flawed, as we shall Fig. 4.1(a)
see. However, it is a natural view that anyone Another experiment by Galileo leading to the
would hold from common experience. Even a same conclusion involves a double inclined plane.
small child playing with a simple (non-electric) A ball released from rest on one of the planes rolls
down and climbs up the other. If the planes are
toy-car on a floor knows intuitively that it needs
smooth, the final height of the ball is nearly the
to constantly drag the string attached to the toy-
same as the initial height (a little less but never
car with some force to keep it going. If it releases
greater). In the ideal situation, when friction is
the string, it comes to rest. This experience is
absent, the final height of the ball is the same
common to most terrestrial motion. External as its initial height.
forces seem to be needed to keep bodies in If the slope of the second plane is decreased
motion. Left to themselves, all bodies eventually and the experiment repeated, the ball will still
come to rest. reach the same height, but in doing so, it will
What is the flaw in Aristotle’s argument? The travel a longer distance. In the limiting case, when
answer is: a moving toy car comes to rest because the slope of the second plane is zero (i.e. is a
the external force of friction on the car by the floor horizontal) the ball travels an infinite distance.
opposes its motion. To counter this force, the child In other words, its motion never ceases. This is,
has to apply an external force on the car in the of course, an idealised situation (Fig. 4.1(b)).
direction of motion. When the car is in uniform
motion, there is no net external force acting on it:
the force by the child cancels the force ( friction)
by the floor. The corollary is: if there were no friction,
the child would not be required to apply any force
to keep the toy car in uniform motion.
The opposing forces such as friction (solids)
and viscous forces (for fluids) are always present
in the natural world. This explains why forces
by external agencies are necessary to overcome
the frictional forces to keep bodies in uniform
motion. Now we understand where Aristotle Fig. 4.1(b) The law of inertia was inferred by Galileo
went wrong. He coded this practical experience from observations of motion of a ball on a
in the form of a basic argument. To get at the double inclined plane.

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LAWS OF MOTION 51

In practice, the ball does come to a stop after accomplished almost single-handedly by Isaac
moving a finite distance on the horizontal plane, Newton, one of the greatest scientists of all times.
because of the opposing force of friction which Newton built on Galileo’s ideas and laid the
can never be totally eliminated. However, if there foundation of mechanics in terms of three laws
were no friction, the ball would continue to move of motion that go by his name. Galileo’s law of
with a constant velocity on the horizontal plane. inertia was his starting point which he formu-
Galileo thus, arrived at a new insight on lated as the first law of motion:
motion that had eluded Aristotle and those who Every body continues to be in its state
followed him. The state of rest and the state of of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
uniform linear motion (motion with constant line unless compelled by some external
velocity) are equivalent. In both cases, there is force to act otherwise.

Ideas on Motion in Ancient Indian Science

Ancient Indian thinkers had arrived at an elaborate system of ideas on motion. Force, the cause of
motion, was thought to be of different kinds : force due to continuous pressure (nodan), as the force
of wind on a sailing vessel; impact (abhighat), as when a potter’s rod strikes the wheel; persistent
tendency (sanskara) to move in a straight line(vega) or restoration of shape in an elastic body;
transmitted force by a string, rod, etc. The notion of (vega) in the Vaisesika theory of motion perhaps
comes closest to the concept of inertia. Vega, the tendency to move in a straight line, was thought to
be opposed by contact with objects including atmosphere, a parallel to the ideas of friction and air
resistance. It was correctly summarised that the different kinds of motion (translational, rotational
and vibrational) of an extended body arise from only the translational motion of its constituent
particles. A falling leaf in the wind may have downward motion as a whole (patan) and also rotational
and vibrational motion (bhraman, spandan), but each particle of the leaf at an instant only has a
definite (small) displacement. There was considerable focus in Indian thought on measurement of
motion and units of length and time. It was known that the position of a particle in space can be
indicated by distance measured along three axes. Bhaskara (1150 A.D.) had introduced the concept
of ‘instantaneous motion’ (tatkaliki gati), which anticipated the modern notion of instantaneous
velocity using Differential Calculus. The difference between a wave and a current (of water) was clearly
understood; a current is a motion of particles of water under gravity and fluidity while a wave results
from the transmission of vibrations of water particles.

no net force acting on the body. It is incorrect to The state of rest or uniform linear motion both
assume that a net force is needed to keep a body imply zero acceleration. The first law of motion can,
in uniform motion. To maintain a body in therefore, be simply expressed as:
uniform motion, we need to apply an external If the net external force on a body is zero, its
force to ecounter the frictional force, so that acceleration is zero. Acceleration can be non
the two forces sum up to zero net external zero only if there is a net external force on
force. the body.
To summarise, if the net external force is zero,
a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a Two kinds of situations are encountered in the
body in motion continues to move with a uniform application of this law in practice. In some
velocity. This property of the body is called examples, we know that the net external force
inertia. Inertia means ‘resistance to change’. on the object is zero. In that case we can
A body does not change its state of rest or conclude that the acceleration of the object is
uniform motion, unless an external force zero. For example, a spaceship out in
compels it to change that state. interstellar space, far from all other objects and
with all its rockets turned off, has no net
4.4 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION external force acting on it. Its acceleration,
Galileo’s simple, but revolutionary ideas according to the first law, must be zero. If it is
dethroned Aristotelian mechanics. A new in motion, it must continue to move with a
mechanics had to be developed. This task was uniform velocity.

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52 PHYSICS

More often, however, we do not know all the The acceleration of the car cannot be accounted
forces to begin with. In that case, if we know for by any internal force. This might sound
that an object is unaccelerated (i.e. it is either surprising, but it is true. The only conceivable
at rest or in uniform linear motion), we can infer external force along the road is the force of
from the first law that the net external force on friction. It is the frictional force that accelerates
the object must be zero. Gravity is everywhere. the car as a whole. (You will learn about friction
For terrestrial phenomena, in particular, every in section 4.9). When the car moves with
object experiences gravitational force due to the constant velocity, there is no net external force.
earth. Also objects in motion generally experience The property of inertia contained in the First
friction, viscous drag, etc. If then, on earth, an law is evident in many situations. Suppose we
object is at rest or in uniform linear motion, it is are standing in a stationary bus and the driver
not because there are no forces acting on it, but starts the bus suddenly. We get thrown
because the various external forces cancel out backward with a jerk. Why ? Our feet are in touch
i.e. add up to zero net external force. with the floor. If there were no friction, we would
Consider a book at rest on a horizontal surface remain where we were, while the floor of the bus
Fig. (4.2(a)). It is subject to two external forces : would simply slip forward under our feet and the
the force due to gravity (i.e. its weight W) acting back of the bus would hit us. However,
downward and the upward force on the book by fortunately, there is some friction between the
the table, the normal force R . R is a self-adjusting feet and the floor. If the start is not too sudden,
force. This is an example of the kind of situation i.e. if the acceleration is moderate, the frictional
mentioned above. The forces are not quite known force would be enough to accelerate our feet
fully but the state of motion is known. We observe along with the bus. But our body is not strictly
the book to be at rest. Therefore, we conclude a rigid body. It is deformable, i.e. it allows some
from the first law that the magnitude of R equals relative displacement between different parts.
that of W. A statement often encountered is : What this means is that while our feet go with
“Since W = R, forces cancel and, therefore, the book the bus, the rest of the body remains where it is
is at rest”. This is incorrect reasoning. The correct due to inertia. Relative to the bus, therefore, we
statement is : “Since the book is observed to be at are thrown backward. As soon as that happens,
rest, the net external force on it must be zero, however, the muscular forces on the rest of the
according to the first law. This implies that the body (by the feet) come into play to move the body
normal force R must be equal and opposite to the along with the bus. A similar thing happens
weight W ”. when the bus suddenly stops. Our feet stop due
to the friction which does not allow relative
motion between the feet and the floor of the bus.
But the rest of the body continues to move
forward due to inertia. We are thrown forward.
The restoring muscular forces again come into
play and bring the body to rest.
t
Example 4.1 An astronaut accidentally
gets separated out of his small spaceship
accelerating in inter stellar space at a
Fig. 4.2 (a) a book at rest on the table, and (b) a car
constant rate of 100 m s–2. What is the
moving with uniform velocity. The net force
is zero in each case.
acceleration of the astronaut the instant after
he is outside the spaceship ? (Assume that
Consider the motion of a car starting from there are no nearby stars to exert
rest, picking up speed and then moving on a gravitational force on him.)
smooth straight road with uniform speed (Fig.
(4.2(b)). When the car is stationary, there is no Answer Since there are no nearby stars to exert
net force acting on it. During pick-up, it gravitational force on him and the small
accelerates. This must happen due to a net spaceship exerts negligible gravitational
external force. Note, it has to be an external force. attraction on him, the net force acting on the

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