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The author and publisher have done everything possible to make this book accurate, up to
date, and in accord with new syllabus for biology.

Basic Biology for form 3 and 4

Paul Nsona.
[email protected]

Discover Success Criteria series Basic MSCE Biology

Discover success criteria™ series – P Nsona

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is important to acknowledge the many people whose contributions have gone into the
edition of Basic MSCE biology. Very special thanks are due to my mum for her provision of
my education up to now and her general availability and advice concerning all matters
academically, socially and materially; David Magalasi of college of medicine, University of
Malawi (UNIMA) and Andrew Nsona.

I would also like to thank Rodrick Katete and Enea K. Dambuleni from department of
Tourism and Hospitality Management, Mzuzu University for their support. Finally, at
Northern Life Printing and Publishing, thanks to the Publishing Manager;

I always remember saying thanks to Almighty God in heaven for wisdom, intelligent and
knowledge I have.

Thanks for their advice and recommendations found in the Edition go to

Pike Chirambo, student of Bachelor of Science in Nursing and Midwifery, Mzuzu University
Rueben Chonzie, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural resources (Bunda College
of Agriculture)
Lameque Magombo, student of Bachelor of Science in Estate Management, Mzuzu University
PREFACE

This textbook aims to provide a comprehensive set of elementary notes in Basic biology,
which will be suitable for students taking biology. The book concentrates on core topics
which are most likely to be common to those biology courses which follow on from a
foundation. Biology is a subject which can lead some students to the heights of ecstasy.
The concepts of system and reaction mechanisms are often the most difficult to master. These
difficulties are often compounded by the fact that current textbooks in biology are normally
long and can be quite expensive to buy. However, this book attempts to condense the
essentials of biology into a manageable text which is student friendly and which does not cost
an arm and a leg.
Furthermore, the notes on each topic summarize the essential facts covered and help focus the
mind on the essentials. Biology is a peculiar subject in that it becomes easier as you go along!
Understanding biology leads to a better understanding of life chemistry and how the body
works at the molecular level.
The order in which the topics of this book are presented is important as it follows the
syllabus. It is hoped that students will find this textbook useful in their studies and that once
they have grasped what biology is all about they will read more widely and enter a truly
exciting world of life science.
Contents
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………..ii

Preface …………………………………………………………………….iii

Topic 1: Ecosystem ………………………………………………………..5

Topic 2: Plant structure and function ……………………………………...18

Topic 3: Transport in plants ……………………………………………….34

Topic 4: Animal structure and function ……………………………………43

Topic 5: Locomotion in vertebrates ………………………………………..47

Topic 6: Human digestive system ………………………………………….58

Topic 7: Human circulatory system ………………………………………..69

Topic 8: Human reproductive system ……………………………………...79

Topic 9: Genetic and Evolution I …………………………………………..93

Topic 10: Tropisms ………………………………………………………...105

Topic 11: Respiratory system ……………………………………………...110

Topic 12: Excretory system ………………………………………………..121

Topic 13: Coordination ……………………………………………………129

Topic 14: Immunity ……………………………………………………….144

Topic 15: Cancer …………………………………………………………..150

Topic 16: Genetic and Evolution II ………………………………………..154

Topic 17: Human diseases …………………………………………………165

Topic 1 Ecosystem
In a community, living things interact with  Choose a quadrat of sides 2m so
members of their own species and other that its area is 4m2. Throw it on the
species. They also interact with the garden.
environment. These form an ecological
system called ecosystem.  Count the number of the Tridax
Procumbens in the quadrat.

 Measure the dimensions of the

gardens and calculate its area.
Ecosystem
 Carry out simple proportion to find
This is a natural unit consisting of all
the approximate population of the
animals and plants in an area considered
plant on the ground.
together with nonliving of the
environment.
The interactions of organism and their The formula will support in the
environment are give and take calculation.
relationship.
Living things take materials and energy Number of plants in quadrat
from the environment for life. As these should be multiplied by area
materials and energy are used up, the
of garden then divide by area
organisms give materials and energy back
of quadrat
to the environment.

Estimating plant The same method can be used to estimate

the population of a particular animal in the
population soil like earthworm.

It is very difficult to count all the

Tridax Procumbens plant in the garden. Advantage: A quadrat method is used in
In this case you can only calculate an estimating the populations of only those
approximate size of the population of organisms which stay in one place.
the Tridax Procumbens by using a
quadrat method.
A quadrat is a square box chosen
randomly on the ground. Estimating animal
A sample is a part of something populations
intended as representative of the
whole. The population of animals is estimated
by using a sampling method called
Procedures mark – recapture method.
 Take a sample of the garden.
This method is used to estimate the
 A quadrat is used to sample the population size of the organisms that
plant cover on the ground.

5
 move around a lot such as
grasshoppers and fish. Energy transfer in
aquatic and terrestrial
Procedures
 Capture the sample of the animals ecosystems
on the habitat.
By studying the interactions of organisms,
 Count the number of captured we can understand how they are affected
animals. by changes in their animal and plant
communities within a particular habitat
 Mark each of the captured animals which are linked through their feeding
with ink or paint which is harmless. habits.
 Release the animals on the same
habitat. To understand these ideas, you first need
to know about different ways of feeding.
 Wait for a day to give the marked
ones a chance to become mixed up
with any unmarked ones.

 Capture the second sample of many

Trophic levels
animals as you can. These are the main levels that the energy
must pass through in a food chain.
 Count the total number and the
number of marked ones.
Organisms in ecosystem may be grouped
into trophic or feeding levels depending on
Use the following formula which will they feed.
give you estimated size of the
population of the animals in the
habitat. Producers
These are autotrophs, such as green plants,
The number of organisms photosynthetic bacteria, algae and
caught the first time and phytoplankton which convert water and
carbon dioxide into organic molecules
marked should be multiplied
using sunlight as a source of energy.
by total number of organisms
caught second time then
divided by number of Consumers
organisms caught second time These are organisms that feed on
producers. They depend on the producers
for their food, directly or indirectly.
AP = S1 X S2/S3
1. Primary consumers
This is Lincoln index formula. Lincoln is
These are organisms that eat the
the one who devised this formula used to producers and they include the
estimate the population of mobile herbivores such as cattle, zebras,
organisms. grasshoppers etc.

6
 These are plant – eating organisms
such that they depend on plant How energy flows in an
materials. ecosystem
2. Secondary consumers The energy from the sun flows through
These are organisms that eat primary producers to the consumers. Therefore, not
consumers and they include small all energy from the producers is transferred
carnivores such as spider, chameleon to the consumer.
and praying mantis. The flow of energy from producers to
consumers in an ecosystem is known as a
3. Tertiary consumers food chain.
These are organisms that feed on Eventually, all energy is lost as heat
secondary consumers and most of energy and is reused once lost.
these tertiary consumers have mixed Energy transfer from the producer to the
diet, that is, they may feed on both primary consumer is about 10% efficient.
primary and secondary consumers. This becomes food is not even eaten, e.g.
These include large carnivores such as roots – not eaten by grazing cattle. Some
lions, leopards, cheetah, and hyena of it is not digested by the consumer is
among others. again 10% efficient.
Therefore, less energy is transferred from
one feeding level to the other as you move
Omnivores towards the higher consumer levels.
These include animals which eat both
producers and primary consumers.
Ways in which energy is

Decomposers
lost
i. Respiration
These are organisms that break down
organic compounds, releasing the minerals ii. Storage
then contain back into the soil or into the
water of aquatic ecosystem. iii. Excretion
All are saprophytic such as fungi and iv. Defaecation
bacteria. They can only get food from dead
and decaying materials. v. Decomposition

Parasites
These are organisms that feed on the living Ways of expressing
bodies of either producers or consumers
and they include plasmodium the parasite relationships
that causes malaria. (interaction)
Food chain
It is a sequence of organisms which
represents the way in which energy is

7
transferred from one organism to another of green plants. Therefore, mineral
in a community. elements are recycled.

Grass grasshopper mongoose hawk

Food chain traces the transfer of energy

from one organism to another organism.
This energy originates from sunlight and is
incorporated by green plants into organic
compounds by the process of
photosynthesis.
Producers form the base (starting point) of Pyramid of numbers
all food chains.
It is illustration of the numbers of
Producer primary secondary tertiary organisms at different trophic levels in a
Consumer consumer consumer food chain.
In most food chains the number of
These arrows indicate the direction of individuals in each link decreases as you
progress through the food chain.
energy flow. This means ‘‘is eaten by’’.
Food web This can be represented diagrammatically
This is a series of interconnected food as a pyramid of numbers having the
chains showing various species of producers at the base and the tertiary
organisms in a given community. consumers at the apex.
A food web is made up of many
interconnected food chains in a given
ecosystem.

It must be noted however, that although

the number of individuals decrease, sizes
of the individuals generally increases.
One occurrence where this is not the case
is when the producer is very large and
supports a large community of consumers.

Vital group of organisms that are not 50 aphids

always mentioned in food chains but food
webs are the absorbing simple food 1 Cabbage
materials. They are important in returning
essential nutrients locked up inorganic Although easily constructed, a pyramid of
compounds back to the soil. These
numbers has some disadvantages:-
essential nutrients are reabsorbed by roots

8
 i. Each individual is regarded as one down the dead remains and release
regardless of size. One grass plant chemicals for the plants to use again.
is therefore equal to one elephant in
a pyramid of number.
ii. Single individuals are often Importance of
difficult to distinguish, especially
when several are massed together, decomposition
e.g. moss
a. Maintains soil fertility through humus.
iii. It is difficult to choose a proper
scale because of the great
b. Reduces the bulk or amount of dead
differences in the numbers at each
plant or animal remains in nature –
trophic level.
important in waste disposal.

Pyramid of biomass
The carbon cycle
It is a way of expressing biomass at each Carbon is an element which occurs in all
compounds which make up living
trophic level. Biomass is the living or dry
organism. Plants get carbon from carbon
weight of an organism.
dioxide and animals get carbon from
plants.
In an attempt to give a more accurate
representation of a food chain, a more time
consuming method involves using biomass
obtained to construct pyramid of biomass.
A more accurate result can achieve the dry
mass, but this approach is rather
destructive, since all the organisms
have to be killed in order to get a
pyramid of biomass.

Pyramid of energy
Pyramids of energy provide the most
accurate picture of feeding relationships in
a community. They give information about
the amount of new tissue at each trophic
level over a certain period of time. Removal of carbon
dioxide from the
Nutrient cycles in an
atmosphere
ecosystem
Photosynthesis
The bacteria and fungi which found in soil
Green plants remove carbon dioxide from
are called decomposers because they break
the atmosphere as a result of
photosynthesis. This carbon dioxide is

9
built into carbohydrate (sugar) and some of saprotrophic bacteria. One of the important
it is changed into starch, cellulose and products of this decay is ammonia (NH3)
proteins and pigment which are digested which is washed into the soil.
by animals, absorbed and built into
compounds making up the animals’ tissue.

Addition of carbon
dioxide to the
atmosphere
Respiration
Plants and animals obtain energy by
oxidizing carbohydrates in their cells to
carbon dioxide and water.
Carbon dioxide and water are excreted and
so carbon dioxide diffuses into Processes which add
atmosphere.
nitrates to the soil

Decay Nitrifying bacteria

The organic matter of dead animals and These are bacteria living in the soil which
plants is used by saprotrophs especially uses the ammonia from the excretory
bacteria and fungus as source of energy. products and decaying organisms as a
This micro – organisms decompose the source of energy.
plant and animal remains and turns the In the process of getting energy from
carbon into carbon dioxide. ammonia, the bacteria produce nitrates.

Combustion Nitrogen – fixing bacteria

When carbon – containing fuels (i.e. wood, This is a special group of nitrifying
coal, petroleum and natural gas) are nitrogen as a gas from the air spaces in the
burned, the carbon is oxidized to carbon soil and built it into compounds of
dioxide. ammonia. The process of building nitrogen
into compounds of ammonia is called
Nitrogen fixation.
C + O2 CO2
Some of the nitrogen – fixing bacteria
lives freely in the soil. Others live in the
roots of leguminous plants, where they
Nitrogen cycle cause swelling called Root Nodules,
which increases the nitrate content of the
When a plant or animal dies, its tissues soil.
decompose partly as a result of the action
of

10
Lightning
The high temperature of lightning
discharge causes some of the nitrogen and
oxygen in the air to combine and form
nitrogen oxides.
These dissolve in the rain and are washed
into the soil where they form nitrates.

Processes which remove

nitrates from the soil
Uptake by plants
Plants use their roots to absorb nitrates Processes involved in
from the soil and combine them with
carbohydrates to make proteins.
water cycle
Evaporation (into clouds)
Leaching Heat from the sun makes water become a
gas. As water warms, currents carry the
Nitrogen are very soluble and as rain water
water vapour into the sky. The water
passes through the soil it dissolves the
vapour gets cooler as it rises and
nitrate and carries them away in the run –
condenses into tiny droplets that form
off or to deep layer of the soil. This is
clouds.
called leaching.
Precipitation
These tiny droplets stick together to form
Denitrifying bacteria larger drops and when get too heavy to
These are bacteria which obtain their stay in the cloud, gravity pulls them back
energy by breaking down nitrates to to the earth as rain, snow or hail.
nitrogen gas which then escapes from the
soil into the atmosphere. Surface run off
This rainfall can run directly off the land
into water bodies as well as wetlands.
Water cycle
Infiltration
About 70% of the earth’s surface is
covered by water bodies such oceans, Rainfall can also soak deeply into the
lakes among others. Water circulates from ground and add to the groundwater where
one place to another and from one form to it is stored in rock.
another. Transpiration
Water is absorbed by roots of plant and
expired as water vapour by the leaves of
plants back into the air.

11
 The surface water receives a high light
Components of an intensity. The small particles suspended in
ecosystem the water absorb the light so that a depth
may not be enough light to allow plants to
photosynthesize and grow.

Physical factors Water

These factors are called abiotic factors The distribution of rainfall throughout the
and they include; light, temperature, year determines the amount of water
water, air and temperature. available. No organism can live without
water. This influences the distribution of
plants and animals.
Plant communities
These are different species or
populations of plants
PH (Hydrogen ion
concentration)
Animal communities This is a measure of concentration of
These are different species or hydrogen of water molecule in an aquatic
populations of animals. habitat or soil solution.
Note It affects the way proteins work in the
body of an organism.
Note The number of earthworms and bacteria
that cause decay are normally reduced in
Plants and animals are simply acidic soils; this means the rate of decay is
called biotic factors. slowed down.
PH of the soil also affects the availability
of nutrient.
Effects of physical
factors on organisms in Temperature
Water can absorb a good deal of heat from
an ecosystem the sun with its temperature going up
much and similarly when water loses heat.
Soil
When temperature of the water rises, it can
The soil forms an ecosystem in which a hold less dissolved oxygen. Thus rise in
large number of organisms live. In temperature well below the lethal level
addition, soil is an essential medium for might damage the breathing system of
most land plants. Plant roots anchor the some aquatic animals.
plant in the soil and help to hold the plant
upright. It is from the soil that land plants
obtain the water and mineral salts they Humidity
need for photosynthesis and production of
food This is a measure of water vapour there is
in the air.
Light intensity

12
Humidity directly affects the rate of water
loss by transpiration from plant leaves and
from the body of animals by evaporation.

Mineral salts
The salinity of the water is an important
factor for aquatic organism.
The excessive enrichment which results
from human activities leads to overgrowth
The salt concentration of the cytoplasmic of microscopic algae. The extra nitrates
contents of fresh water organisms is and phosphate enable them to increase so
usually higher than that of the surrounding rapidly which are eaten up by microscopic
water so that water tends to enter these animals. They die and fall to the bottom of
organisms by osmosis. river and their bodies are broken by
The cells of the fresh water plant are bacteria and however, bacteria need
prevented from bursting by their rigid cell oxygen which is taken from the water to
walls. carry out this breakdown. So the oxygen in
that water becomes deoxygenated and
cannot support animal life. Fish and other
Amount of oxygen animals die due to suffocation.

The oxygen in the water molecules is not

available for respiration. The oxygen that
plants and animals use for respiration is
dissolved in the water.

The oxygen comes from photosynthesis of

plants during the day and also diffuses
continuously through the water surface
from the air.
The stationary animal or plant in still water
use quickly all the oxygen from the water. Adaptations
Anything such as eutrophication reduces
this small oxygen concentration in fresh These are characteristics possessed by
water and puts the animals at risk of organisms to survive in their habitats.
suffocation. Organisms are distributed according to
their adaptations.
Adaptations are traits that enhance
Eutrophication
an organism’s ability to survive in a
It is the enrichment of natural waters with particular environment. They may be
nutrients which allow the water to support structural, physiological, behavioral, or a
an increasing amount of plant life. combination of all three.

Every biologically successful organism is

a complex collection of coordinated

13
adaptations produced through evolutionary
processes.
Adaptations of animal
Characteristics that
communities in fresh
enable fresh water
water ecosystem
plants to survive in their i. They have streamlined shape to
habitat ii.
reduce drag.
They have gills for breathing by
i. Their roots and lower parts of the using dissolved oxygen.
leaves contain air spaces. iii. They make themselves buoyant e.g
This enables the plants to float and presence of swim bladders in fish to
allow diffusion of oxygen. float on surface of water.
ii. The waxy cuticle on the leaves repels iv. The abundant bristles on the
water if the leaves are temporarily antennae of some animals like water
submerged by waves. like water flea to offer resistance and
iii. The leaves of plants have stomata on helps to swim.
the upper surface in order to v. Some aquatic animals have suckers
exchange gases directly with which attack firmly and prevent them
atmosphere rather than water.
being carried off in the water
iv. Their epidermal cells contain
currents.
chloroplasts unlike in land plants, in
order to speed up the absorption of
light and increases photosynthesis. Adaptations of animals
v. Their rigid cell walls are to prevent
their cells from bursting as water in tropical savanna
tends to enter by osmosis.
vi. They are lighter than water hence woodland ecosystem
they float. i. Lion – has sharp claws that it uses to
catch and hold its prey and has long
and pointed teeth for tearing flesh
Characteristics of plants from bones.
in tropical savanna ii. Antelope – its limbs are adapted for
swift movement and increases
woodland ecosystem speed. Its teeth are flat-topped and
i. Shedding of leaves by some plants ridged for grinding plants.
during the dry season to reduce the iii. Giraffe – has long neck to reach the
rate of transpiration. higher plant in order to feed on
ii. Presence of swollen trunks of stems leaves.
of some plants in order to store iv. Birds – storks have long beaks
water. suitable for catching small aquatic
iii. Some plants have thorns to reduce animals. Hornbill has strong beak
the rate of transpiration and for for eating fruits. Other birds have
protection. long sharp beaks and strong hooked
iv. Some plants have deep and long beak.
roots in order to absorb water and v. Birds feet – the feet have sharp
mineral salts. claws which are curved and strong.

14
vi. Chameleon – camouflage helps to Order: within each class there are groups
catch other animals or avoid being called orders. Some of the orders in the
caught. Class mammals are the rodents (e.g. rats
and mice), the carnivores (e.g. lions,
wolves), insectivores (e.g. shrews, moles,
Population density hedgehogs) and the primates (lemurs,
This is the number of distinct organisms in monkeys, apes and humans).
a population per unit area.
Genus: when organisms within an order
It is generally expressed as the number of share many features in common they are
individuals per square metre. classified into a genus. For example, in the
carnivore order the genus Mustelus
It tells how close to each other organisms includes stoats, weasels and polecats.
are in a population.
Species: the smallest natural group of
organisms is the species. Robins,
Population density = total population blackbirds and sparrows are three different
Area species of bird. Apart from small
variations, members of a species are
Activity almost identical in their anatomy,
Students caught 64 grasshoppers in a physiology and behaviour.
school garden of area 32 m2 and marked Members of a species also often resemble
them with nail varnish. They released them each other very closely in appearance. One
into the same garden. After two hours the of the main features which determine
students captured 60 grasshoppers in the whether organisms belong to the same
same area of which 12 had marks of nail species is whether they can successfully
varnish. breed together.
Calculate the population density of the
grasshopper.
Binomial nomenclature
Identification of Species must be named in such a way that
the name is recognized all over the world.
organisms The Latin form of the name allows it to be
used in all the countries of the world
Phylum: a kingdom can be divided into irrespective of language barriers.
smaller groups called phyla (singular,
phylum). Members of a phylum have some Binomial means two names; the first name
major features in common. gives the genus and the second gives the
species. For example, the scientific names
Class: the phylum can be further divided of selected organisms are as follow;
into classes. The vertebrate phylum  Lion – Panthera leo
includes all the animals with vertebral  Leopard – Panthera pardus
columns, and is divided into 5 classes:  Dog - Canis lupus (formerly Canis
fishes, amphibian, reptiles, birds and familiaris)
mammals.  Maize – Zea mays

15
The effects of human
The substances that cause pollution are
activities on the called pollutants. These pollutants are
released to the environment as a result of
environment human activities such as combustion of
fuels, use of pesticides and disposal of
Deforestation domestic sewage and industrial wastes.
Deforestation involves the loss of trees
from the environment due to human
activities such as opening farms, using Pollution causes
trees for timber or firewood and making o Acid rain
charcoal.
o Global warming and depletion
As trees are cut carelessly, this leads to; of ozone layer.
o Reduction of forests causing
the changes in weather patterns. o Eutrophication etc.

o Exposure of water catchment

area thus destruction of water
sources
Impacts of human
o Pollution with burning charcoal
activities on the
Soil erosion environment and climate
Soil erosion is the removal of the top
fertile soil by agents such as wind, water change
and animals. This mainly occurs when
land is left bare by the removal of trees Drought
and other vegetation. The absence of rain due to deforestation
Soil erosion reduces soil fertility. and fuels which are burned emit gases that
may disturb hydrological cycle.
Floods
Over – fishing
Forests and woodland are cut down and
Over – fishing occurs when harvesting of the soil is ploughed up. The land is left
fish is greater than the rate at which fish bare and as such, this may leads to floods.
are producing in a water body due to
increase in human population. Soil degradation
Over – fishing has reduced the number of The loss in value and quality of soil due to
fish that can breed to produce new several human activities on environment
offspring. such as bad farming practices,
deforestation, overgrazing and use of
heavy machines.
Pollution
Diseases
Pollution is the addition of substances or
energy forms to the environment in The sewage and domestic waste can cause
quantities that are harmful to organisms diseases because of pollution in the
and destructive to an ecosystem. absence of effective disposal.

16
Introduction of alien species i. Poverty
ii. Illiteracy
This is the introduction of strange species
of organisms in an environment. This may iii. Overpopulation
occur when controlling pests biologically iv. Attitude
using drugs hence they become resistance
to the drugs (insecticides and pesticides).
As a result, they are naturally selected and Ways of mitigating the
introduce strange offspring to the impact of climate change
environment. The pests may therefore
damage crops and plants in the  Using better farming practices
environment and disturb ecosystem. such as crop rotation, afforestation and
others.

Global warming  Preservation – keeping and

This is the rise in temperature. An maintaining the ecosystem include
increasing concentration of atmospheric perfect condition.
carbon dioxide may have the effect of
 Restoration of damaged habitats
'trapping' the sun's radiant energy in a
such as creation of game reserve and
similar way to a greenhouse. This could
avoid encroachment.
result in a warming of the Earth's
atmosphere, the melting of the polar ice-  Conservation thus careful
caps and arise in sea level. management of natural resources so
There could also be climatic changes that they will continue benefits this
which would affect the important food-
generation and succeeding generations.
growing areas of the world.
 Civic education on reduction of
pollution

Causes of land
degradation

17
Topic 2 plant structure and function
All green parts of plant carry out It is the photosynthetic part of a leaf. It is
photosynthesis in day light hours only, but usually thin and flat and its shape allows a
the leaves are the principal photosynthetic large surface area of chlorophyll to be
organs. The leaf is the plant structure exposed to the light.
where the process of photosynthesis takes
place. Gas exchange between the leaf cells
Midrib
and the atmosphere occurs here.
This is the thick bundle down the leaf
centre. It contains vascular bundles
Leaf structure in relation surrounded by other fibrous and
strengthens cells.
to photosynthesis
A leaf is a green lamina or blade made
from soft tissue of thin walled cells
Function – the midrib performs
supported by stronger network of veins. the following functions;
Leaves serve as a site for photosynthesis.  Support the leaf
 Conduct water into the leaf and
food away from it.

Veins
These are smaller bundles spread out from
the mid-rib to all parts of the leaf giving
the net veined appearance typical of
dicotyledons. They provide good water
supply to the leaf cells.

Parts of a cross section

of a leaf
External features of a
leaf
Petiole
The petiole is the narrow stalk of a leaf by
which it is attached to the stem.

Lamina

18
 The lower epidermis is characterized by
the presence of pores called stomata at
regular distance over its surface.

Function of epidermis
i. Protect the inner cells of the
leaf
ii. Maintain the shape of the leaf
iii. Reduces the rate of
transpiration

Mesophyll tissues
Internal structure of a
These are the ones that contain chlorophyll
leaf hence they are photosynthetic tissue. They
are found in between the upper and lower
Cuticle epidermis.
This is a thin water proof covering the There are two types of mesophyll:
upper epidermis. a. Palisade mesophyll
Cuticle is also defined as continuous layer b. Spongy mesophyll
of waxy.

Palisade mesophyll
Function of cuticle The palisade layer of a leaf consists of
cylindrical cells which are situated below
i. Limits the loss of water from
the upper epidermis. The cells are tightly
the leaf by evaporation.
packed close to each other.
ii. Protection The palisade cells contain more
 The internal organs of chlorophyll than any other cells.
the leaf from any Chlorophyll is contained within organelles
physical forces. called chloroplasts.
 The plant against
disease organism such The important adaptations of
as parasitic fungi. the palisade mesophyll for
iii. Prevents unnecessary entry of photosynthesis are;
water through the leaf surface.  Close-fitting packing of its cells
 Presence of numerous number of
Epidermis chloroplasts in each palisade cell
It is the outermost layer of cells of a plant.  The cell wall and other parts of
This layer is one cell thick, and consists of cytoplasm are transparent to allow
flattened cells which cover the leaf. There light to pass through the leaf.
is upper and lower epidermis.  Presence of oblong shape

19
 The stomata are found on the surface of
the leaf. Each stoma (*singular) is made
up of a pair of bean – shaped guard cells
which can change shape, thereby opening
and closing the pore.

Spongy mesophyll
Spongy mesophyll consists of uneven
shaped cells with large air space between
them. These cells have fewer chloroplasts
Functions of stomata
than palisade. It has sponge appearance
Gas exchange
when viewed under the microscope hence
their name spongy cells. During day, some of the oxygen
produced within the plant diffuses
The spongy cell provides small from the leaf into the atmosphere
through the stomata. At the same time
surface area for photosynthesis carbon dioxide diffuses from the
due to; atmosphere into the leaf through the
stomata.
 free packing cells
 Presence of fewer chloroplasts
During night, carbon dioxide produced
during respiration diffuses from the
leaf into atmosphere through the
stomata, since there is no
photosynthesis to use the carbon
dioxide. Oxygen diffuses from the
atmosphere into the leaf through the
stomata to be used in respiration.

Transpiration
Excess water evaporates from the leaf
Stomata into the atmosphere. The rate of
transpiration is controlled by the guard
These are the openings of an extensive cells.
system of air spaces between the cells of
the leaf. These spaces allow gases to
diffuse in and out of the leaf.

20
Differences between
guard cell and epidermal
cell
i. Bean shaped; guard cell is
bean shaped while epidermal
cell is not bean shaped.
ii. Chloroplasts; guard cell has
chloroplasts while epidermal
has no chloroplasts.

Vascular bundles
Xylem vessel transports water and
mineral salts absorbed from the soil.
Phloem tube transports manufactured Functions of parts of the
food within the plant.
cell
Cell structure and Cell membrane
functions This is a thin flexible layer of protein and
fats molecules. The cell membrane is dark
Cell is a basic functional unit of the line around the outside of the cell.
organism. The cell is therefore a building The cell membrane is semi – permeable,
block of which living things are made. that is, membrane that allows some
The cells are microscopic in size and particles to pass across it but not others
electron microscope is used to see the depending on their sizes. It is protein
structures found in cells. However, molecules which act as the gate to allow
ordinary microscope is not powerful this to happen in that way. Protein
enough to show all the organelles present molecules also float in the lipids’
in the cell. molecules.

Organelles are small structures which

carry out specific functions in the cell.

21
 Note 
All membranes of some
organelles such as nucleus,
mitochondrion, chloroplasts
and endoplasmic reticulum
have the same as of that cell
membrane.

Nucleus
The nucleus is surrounded by two
membranes called the nuclear envelope.
The outer membrane is part of the Adaptations of mitochondria to
endoplasmic reticulum. The nuclear its function
envelope is full of small holes or nuclear
i. Presence of cristae which
pores through which large molecules pass.
provide large surface area on
which the process of respiration
Inside the nucleus consists of occurs.
nucleoplasm in which the nucleolus is ii. Thin walls – allow oxygen to
suspended. Ribosomes are made in diffuse into the mitochondria
nucleolus. and carbon dioxide and water
to diffuse out of the
mitochondria.
Functions of nucleus iii. Surrounded by cytoplasm
i. Contains the genetic material which is a medium in chemical
of a cell in form of processes occur such as
chromosome. respiration.
ii. Acts as control centre.
Function of mitochondria
iii. Produces the information
needed to synthesize proteins. Energy production; they turn the
chemical energy in food into energy used
iv. Essential for cell division. in series of chemical reaction called
respiration.
Mitochondrion
There are lots of mitochondria in the cell Endoplasmic reticulum
structure. The mitochondrion has two This is a network of tubes surrounded by
membranes a smooth outer membrane and membrane which spread throughout the
highly folded inner membrane. cytoplasm.

The folds of the inner membrane are called

Cristae and they increase the surface area There are two types of
on which part of the process of respiration endoplasmic reticulum
occurs.

22
 o Rough endoplasmic Note
reticulum Endoplasmic reticulum is part
It is so called because it is of the cell’s transport system
bumpy under a microscope. carrying substances such as
The bumps are thousands of proteins and lipids.
ribosomes attached to it.
The rough endoplasmic
reticulum is covered with tiny Cytoplasm
structures called ribosomes This is an aqueous solution of many
where proteins are made. dissolved substances such as proteins,
vesicles, organelles except nucleus.
o Smooth endoplasmic
The movement of cytoplasm around
reticulum the cell is called Cytoplasmic
It does not contain ribosomes.
streaming.
However, it contains enzymes
needed for the formation of
molecules such as Cytoplasmic streaming is the
carbohydrates and lipids. movement of cytoplasm within
living cell resulting in transport
It is involved in the uptake and
release of calcium to transfer of nutrients and enzymes.
some types of cellular activity.
It helps in detoxification of
poisonous substances entering
the cell.

Functions of endoplasmic
reticulum
 Surface area for chemical
reaction provides a large
surface area of membrane
inside the cell on which The arrows show the movement of
chemical reaction can occur. cytoplasm.
 Transport provides pathways
for transporting materials
Cytoplasmic streaming
i. Transport substances from one
through the cell.
part of the cell to another many
 Synthesis produces protein times faster than simple
and lipids. diffusion.
 Storage collects and stores ii. Involves use of energy in the
synthesized substances. movement of materials, hence
 Skeletal part provides part of it is important part of active
the skeleton of a cell which transport.
helps maintain the shape of the
cell.

23
  Synthesis, Golgi bodies produce
substances such as enzymes and
Functions of cytoplasm carbohydrates. They manufacture long
i. Link the organelles chained sugars including cellulose and
ii. Medium in which chemical pectin.
processes occur. They are responsible for formation of
lysosomes
Vacuole – is membrane bound – cavities
filled with cell sap which is made up  Transport and storage of lipids.
mostly of water containing various Golgi bodies have vesicles (known as
dissolved sugar, salt and other chemicals. ‘Golgi vesicles’) which are used for
transport.
 Sorting and packaging
Ribosomes macromolecules.
Ribosomes are small spherical structures
which make proteins. They are found in
the cytoplasm and they are attached to the Lysosomes1
membrane of the rough endoplasmic
This is the membrane bound sac found in
reticulum.
the cell that contains digestive enzymes
that breaks down (‘degrading’) complex
molecules in the body.
Ribosomes use genetic instructions
transported in ribonucleic acid (RNA) to When a cell dies, and indeed millions of
link specific sequence of amino acids into cells die every day in the body, then
chains to form protein. lysosomes release their enzymes to digest
the dead cell.
Due to their autolysis, they are nicknamed
Golgi bodies
‘suicide bags’ or ‘suicide sacs’
They consist of flattened tube – like
surrounded by membranes from which
small vesicles are made. They are often Functions of lysosomes
found near the surface of a cell and are
involved in packaging molecules such as  Removal of the unwanted
protein. substances produced by cells.

Golgi bodies are also called Golgi  Digestion of the dead cells by
apparatus. releasing their enzymes.
 Engulfing bacteria and virus.
The small molecules produced by
lysosomes are then used by other cells.

Centrioles

Functions of Golgi bodies 1

Lysosomes are recycling organelles; they
degrade and recycle complex molecules.

24
These are rod – shaped bodies lying Cell wall
outside the nuclear envelope. The This is a tough layer around the cell
centrioles aid in cell division, when new membrane made of chemical substance
cells are made, existing cell divides into
two. called cellulose. It is fully permeable,
that is, allows all substances to pass across
Importance: The centrioles aid in cell it.
division, when new cells are made, they
It is also involved in transport, absorption
grow into maturity and divide into two, a
and secretion.
process called ‘mitosis2’ and/or ‘meiosis’

Function
Chloroplasts
These are organelles that are found in plant  Protection and support the
cell joined by complex network as discs cellular contents.
called thylakoid. They are enclosed in  Storage, in some plant cell
the double membrane around its outside walls act as storage depots for
and surrounded by a viscous fluid called carbohydrates that can be
stroma and system of membrane. broken down and resorbed to
supply the metabolic and
The system of membrane is seen as sets of growth needs of the plant
layers within chloroplast. The set of layers
 Control, limits the cell size.
is called granum. It is the thylakoid
membranes which contain the chlorophyll
that traps the light energy used during Autotrophic nutrition
photosynthesis.
Green plants make their own food from
simple inorganic substances. Organisms
that make their own food from simple
inorganic substances are called
Autotrophs.
On the other hand, organisms that do not
make their own food but depend on ready-
made complex organic compounds are
called heterotrophs.

Chloroplast contains starch grains that Green plants are autotrophs while animals
temporarily store the product of are heterotrophs because plant cells of
photosynthesis. green plants contain chloroplasts in which
chlorophyll is found. Animal cells do not
contain chloroplasts so that do not have
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is the green pigment that
2
Mitosis: cell division where nuclei divides enables plants to make their own food in
into two – each having same number of
the process of photosynthesis.
chromosomes as original; Meiosis, cell division
where nuclei divides into four – each containing
half number of chromosomes

25
 Is used in the presence of the hydrogen
The process of atoms released from water, using ATP to
photosynthesis produce carbohydrate.
Photosynthesis is a chemical process in
which green plants make their own
complex organic food from water and 3. Water
carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight.
Provides the raw materials which are split
to form hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
You can also define photosynthesis as a
process by which green plants use energy 4. Chlorophyll
of light to convert carbon dioxide and
water into the simple sugar glucose. It is the green pigment found in
chloroplasts in leaf cells. It is used to trap
The water which plants absorb from the light.
soil through the roots and carbon dioxide
which diffuses from the atmosphere into
the leaf through the stomata are combined
Adaptations of leaves
to produce complex organic food. for photosynthesis

Necessary conditions for 1. Supported by stem and petiole

Expose the leaf to necessary
photosynthesis sunlight and air.
For photosynthesis to occur, plants require
the following materials; 2. Large surface area; broad and
flat
Expose the leaf to necessary
1. Light sunlight and carbon dioxide.

Provides the energy needed to combine 3. Thin lamina

carbon dioxide and water molecules. This
energy is used to split water molecules, a Allows sunlight to penetrate to all
cells and allows gas exchange, that
process known as photolysis into is, carbon dioxide and oxygen to
hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The diffuse in and out respectively
hydrogen atom is used to reduce carbon since the distances across it are
dioxide to produce carbohydrate. Oxygen very short.
is produced as waste product.
4. Presence of stomata on the
Energy from sunlight is also used to leaf surface
produce ATP – adenosine Triphosphate Allow diffusion of carbon dioxide
which is used in the synthesis of in and oxygen out.
carbohydrate.
5. Branching network of veins
Provide good water supply to the
2. Carbon dioxide mesophyll cells.

26
 6. Presence of chloroplasts The process of photosynthesis occurs in
two stages namely;
They contain chlorophyll that
absorbs sunlight. a. Light stage (photochemical stage)
7. Absence of chloroplasts in the b. Dark stage (carbon stage)
epidermal layers
Allow sunlight to penetrate to Figure below illustrate the process
mesophyll layers. of photosynthesis.

Factors that affect the

rate of photosynthesis

1. Sunlight
In the dark photosynthesis does not take
place at all. In dim light the plant
photosynthesizes slowly.
As light intensity increases the rate of
photosynthesis increases until plant
Light stage
photosynthesizes as much as it can.
This stage requires light. Thus, this stage is
called light dependent stage. The light
2. Carbon dioxide originates from sunlight where is absorbed
The more carbon dioxide a green plant is by the chlorophyll in form of ADP –
given, the faster it can make food up to a (Adenosine Diphosphate). Chlorophyll
certain point but then the maximum is allows ADP to combine with phosphate
reached. The amount of carbon dioxide in electrons to form ATP (Adenosine
the atmosphere is about 0.03% and it does Triphosphate) in the process called
not differ much. photophosphorytion.

The energy ATP is used to split water

3. Temperature molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
The process of photosynthesis occurs very atoms, a process called photolysis. The
slowly at low temperature. It increases oxygen atoms rearrange to form oxygen
when temperature is increased. molecule which diffuses out of the leaf
through the stomata as a waste product.
Experimental observation show that if The hydrogen is used in the dark stage.
temperature goes beyond 40 0C
photosynthesis slows down and stops
altogether because the enzymes involved Dark stage
in the process of photosynthesis are Light is not needed at this stage and as
denatured by the heat. such it is called light independent stage.
Carbon dioxide gas from the air diffuses
Stages of photosynthesis into the leaf through the stomata into
palisade cells which contain chloroplasts.

27
Once inside the cell, carbon dioxide 2. Cell wall formation when it is
diffuses into chloroplasts. converted to cellulose or lignin.
3. As raw material combine with
The hydrogen using energy from ATP nitrogen and other mineral
reduces the carbon dioxide to form elements to make proteins. These
glucose. The process whereby glucose is mineral elements include
produced is called reduction reaction. phosphorus and sulphur.
The glucose is then converted into other 4. Converted to lipids and vitamins.
forms of organic molecules such as starch
and, lipids and vitamins through 5. Transported to storage organs,
condensation reaction. where it is converted into starch3
and stored for future use.
Dark stage occurs during day only
that it does not require sunlight. Presence of starch in plant leaf is an
indication that photosynthesis takes place
within the plant, producing excess glucose
Summary of from which the starch is formed.
photosynthesis Therefore, starch is a long chain of
The complex organic food which is glucose molecules. Starch, being insoluble,
produced during photosynthesis is can accumulate without causing osmotic
glucose, this is the main product. Besides disturbances.
it, oxygen is produced as a by – product.
A by – product is a useful product Testing for starch in a
produced in addition to a main product
during the chemical process. plant leaf
Word equation Starch in plant leaf is tested to show the
occurrence of photosynthesis within the
plant from which the leaf has been taken.
The test for starch in a plant leaf is
therefore done by adding iodine solution to
the plant leaf to see whether a blue – black
colour forms on the leaf.
Chemical equation
It is however not possible to get positive
results if the test is done on a living cell
because:

What happens to glucose  Permeability; the living plant leaf is

not all permeable for iodine solution so
after photosynthesis that it is hard for iodine solution to
penetrate inside the leaf cells and mix
1. Respiration within the plant. with starch.
Thus enables plant to produce
energy essential by plant for a
number of processes such as 3
growth. Starch is the storage form of glucose in
plants. In animals, glucose is converted to glycogen
(hence glycogen also called ‘animal starch’)

28
 Colour; the green colour of the leaf  The white tile enables any
would mask any blue black colour that colour change on the leaf to be
might form on the leaf. efficient.
 The drops of iodine solution are
added on the leaf in order to
find out whether there is starch
or not in the leaf.

Expected results
A blue black colour forms on the leaf if
The procedures followed when there is starch in the leaf. If there is no
starch in the leaf, the leaf is simply stained
plant leaf is tested for a starch in brown by the iodine solution, that is, the
order to get successful results. leaf looks brown.

1. Dip the leaf in boiling water

to boil it for about 2 minutes. Functions of mineral
 To kill the leaf so that this elements in
prevents any further chemical
reactions. photosynthesis
 To make leaf more permeable 1. Nitrogen
to iodine solution because the
boiling of the leaf breaks the  Formation of amino acids,
cuticle of the leaf. protein and other complex
nitrogen compounds like
chlorophyll.
2. Boil the leaf in alcohol such
as ethanol. 2. Phosphorus
- To dissolve chlorophyll so that  Formation of nucleic acid and
the leaf turns whitish to make high energy phosphate
any colour changes easily. compound such as ATP.
 Activation of certain enzymes.
3. Dip the leaf in warm water for
about 2 minutes. 3. Magnesium

 To soften the leaf so that it can  Formation of chlorophyll

be easily spread out. The 4. Potassium
alcohol makes the leaf hard and
brittle.  Activates enzymes in
photosynthesis and respiration.
 To rinse the alcohol from the
leaf.  Stored in the cell sap to
increase sap concentration.
4. Spread the leaf on a white tile  Opening and closing of stomata
and add few drops of iodine thereby allowing osmotic
solution on the leaf. uptake of water.
5. Calcium

29
  Building the cell wall in experiment. As such, the leaf must be
particular of the lamella. destarched.
6. Sulphur Destarching is placing the leaves in the
darkness for 24 hours or leaving them in a
 Formation of amino acids and
card cup board for 2 – 3 days.
protein.
The plant cannot carry out photosynthesis
7. Iron while it is in the darkness since there is no
 Formation of chlorophyll light.
 Formation of components of
the electron carrier system in
the light reaction in
Experiment 1: necessity of
photosynthesis. light to photosynthesis.
8. Boron Is light necessary for
 It helps in absorption of photosynthesis?
calcium ions and cell division
of shoot tips. Procedures
9. Manganese  Take a potted green plant and
put it in the darkness for 24
 activates some enzymes
hours.
10. Zinc  Pluck the leaf and test for
 Auxin production and starch to make sure there is no
activation of some enzymes. starch.
11. Copper  Cover part of both sides of the
leaf with aluminium foil.
 Constituent of certain oxidizing
and reducing enzymes.  Leave the plant in the sun for
about 5 hours.

Experiments on  Remove the aluminium foil and

test for starch.
photosynthesis
Any experiment that involves finding out
if a specific condition is necessary for
photosynthesis, the plant is given
everything it needs except for the
condition being tested. Another plant
especially part of plant is used at the same
time, this is control.
The control is given everything it needs Results – only areas which received light
including the condition being tested.
turn into blue black with iodine solution.

Since the presence of starch is regarded as Conclusion

an evidence of photosynthesis, the Light plays an important part in starch
experimental plant must have no starch in formation and hence in photosynthesis.
their leaves at the beginning of the

30
 receives carbon dioxide will turn blue –
black.
Experiment 2: necessity of CO2
to photosynthesis.
Note; Potted plant is a plant grown in a
Is carbon dioxide necessary for container.
photosynthesis?
Experiment 3: necessity of
Procedures chlorophyll to photosynthesis.
 Take a potted plant and put it in Is chlorophyll necessary for
the darkness for 24 hours to
destarch it. photosynthesis?
In order to carry out this experiment, a
 Pluck the leaf and test for
starch to make sure that plant variegated leaf is used. This is a leaf
has been destarched. that contains green and non – green parts
on it.
 Put potassium
hydroxide/sodium hydroxide Procedures
solution in transparent plastic
bag and cover the leaf. This  Pluck a variegated leaf from a
solution absorbs carbon plant and destarch the leaf.
dioxide.  Test for starch for both parts of
 Put sodium hydrogen carbonate the leaf.
or soda lime in another
transparent plastic bag and
cover another leaf. This
compound releases carbon
dioxide.
 Leave the plant in the sun for
about 5 hours.
 Remove the plastic bag and test
for starch.

Results
Only parts that were previously green turn
blue – black with iodine. The parts that
were white stain brown. Bear in mind that
the variegated leaf has both experimental
part and control part.

Oxygen production
Results
Experiment: To show that oxygen is
The leaf deprived of carbon dioxide will produced during photosynthesis.
not turn blue – black, while the leaf that
Procedures

31
  Set up the apparatus as follow.

Observations show that the products of

photosynthesis are the raw materials for
 Add sodium hydrogen aerobic respiration. The products of
carbonate in the water to aerobic respiration are the raw materials
release carbon dioxide. for photosynthesis. As such, this
 Leave the apparatus in the sun observation gives similarity between
for a few days. photosynthesis and aerobic respiration.
 Carefully remove the tube from
the top of the funnel, allowing Respiration takes place in mitochondrion
the water to run out, but not of the green plant all the time, that is, day
allowing the gas to escape. and night and photosynthesis takes place
 Carefully lower a glowing into in the chloroplasts of the green plant only
the gas in the test tube. during day time.

Results Evidences that show that

The glowing burns into flames.
the process of
Interpretation
The relighting of a glowing splint does not photosynthesis is faster
prove that the gas collected is pure oxygen
but it does show that plant has given off a than respiration
gas which is richer in oxygen. The process of photosynthesis is faster
than respiration in green plant during day
Observation on time.
1. Additional glucose is produced by
photosynthesis and photosynthesis than used for
respiration. Therefore there is
respiration in plant leaf surplus glucose which is converted
It is aerobic respiration that occurs in the to starch for storage.
green plant. Therefore, in a green plant 2. Additional oxygen is produced by
both aerobic respiration and photosynthesis than is used for
photosynthesis occur simultaneously respiration. There is excess oxygen
during day time only. inside the leaf. However, there is
higher concentration of oxygen in

32
 the plant leaf than in the  Anthocyanin has red and purple
atmosphere so that this excess colours found in red cabbage.
oxygen diffuses from the leaf into
the atmosphere through the  Tannin has golden yellow in
stomata. autumn.
3. A reduced amount of carbon Some leaves do not look green but have
dioxide is produced by respiration chlorophyll only that it is found in
than required for photosynthesis. relatively small amount. The chlorophyll
Then, there is shortfall of carbon in such leaves is concealed by the colours
dioxide in the plant that creates a formed due to mixing of other pigments in
lower concentration of carbon them.
dioxide in the leaf than in the
atmosphere. Hence, carbon dioxide
diffuses from the atmosphere into Experiment
the leaf through the stomata. An experiment that could be
carried out to show that fresh
Compensation point leaves contain three types of
This is the point when the rate of pigments.
photosynthesis is equal to the rate of
respiration in a green plant so that there is Materials
no gas exchange between the leaf and
 Two beakers, ethanol, fresh
atmosphere.
leaves, chromatography paper/
This happens especially during light of white piece of chalk and
low intensity. crushers.

Procedures
Investigations on types
 Crush the fresh leaves into
of pigments in leaves small pieces.
In plant cells there are a number of  Collect the small pieces and put
pigments that account for different colours them into a beaker.
in fresh leaves. Thylakoid membrane in  Add ethanol into the beaker to
chloroplast contains several kinds of dissolve the crushed pieces.
pigments, which are substances that trap
visible light. The kinds of pigments in  Decant
plant leaves are;  Filter the dissolved substance
 Chlorophyll has green colour, and pour into another beaker.
however, there are chlorophyll 𝑎  Put the white piece of
which accounts for bright green chalk/chromatography paper
colour and chlorophyll 𝑏 which upright
accounts for dark green.  Wait for 1 – 2 hours, then
 Carotene has orange colour in observe.
carrots and many flowers.
Results
 Xanthophyll has a yellow colour
in many flowers and fruits.

33
The white piece of chalk will show 4. Plant products bring items
different colours, that is, green, yellow and obtained from plants such as;
orange.
 Medicine e.g. aloe Vera,
molinga etc.
Conclusion
Green accounts for chlorophyll, yellow  Raw materials for the use of
colour accounts for xanthophyll and industrial products
orange colour accounts for carotene.
Revision questions
Importance of 1. Describe an experiment that could be
photosynthesis carried out to show that fresh leaves
contain three types of pigments. Your
1. Food production for both plants answer should include procedures,
and animals. expected results and conclusion. (2008
2. Oxygen production which is Maneb)
used by animals and same plants 2. Mention any two uses of glucose after
for the process of respiration.
photosynthesis.
3. Reduction of amount of 3. Explain how photosynthesis helps
carbon dioxide in the minimize global warming (2011
atmosphere since carbon dioxide is
used as a raw material for the Maneb)
process of photosynthesis. Hence
minimize global warming.

34
Topic 3 transport in plant
Vascular tissue
The vascular tissue system transports
needed materials throughout the plant
through two complex tissues, thus forming
transport systems in plants.
Plants have two transport systems
namely;
a. Xylem tube
b. Phloem tube

The structural Facts about the xylem

differences between tubes
xylem and phloem tubes  They do not contain cytoplasm

Xylem tube  Do not have nuclei

A xylem tube is a long drawn tube. It is  Their walls are made of
made of long hollow cells joined end to cellulose and lignin.
end. The lignin is very strong so the
Xylem tube in veins is made up of xylem vessels help to keep
several types namely: plant upright. Wood is made
almost completely of lignified
1. Conducting cells xylem vessels.
2. Spiral thickening cells  They consist of dead cells
3. Packing cells
Xylem tube consists of two types of Phloem tube
conducting cells;
Phloem tube is a food conducting
 Tracheids
tissue consists of cells that are living at
 Vessels maturity. It contains sieve elements.
Vessels usually are shorter and broader Two types of sieve elements occur;
than tracheids. The vessels run from the
roots of the plant up through the stem.  Sieve cell with a narrow pores.
 Sieve tube with larger pore
Associated with the sieve elements are
companion cells that contain nuclei and
are responsible for manufacturing and
secreting substances into sieve element.

35
 Xylem tubes;
i. Conduct water and mineral
salts absorbed from the soil.
ii. Store food
iii. Help support the plant

Phloem tubes conduct materials

manufactured by plants.

Facts about phloem tube

 They have cytoplasm
Vascular tissues
These are groups of xylem tubes and
 Do not contain nuclei
phloem tubes. These tubes are simply
 Their walls are not lignified called vascular bundles. In between the
 They are made of living cells xylem and phloem is cambium.
called sieve elements. Cambium is a region of active cell
 They have ends not completely division, that is, meristem where new
broken down. As such, they xylem and phloem are formed.
form sieve plates which have
small holes in them.
 Each sieve tube element has a Arrangements of
companion cell next to it. vascular bundles in
The companion cell has nucleus
and many other organelles.
dicots and monocots.
In a stem of a dicotyledonous plant such as
In brief, xylem and phloem tube
bean seed the vascular bundles are
differ in the following ways: arranged in a ring near outside the edge.
 Nature of cells; xylem tube has
dead cells and phloem tube has
living cells.
 Nuclei; xylem tube does not
contain nucleus and phloem tube
contains nucleus in its companion
cells.
 Walls; xylem tube has lignified
walls and phloem tube has no
lignified walls.

Functional differences
In a monocotyledonous plant such as
between xylem tube and maize, sugar cane the vascular bundles are
phloem tube scattered in no pattern.

36
 Region of differentiation
As the cells get order they become
specialized to carry out different functions.
Some become vascular cells, some
protective cells, etc. They thus come to
differ in size and shape.

Root hair
 Absorption of mineral salts and
water since they provide large
surface area.
The structure of a plant  Stick to the soil particle, anchor
root the plant in the soil

Adaptations of root
hairs to their function
1. Long and narrow
Increases the surface area which in
turn increases the rate of absorption
of water and salts.
2. Contain many mitochondria
where respiration occurs in the
presence of oxygen to produce
Root cap ATP. This ATP is needed for
active transport.
This is a mass of loose unspecialized cells
3. At the centre of the root is the
fitting over the region of active division. It
is found at the very tip of a root. This cap vascular tissue which transports
is protective in function, which protects water and mineral salts to the rest
the root as it grows through the soil. of the plant.

Meristem 4. The cell sap in it contains sugar,

amino acids and salts so that it is
This is a region of active cell division from more concentrated than the soil
which permanent tissue is derived. Apical solution. Water is in high
meristems occur at tips of stems and roots. concentration in soil so they diffuse
Meristem also occurs between the xylem into the root hairs.
and phloem in cambium (veins).
Region of elongation
Lies behind the apical meristem. Here the
Diffusion
root is actively lengthening mainly by the Diffusion is the net movement of
enlargement of its cells. particles from a region of high
concentration to a region of lower

37
concentration. This is also movement of Significance of diffusion
particles along their concentration.
i. Helps in the movement of
manufactured food within the
plant.
Factors that affect the
ii. Uptake and removal of oxygen
rate of diffusion and carbon dioxide by plants.

1. Size of particles
Small particles move faster than large Osmosis
ones. So small particles will diffuse Osmosis is the net movement of water
faster than large ones. from a region of higher water
concentration to a region of lower water
2. Temperature concentration across semi – permeable
membrane.
Increasing the temperature makes the
particles in a solution or gas move A semi – permeable membrane is the
faster. So increasing the temperature one that allows small particles to pass
will increase the rate of diffusion. through it.

3. Difference in concentration
Conditions of osmosis in
The bigger the difference in
concentration between two points the solution
steeper the concentration gradient and
the faster the rate of diffusion. 1. Turgidity
As the plant cell is placed in pure water,
4. Surface area the concentration of water around the cell
For a molecule to get into an is much high than in the cytoplasm and the
organism’s body it has to pass through vacuole of the cell.
a cell membrane. The bigger the area As a result, a lot of water moves from the
of the cell membrane available for pure water around the cell into the
diffusion the faster is the rate of cytoplasm and vacuole by osmosis. As
diffusion. more and more water enters the cytoplasm
and the vacuole, they swell. However, the
5. Density of the medium plant cell has very strong cell wall around
it, so that it cell wall around it, so that it
The density of the medium through prevents the cell from bursting.
which diffusion takes place determines
flow of substances. In gases, there is a Turgor pressure is the outward pressure
great deal of fast diffusion. that the cytoplasm exerts on to the cell
Accordingly, gas molecules occupy a wall in a plant cell.
space that becomes available to The cell is said to be turgid. Turgidity is a
diffusion relatively rapidly, while condition when cell is in state of blown up,
liquids do so more slowly. tight and firm.

38
The turgidity of the plant cells – helps a
Changes that occur in the plant
plant that has no wood in it to stay upright
and keeps the leaves firm. cell during plasmolysis are;
i. Shrinking of cytoplasm
ii. Shrinking of vacuole
2. Flaccidity iii. Tearing away of cell
This is when a plant cell is put in membrane
concentrated solution; the concentration of Plasmolysis kills a plant cell because the
water in the cytoplasm of the cell is higher cell membrane is damaged as it tears away
than in the concentrated solution around from the cell wall.
the cell. Hence, water moves from the
cytoplasm into the solution around the cell
across the cell membrane by osmosis. Significance of osmosis
The cytoplasm shrinks, as a result it stops i. Helps in the absorption of
exerting the turgor pressure on the cell water from the soil into the
wall and the cell becomes floppy. The two root.
solutions now have the same concentration
ii. Helps in the absorption of
of water molecules. They are called
mineral salts from the soil into
isotonic solutions.
the root.
Flaccidity is a condition in which the
cytoplasm of the cell shrinks. The cell is
said to be flaccid. If the cell in a plant
becomes flaccid then the plant loses its
Experiment on osmosis
firmness and begins to wilt. You are provided with the following
materials:
 Specimen X
3. Plasmolysis  Salt solutions of the following
concentration: 0%, 25% and 50.
This is the condition in which the
cytoplasm of a plant cell shrinks to the  Razor blade or knife
centre of the cell so much that the cell  Ruler
membrane tears away from the cell wall.
a. Using a scalpel or razor blade
 Peel the specimen
Plasmolysis occurs if the solution in the
plant cell is hypertonic and solution  Cut three small pieces that are 2
around the cell is very concentrated, that cm long, 1cm wide and 0.5cm
is, hypotonic, then a lot of water will thick.
diffuse out of the cell and the cytoplasm b. Place one piece in 0% salt solution, the
goes on shrinking. other piece in 25% salt solution and the
third piece in 50% salt solution. Leave
to stand for 10 minutes.
c. Remove the pieces
(1) Measure the length of each piece.
(2) Try to bend each piece to test its
flexibility.

39
d. Record your results in the form of table
How water and mineral
e. From the table, state the relationship
between salt concentration and length salts are transported in
of potato pieces. xylem vessels
f. Explain the results observed in
flexibility of the potato pieces in 0% 1. Through osmosis
salt concentration and 50% salt
The soil remains a region of high
concentration.
water concentration at all the times
than the root hairs. Water therefore,
Active transport moves from the soil into the root hair
cells by osmosis. This increases the
Active transport is the movement of
concentration of water in the root hair
particles from low concentration to high
cell than the root.
concentration.
A concentration gradient is the
difference in concentration of molecules
between two regions.

Examples of active transport

a. Phloem translocation
b. Cytoplasmic streaming
c. Absorption of ions by roots.
The concentration of mineral nutrients
required by the plant is always greater in
the roots than in the surrounding solution.
Thus ions move into the root against a 2. Through root pressure
concentration gradient. The movement of From behind, water in the preceding
ions into the root must therefore use cell pushes the water on the adjacent
energy, hence active transport. cell, creating what is called Root
Nitrates and magnesium ions are readily pressure. Root pressure continues to
absorbed by active transport. This process push the water in each cell behind
uses a lot of energy. The energy is right up the stem to the leaves.
supplied by the process of respiration.
3. Through suction
Significance of active transport Water that transpires from the leaf
surface into the atmosphere leaves a
 Helps in the movement of
Suction force that pulls more water
manufactured food within
from below the xylem cell. This
plant.
suction force continues pulling water
 Helps in the movement of ions from below the xylem cell. Again, the
by root hairs. suction force continues pulling the
water from the soil into the root, right
up the stem and out into the
atmosphere.

40
 This brings about the continuous flow phloem tubes and leads to reduced root
of water from the soil into root to the growth and swelling of tissues above the
leaves. This is called Transpiration girdle.
stream.
Heat and cold treatment
Heating and cooling affect the living
How manufactured food cytoplasm of cells. This affects the
translocation of materials in the phloem.
are transported in Heating a leaf petiole with steam stops the
phloem tube movement of food in the petiole. Cooling a
petiole also reduces the rate of
From the chloroplasts, manufactured food
translocation of organic molecules.
(glucose) moves into the phloem cell by
diffusion. This happens because there is Radioactive isotopes
more food in the chloroplasts than the If a leaf is provided with radioactive
phloem cell. From one phloem cell to the carbon dioxide it uses this carbon dioxide
other glucose continues to move by during photosynthesis to produce sugar.
diffusion. The movement of this radioactive sugar
However, from a phloem cell into storage can be followed and it can be shown that
organs, for example, fruit, glucose moves the sugar molecules move through phloem.
by active transport since there is more
food in the storage organ than phloem.
Transpiration
This is a process by which water is lost
from the plant surface into the atmosphere.
Evidence that phloem Plant leaves have the openings called
stomata while plants have the opening
transports organic food called Lenticles. Water is lost through
Organic food produced in the leaves is these openings. However, more water is
transported to the rest of the plant through lost through stomata on the leaf surface
the phloem. than through lenticles.
A thin firm moisture on which gas such as
Experiments with aphids carbon dioxide dissolve, gases diffuse
Aphids are small insects that feed by faster across the cell in a solution form. It
pushing their piercing mouthparts into is the thin layer of moisture that lost into
phloem tubes. The contents of the phloem the atmosphere.
are under pressure so that they flow along
the stylets into the aphid. How does transpiration
If an aphid is allowed to pierce the phloem occur
of the plant and its body is then removed,
There are two forms that bring about
the contents drip out of the stylets.
transpiration
Ringing (girdling) experiment i. Evaporation
The active phloem tube lies just below the ii. Suction
bark of a stem. If a complete ring of a bark
is removed from the stem of a plant, a Evaporation
process called girdling; this removes the

41
This is the loss of water molecules in form measure water lost by transpiration but
of water vapour into the atmosphere. This only water taken up as a result of it. Not all
occurs to only those water molecules with the water taken up will escape into the
high latent heat energy, they jump up into atmosphere. Some of it will be absorbed
the atmosphere leaving the water by those plant tissues whose turgidity is
molecules with less heat energy. low.

Suction Importance of
Evaporation of water molecules leaves a transpiration
suction force that pulls more and more
water from down the root right up the stem 1. Helps in the uptake of water by
into the leaves. This brings about the plant from the soil.
stream. As more water is evaporating into the
atmosphere this helps the plant to
absorb more water from the soil.
Measuring the rate of
2. Transportation of mineral salts
transpiration from the soil.
A potometer is an instrument used to
As water moves up into the leaves for
measure the rate of absorption of water by
transpiration they carry some of
a plant and not the rate of transpiration.
dissolved mineral salts together with it
However, the rate at which a plant takes up
which are used up by the plant.
water equals the rate of transpiration. The
faster it takes up water, the faster the plant 3. Cooling of the plant
transpires. Water that has high heat latent energy
evaporate quickly from the leaf surface
leaving those which has low heat latent
energy, therefore, these help to cool
down the plant.

Factors that affect the

rate of transpiration
1. Temperature
As water evaporates from the leaves, more On a hot day a lot of water evaporates
is drawn from the stem which in turn quickly from leaves of plants.
draws it from the potometer tube. The tap Transpiration rate increases as
below the funnel is closed so that water temperature increases.
will be withdrawn from the capillary tube. 2. Humidity
Here, the meniscus at the air water
boundary can be seen moving quite rapidly The higher the humidity the less water
as water is withdrawn and air is drawn in will evaporate from leaves. The rate of
behind the retreating water column. transpiration decreases as humidity
increases.
By timing this water column movement
over a fixed distance on the scale, the rate 3. Air movement (wind speed)
of water uptake can be calculated. It must
be noted that the potometer does not

42
 On windy day water evaporates more 3. Describe five factors that affect the rate
quickly than on still day. Transpiration of diffusion.
rate increases as wind speed increases. 4. State the function of cambium.
4. Light intensity 5. What is the difference between
In bright sunlight a plant may open its hypotonic and hypertonic solution?
stomata to supply plenty of carbon 6. Figure 1 is a diagram of plant tissue.
dioxide for photosynthesis. More water
can therefore evaporate from the
leaves. Transpiration rate increases as
light intensity increases.
5. Water supply
If water is in short supply, then the
plant will close its stomata. This will
cut down the rate of transpiration. a. Name the tissue
Transpiration rate decreases when
b. Give two reasons for your answer.
water supply decreases below the
certain level.

Adaptations in plants
that tend to reduce
transpiration rate
1. Closing stomata; plants lose water
through their stomata. If they close
their stomata, then transpiration will
slow down.
2. Waxy cuticle; many leaves are
covered with a waxy cuticle, made by
cells in the epidermis. The wax
waterproofs the leaf.
3. Hairy leaves; some plants have hairs
on their leaves. These hairs trap a layer
of moist air close the leaf.
4. Cutting down the surface area;
the smaller the surface area of the leaf,
the less water will evaporate from it.

Revision questions
1. Define transpiration stream
2. Of what value is transpiration? Outline
three points.

43
Topic 4 Animal structure and
function
many species parasitize plants and animals
Main groups of animals while others are free living. The most
There are two main groups of animals distinctive feature of roundworms is a
namely tough cuticle that coats the body. They are
dioecious that is, have separate male and
 Invertebrates
female parts. They reproduce sexually.
 Vertebrates

Annelids
Invertebrates Annelids are worms. Most of them have
Insects elongated, cylindrical bodies which are
The insects form a very large class of divided into segments. All the segments
arthropods. Examples include bees, have identical sets of organs, though those
butterflies, mosquitoes, houseflies, at the front end may have specialized
earwigs, greenfly and beetles structures. Some organs, e.g. the
Insects have segmented bodies with a firm alimentary canal, the nerve cord and the
exoskeleton, three pairs of jointed legs, main blood vessels run the whole length of
compound eyes and, typically two pairs of the body. Earthworms are annelids, but
wings. The segments are grouped into there are many more annelid species living
distinct head, thorax and abdomen regions. in fresh water and the sea. Lugworms,
Insects differ from crustacean in having bristle-worms and rag worms, are annelids
wings, only one pair of antennae and only which burrow in the sand on the sea shore.
three pairs of legs. There are no limbs on Tubifex is a freshwater annelid living in
the abdominal segments the insects have the mud at the bottom of ponds.
very successfully colonized the land.
Insects such as dragonflies, butterflies, Crustaceans
bees and beetles have two pairs of wings Examples of crustacean are crabs, prawns,
on their thoracic segments. In the beetles, lobsters, shrimps and barnacles.
the first pair of wings is modified, forming Freshwater crustacean are water fleas,
hard wing-cases. Flies and mosquitoes Cyclops, the freshwater shrimp and the
have only one pair of wings, and some water louse. Woodlice are land dwelling
insects have no wings at all. crustacean. Compound eyes are made up
The appendages on the head segments of tens or hundreds of separate lenses with
form antennae and mouth parts. The mouth light-sensitive cells beneath. They are able
parts vary widely according to the feeding to form a crude image and are very
habits of the species. sensitive to movement. Naturally,
crustacean have a pail of jointed limbs on
Nematodes each segment of the body, but those on the
They are commonly called roundworms. head segments are modified to form
Roundworms are extremely abundant and antennae are specialized mouth parts for
diverse in the soil and in aquatic habitats; feeding.

44
 Fish are 'cold-blooded' (poikilothermic)
vertebrates. Many of them have
Arachnids
streamlined bodies, which make it possible
Arachnids are spiders, mites and
to move rapidly in water. The bodies of
scorpions. A spider's body is not clearly
fish are covered with overlapping scales
segmented but is divided into two regions,
which themselves are covered by a thin
a cephalothorax and an abdomen. The
layer of skin. The fins are either median,
cephalothorax carries four pairs of walking
e.g. dorsal or ventral, or paired, e.g.
legs and two pairs of appendages for
pectoral and pelvic. In the backside, the
feeding. There are no antennae and,
pelvic fins have become spines. The fins
although there are eight eyes, they are not
are formed from skin supported by bony
compound eyes like those of insects but
fin rays.
they can detect movement.
The first pair of appendages on the
The tail fin is important in propelling the
cephalothorax are the chelicerae. These
fish through the water. The median fins
carry poison fangs which seize the prey
help to reduce rolling and assist in turning
and inject poison, followed by digestive
movements. The paired fins help to steer
enzymes.
the fish up or down.
There are over 70 000 species of spiders
The lateral line is a sensory organ. It
and many of them produce silk threads
consists of a fine tube with sensory nerve
which they use to make webs and trap
endings and runs just beneath the skin. It is
prey.
sensitive to movements and vibrations in
the water. The operculum is a bony plate
Molluscs which covers and protects the gills and
Molluscs include snails, whelks, slugs, also acts as a valve in the breathing
mussels, oysters, squids and octopuses. movements.
Many of the molluscs have a shell. In
snails, the shell is usually a coiled, tubular
Amphibian
structure. In mussels and clams (the
Amphibia are 'cold-blooded' vertebrates
bivalves), the shell consists of two halves
with four limbs and no scales. The class
which can be partial1y open or tightly
includes frogs, toads and newts. The name,
closed. In squids the shell is a plate-like
amphibian, means double life and refers to
structure enclosed in the body. In other
the fact that the organism spends part of its
molluscs, the shell is reduced or absent,
life in water and part on the land. In fact,
e.g. slugs, octopuses.
most frogs, toads and newts spend much of
All molluscs have a muscular foot. In the
their time on the land, although in moist
snails and slugs it forms a battened
situations, and return to ponds only to lay
structure which protrudes from the shell
eggs.
during locomotion. In bivalves, the foot
The toad's skin is drier than that of the frog
can protrude from between the halves of
and it has glands which can exude an
the shell and burrow in the sand (e.g.
unpleasant-tasting chemical which
cockles). In the squids and octopuses, the
discourages predators. Newts differ from
foot has become the array of tentacles.
frogs and toads in having a tail. All three
groups are carnivorous. Amphibians have
four limbs. In frogs and toads, the hind
Vertebrates feet have a web of skin between the toes.
Fish This offers a large surface area to thrust
against the water when the animal is
swimming. Newts swim by a wriggling,

45
fish-like movement of their bodies and and coloration; the large quill feathers on
make less use of their limbs for swimming. the wing are essential for flight.
Amphibia have moist skins with a good Birds have four limbs, but the forelimbs
supply of capillaries which can exchange are modified to form wings. The feet have
oxygen and carbon dioxide with the air or four toes with claws which help the bird to
water. They also have lungs which can be perch, scratch for seeds or capture prey,
inflated by a kind of swallowing action. according to the species.
They do not have a diaphragm or ribs. The upper and lower jaws are extended to
form a beak which is used for feeding in
various ways.
Reptiles
Reproduction; birds lay eggs with hard
The reptiles include lizards, snakes, turtles,
shells. Fertilization is internal. The male
tortoises and crocodiles. Reptiles are land-
mates with the female and passes sperms
living vertebrates. Their skins are dry and
into her oviducts to fertilize the eggs
the outer layer of epidermis forms a
before the shell is formed. The female lays
pattern of scales. This dry, scaly skin
the eggs in a nest and then incubates them,
resists water loss. Also the eggs of most
that is, keeps them at body temperature by
species have a tough, parchment-like shell.
sitting on them.
Reptiles, therefore, are not restricted to
damp habitats, nor do they need water in
which to breed.
The reptiles are cold-blooded but they can Mammals
regulate their temperature to some extent. Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates
They do this by basking in the sun until with four limbs.
their bodies warm up. This enables them to They differ from birds in having hair
move about rapidly in search of insects rather than feathers.
and other prey. Unlike the other vertebrates they have a
Reproduction; Fertilization of the eggs diaphragm which plays a part in breathing.
takes place internally. There is a behaviour They also have mammary glands and
pattern which leads to copulation during suckle their young on milk.
which the male introduces sperms into the They have internal fertilization and
female's reproductive tracts. reproduce sexually. The eggs are fertilized
internally and undergo a period of
development in the uterus. They give birth
Birds
to fully young ones.
Birds are warm-blooded (homoiothermic)
They have some degree of parental care.
vertebrates: that is, they keep their body
Respiration: they use lungs for breathing.
temperature more or less constant. The
vertebral column in the neck is flexible but
the rest of the vertebrae are fused to form a
rigid structure. This is probably an
Classification
adaptation to flight, as the powerful wing The information used to classify organisms
muscles need a rigid air-frame to work can be put into a key called dichotomous
against. The epidermis over most of the key. Each stage or branch in the key has
body, produces a covering of feathers but, two parts to help identify the organism.
on the legs and toes, the epidermis forms
scales. The feathers are of several kinds. Dichotomous key groups similar
The soft down feathers form an insulating organisms together. When designing
layer close to the skin; the contour feathers dichotomous key we use characteristics
cover the body and give the bird its shape that reflect their overall similarity.

46
 3. Animal with long legs ….. Dog
Facts about dichotomous key Animal with short legs ….. Mouse
a. Each step has a pair of statements
which describe organisms.
b. Each pair of statement divides the
organisms into two groups.
Note
c. The permanent features or
characteristics are used to describe You should be able to
animals in each step.  Draw and label the structures of
these selected vertebrates.
 Compare and contrast the
systems such as Locomotory,
reproductive, respiratory and
circulatory systems in the
selected vertebrates.

Sample question
Figure below shows different animals. Use
them to construct a dichotomous key that
can be used to identify them.

1. Animal with wings ……….Bat

Animals without wings …. See 2

2. Animal with horns ………..Deer

Animals without …………See 3

47
Topic 5 locomotion in vertebrates

Locomotion Exoskeleton
This is hard material covering the body
Energy released during respiration is used of an organism, that is, external cover.
to bring about movement in living things. Chitin form exoskeleton in insects.
The movement of the whole organism
from one point to another point is called Advantage of exoskeleton – provides a
locomotion. Locomotion enables an lot of protection to the organism
organism to look for food, seek mates and against external physical forces.
avoid danger and overcrowding.
Disadvantage of exoskeleton – limits
Locomotion is made possible the growth of an organism hence
through collective team work of; organisms are small in size.

a. Skeleton However, exoskeleton organisms grow

through moulting (ecdysis). Moulting
b. Joints is the shedding off of exoskeleton
animals, thus promotes growth.
c. Muscles
Skeleton Hydro skeleton
This is framework of the body of an This consists of fluid contained inside
organism. It is important in producing cells and closed cavity of soft bodied
locomotion in animals because it provides animals. Examples include earthworm
rigid places against which muscles pull. and caterpillar. A worm has a body
cavity (coelom) containing a liquid
Types of skeleton called coelomic4 fluid. The worms
have muscles that relax and contract
Endoskeleton thereby causing movement.
This is hard material found inside the
body of an organism. It is present in Relaxation and contraction of the
both plants and animals such as muscles squeeze the coelomic fluid.
vertebrates and plants with wood. Contraction of the muscles send
Endoskeleton in animals is made of pressure waves through the fluid
bones and cartilage. thereby causing changes in the shape
of the body.
Advantage of endoskeleton is to
allow free growth of an organism.
Bones
Disadvantage of endoskeleton Bones are living organs that actively
provides less protection to the body of contribute to the maintenance of the
an organism from external physical
forces.

4
Pronounced as ‘’see-lo-mic’’

48
internal environment of the body. The anchors structures of the bone and
bones are supplied with oxygen and food. contains blood vessels.

Bones are hollow rods with the centre Note

filled with bone marrow. In human, there
The types of bone tissues are
are 206 bones.
compact bone and spongy bone.

Structure of a bone

Functions of bones
1. Storage
Bones store calcium and phosphate
ions. These ions are important in the
physiology of the body. The release of
these ions from bones to the blood is
regulated by hormones of the
parathyroid glands.

2. Movement
Many bones act as levers. When
muscles pull on these levers they
produce movement.

3. Protection
Provide protection for all the delicate
organs in the body. For example, skull
protects the eyes, brain, nasal organs
Cartilage and ears. The ribcage protects the liver,
This is the soft tissue at the end of the lungs and the heart. The vertebral
bone. It contains less mineral salts column protects the spinal cord.
hence it is smooth than the bone. It
prevents the bones from jarring during 4. Support
movement. The bones support the body and give
the body shape and form. The short
Spongy bone skeletal parts support the greater mass
Has air spaces to make the bones than long skeletal parts.
lighter. Has blood capillaries that bring
food substances and oxygen for the 5. Production of blood cells
bone.
Red blood cells, white blood cells and
Marrow cavity platelets are produced in bone marrow.
This is where red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets are made. 6. Help in breathing
The ribs help in breathing as they
Compact bone
move inwards and outwards or
This is the hardest part of the bone. It upwards and downwards due to
is fused to the periosteum. Periosteum contraction of intercostal muscles.

49
Chemical composition of
a bone
A bone is made up of two major
components;

a. The organic component

b. The inorganic component

 Set up a control apparatus without the

The organic component bones.
This is made up of a protein called  Leave the experiment for two days.
collagen. Collagen makes the bone to be  After two days, observe and record any
flexible or rubbery or elastic. changes in the limewater both in the
experimental tube and control tube.
The inorganic component  Rinse the bones and try to bend them.
 Dry the bones in the sun. When they
These comprise are dry and cool, weigh them again and
i. Calcium phosphate record the results.
ii. Calcium carbonate
Expected results
Calcium in bones makes the bones to be After two days the limewater turns milky.
hard. The bone with inorganic component This means the mixture of hydrochloric
only (calcium) without collagen becomes acid and the bones in the test tubes
brittle hence easily breaks. The bone with produce carbon dioxide. The mass of the
the organic component only (collagen) bones decreases showing that part of the
becomes more elastic and rubbery. bones dissolves in the hydrochloric acid.
Experiment
The bones are hard before soaking in the
Describe an experiment that could acid. But after soaking in the acid for two
be carried out to show composition days they become rubbery because the
of a bone. hard inorganic component dissolves in the
hydrochloric acid.
Materials
4 large test tubes, 2 glass delivery tubes, Conclusion
dilute hydrochloric acid, lime water, triple From the experiment we may conclude
beam balance and fresh bones. that the bones consist of two parts; hard
substance and soft spongy substance. The
Procedures hard substance consists of calcium which
 Take some pieces of fresh bones and has reacted with the acid thereby
weigh them. Record the results. producing Carbon dioxide while leaving
 Now place the bones in a test tube and soft spongy substance which consists of
cover them with dilute hydrochloric collagen to become rubbery.
acid.
 Fix the delivery tube to another test
tube containing limewater as shown
below
Classification of bones

50
1. Long bones – such as bones of the front they are attached by the costal
arms, legs, hands and feet. cartilages to a bone called sternum. All the
2. Short bones – such as bones of wrist ribs join with the thoracic vertebrae.
and ankle.
Each rib ridges to which the intercostal
3. Flat bones – these include the ribs, muscles are attached. The costal cartilage
shoulder blades, hip bones and cranial allows the rib cage to expand and contract
bones. without causing friction between the ribs
4. Irregular bones – these include the and sternum during breathing.
vertebrae and facial bones.

Vertebral column
The human skeleton The vertebral column (spinal column or
The main divisions of human skeleton are; backbone) is made of individual bones
a. Axial skeleton
called vertebrae arranged as a curved
b. Appendicular skeleton
rod.

Axial skeleton There are thirty three (33) vertebrae in

This region is made of the skull, ribcage total.
and vertebral column. These structures - Cervical – 7 vertebrae
form the main centre of the body. - Thoracic – 12 vertebrae
- Lumbar – 5 vertebrae
- Sacral – 5 vertebrae
Skull - Coccygeal – 4 vertebrae
The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and
14 facial bones. The cranial bones form the The vertebral column supports the skull
brain case – lined with meninges that and limb girdles. Neural canal is a cavity
encloses and protects the brain, eyes and that runs through the centre of each
ears. The bones are fused together at lines vertebra forming a space in the vertebral
(joints) called sutures. column through which the spinal cord
runs.

Functions of vertebral column

i. Provides centre of attachment for
pelvis and rib cage.
ii. Support the head.
iii. Protects the spinal cord from
external physical forces.
Structure of vertebra

Rib cage
The rib cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs
and sternum. The ribs form a curved bony
cage around the heart and lungs. At the

51
Functions of parts of vertebra
Thoracic vertebrae
1. Neural spine Hold the ribs by their long transverse
Used for ligament and muscle process, long neural spine which point
attachment. backwards.
2. Transverse process
Used for ligament and muscle
attachment.
3. Centrum
This structure resists compression and
produces red blood cells.
4. Neural canal
Passage of the spinal cord.

Appendicular skeleton
It consists of bones of the pectoral and
pelvis girdle. The girdles form a rigid Lumbar vertebrae
system of attachment of the limbs. These  Provide points for muscle and
girdles absorb any stress that the limbs ligament attachment.
may experience.  Support the body mass.
The limbs are arms and legs. The arms are  Withstand external physical forces.
attached to the pectoral girdles. The legs
are attached to the pelvic girdles. Have the following adaptations
i. Broad and thick invertebral discs.
ii. Broad and thick transverse
Groups of vertebrae and process.
their functions iii. Their neural spines are broad and
thick.
Cervical vertebra iv. Has greatest curvature.
Form the neck by small vertebrae, very
small neural spines and absence of
transverse process.
Have atlas that allows nodding of the
head since there is hollow onto which
fit the two swelling of the head.
Have axis that allows lateral movement
of the head because of presence of
odontoid peg.

52
Sacral vertebrae Functions of parts of
Anchors the vertebral column firmly
within the pelvic girdle. movable joint
1. Capsule
Adaptation: the vertebrae are fused Binds the whole joint and keeps it
and flared out to firmly fit into the intact.
pelvic girdle.
2. Synovial membrane
Coccygeal vertebrae
Secretes the synovial fluid that
Are non – functional in human beings.
lubricates the joints thereby preventing
They form a tail in other animals as
friction during movement.
such it is tail bones. The vertebrae are
fused together.
3. Cartilage
Reduces friction between the ends of
Joints bones during movement.
The place where two or more bones are
attached to each other is called a joint. 4. Ligament
Thus joint is the meeting of bones. Hold the bones at a joint firmly
together.

Groups of joints
Types of joints
Movable (synovial) joints There are four types of joints.
These allow some movement of the
bones. 1. Hinge joints
These are joints that allow movement
Immovable (fixed) joints in one plane only. Hinge joints are
These joints do not allow movement of found in elbow, fingers and knees.
the bones. Immovable joints are found
in the skull and in the pelvic girdle. 2. Ball and socket joints
These joints have greatest flexibility,
allowing movement in all direction.
Structure of a typical They are formed where the upper long
bones of the arms and legs meet their
movable joint respective girdles.
Their rounded end of the femur fits
into a cup – shaped socket in the pelvic
girdle.

3. Fixed joints (sutures)

These are joints where bones are fused
together by collagen. The bones of
skull meet at fixed joints called
sutures.

4. Gliding joints

53
 These are joints that occur where bones Smooth muscle
meet at a flat surface and glide over Smooth muscle is also called
each other, such as ankle and wrist. involuntary or visceral muscle.
Contractions of smooth muscle
therefore occur involuntary. The term
Muscles visceral refers to internal organs, many
Muscle tissue is specialized for of which contain smooth muscle.
contraction. Thus muscle is a flesh part of In mammals, smooth muscle is found
the body. All muscles contain microscopic in the walls of intestine, blood vessels,
fibres called fibrils. Fibrils are made of air passages and bladders.
two kinds of proteins. Such proteins are
actin and myosin. Characteristics of smooth muscle
The muscles are attached to the bones by i. Contracts and relaxes slowly
tough, inelastic fibres called tendons. and steadily does not become
Tendons are made of collagen fibres. tired.
Tendons are very strong and do not stretch. ii. Ideal for the continuous
movement of substances through
the organs of the body.
Characteristics of iii. Has a single nucleus.
muscles Skeletal muscle
i. The ability to contract very rapidly. Skeletal muscle is also called striated
ii. The ability to contract without or voluntary muscle. Skeletal cells are
receiving impulses from the cylindrical and have many nuclei.
nervous system.
Characteristics of skeletal muscle
i. Consists of fibres which are
Functions of muscles crossed with alternate light and
1. Movement dark bands.
Body movements such as walking, ii. Becomes tired. Its contractions are
breathing as well as movements quick, strong and usually
associated with digestion and flow of voluntary.
fluids. iii. Its fibres receive branches from
2. Production of heat axon of motor neurons.
The heat is produced to maintain Cardiac muscle
normal body temperature. Cardiac (heart) muscle is striated5.
3. Body support and posture.
Characteristics of cardiac muscle
i. Its fibres are branched and
How actin and myosin connect with one another.
make muscle contract ii. Has structure that allows nerve
The actin and myosin molecules can slide impulses spread throughout.
past each other which make the muscle iii. The whole tissue coordinates its
contract. This uses energy which comes contractions.
from ATP made in respiration. iv. It never becomes tired and is
involuntary.

Types of muscles
5
Having long thin lines i.e. strips of colour

54
 Design an experiment to find out
How muscles and bones
how antagonistic muscles work to
bring about movement help you move your limbs.
a. Attachment of muscles to bones.
Skeletal muscle is attached to the You will need; an object weighing 2 kg
bones by tendons. When the skeletal and material for taking notes.
muscle contracts it pulls bone towards
it, the muscle in the other side of the Procedures
bone contracts to return the bone to its  Work with a partner to design a
position. simple investigation.
b. Antagonistic muscle is the skeletal  Put your two hands on the front
muscle that contracts on one side of the and back of your upper leg either
bone while causing relaxation of standing or sitting.
another muscle called agonistic  Then how the muscles contract and
muscle. relax as you swing your lower leg.
The skeletal muscle that is relaxed on
one side of bone due to contraction of Expected results
another skeletal muscle on other side is You should observe if the muscles on both
called antagonistic muscles. sides contract at the same time. You
The pairs of the muscles that relax and realize that they are not.
contract are antagonistic muscles.
Conclusion
Examples of skeletal muscles When you move your lower leg forward, it
(antagonistic muscles) are; biceps and is the muscles in the front of the thigh and
triceps muscles of the upper arm and hip contract. As you move your leg back,
leg. These muscles are called the muscles at the back of the thigh and
antagonistic muscles because they are hip contract, while those on the front part
found in pairs and work in opposition relax.
to each other. Why is this so? Question for you! You
can discuss with your colleague.
When the biceps muscle contracts, it
causes relaxation of the triceps muscle.
When the triceps muscle contracts, it Locomotory structures in
causes relaxation of the biceps muscle. fish
Locomotory structures in fish are fins that
How is the arm raised? enable locomotion.
The biceps contract to pull the arm up
while the triceps relax thereby raising the
arm.

How is the arm lowered?

The triceps contract to pull the arm down
while the biceps relax thereby lowering the
arm.
Experiment

Locomotion in fish

55
Water is much denser therefore more
difficult to move through. However, water How fish is adapted for
provides better support for locomotion locomotion
structures to push against. When a fish i. Streamlined in shape that help
moves in water, it is slowed down by:
reduce resistance of their body through
 Water resistance (friction) between its the water and overcomes weight.
surface and water. ii. Presence of scales
 Turbulence – formation of eddies and  Smeared with layers of mucus to
irregular pattern of flow in the water. overcome drag.
Water resistance and turbulence create
 which overlap backward to reduce drag
slowing down called drag.
during locomotion.
Movement of fish through water is brought iii. Light weight that is, less dense than
about mainly by the powerful muscles of water.
the tail. In most fish over 50% of the total iv. Presence of swim bladders in
body mass is made up of the tail. The other species
powerful muscles on either side of the This makes them buoyancy.
vertebrae of the tail contract alternatively v. Water – current mechanism
making the body move from side to side. This mechanism is achieved by the
process called osmosis. The water that
1. Propelling enters and leaves the inside of fish
This is movement that pushes water enables locomotion.
backwards and in so doing pushes the
fish forward. This is done by powerful
muscles of tail and all other fins. Locomotory structure in
2. Rolling
bird
The birds use feather for locomotion, thus
The fish is kept stable and upright by
feathers are locomotory structures in birds.
the paired fins and median fins such as
dorsal and ventral, which prevent the
fish from rolling. There are three types of feathers
namely;
3. Pitching
This is the change of an angle in fish. It  flight feathers
is done by median fins (dorsal and  down feathers
ventral fins).
 contour feathers
4. Yawing
It is jumped movement of fish. It is
controlled by the paired fins.

Most fish are also assisted in changing

depth by the presence of a swim bladder
which, when full with air allows the fish to
rise and when less full allows the fish to
sink. In general the fins control stability
and direction of the fish.

56
 Locomotion in birds
Flying birds remain airborne only as long
as they are lifted by forces a least equal to
1. Quill; attaches muscles to change their body weight. These forces are called
the angle of the feather. lift.
2. Shaft has barbules containing
hooks that catch on to the grooves
of the barbules.
The significance of lift in
3. Vane consists of outer edges of a birds
feather called primaries and inner  Overcome the force of gravity
edges of feather called  Allow the birds to remain afloat in
secondaries. the air.
4. Wing coverts are rows of smaller
feathers that smoothly overlap the
Birds fly in two ways:
flight feather top and underneath 1. Flapping in birds
the wing. 2. Gliding
Flapping in birds
Birds have two pairs of antagonistic
muscles called pectoralis muscles that
Functional differences bring about flapping of the wings in birds.
between flight feathers As such pectoralis muscles are flight
muscles in birds.
and down feathers The pairs of pectoralis muscles are;
 Flight feathers are used for locomotion
a. Pectoralis minor – pectoralis
in birds since they help in flight of
elevator muscle.
birds while down feathers cover the
b. Pectoralis major – pectoralis
whole body of the birds.
depressor muscle.
Flapping in birds causes strokes in birds.
Structure of a wing of a
bird Upstroke
When the pectoralis minor contract the
The wing of the bird is equivalent to the pectoralis major are forced to relax and
human arm. However, bird’s wing forms wings are raised. As a result there is no
the bastard wing that attaches out in front. upthrust below the wings and the force of
gravity pulls down the bird so that it loses
height.

57
Down stroke
When pectoralis major contract the
The shape of an aerofoil is such that air
pectoralis minor are forced to relax hence
flow across its upper surface moves faster
the wings are lowered. As such, the air
than air that moves its lower surface. Then,
resistance below the wings produces an
the faster moving air has lower pressure
upthrust on the wings. This force is spread
than slower moving air which has high
through the coracoid bone to the sternum,
pressure. As a result, the faster moving air
thus lifting the birds. The down stroke
creates a zone of low downward air
allows the birds to gain height.
pressure while the slow moving air below
aerofoil creates a zone of high upward air
pressure in order to overcome force of
gravity.

How birds are adapted

for locomotion
1. Streamlined shape
Gliding
During gliding air currents are created  Wings have this shape that creates air
either by; currents at the surfaces of the wings to
i. Gliding downwards at an angle provide a lift to the birds to overcome
through the air with wings drag. Tips of feathers point backward
outstretched. in the same direction as the flow of air.
ii. Or heading into wind currents.  Bodies have this shape that reduces
The secret in gliding in birds is the shape drag caused by the resistance of air.
of the wing which is streamlined that
creates air currents. This streamlined shape 2. Presence of hollow in bones and
of the wing is called aerofoil. quills that make them to be lighter in
weight as such, they easily overcome
gravity.

3. The flight and down feathers

 Trap air using their large surface area
and air sacs which when filled with air
reduce the average density of the birds.
 Provide enough insulation to the bird.
At around 41℃ the temperature of a

58
 bird is higher than most of warm – sufficient energy for flight that
bodied animals. The higher provides lift to overcome force of
temperature means that the flight gravity.
muscles work more efficiently.
5. Good vision of sight; to detect
4. Presence of strong and powerful changes in the environment during
pectoral muscles for producing locomotion.

59
Topic 6 digestive system
Principal function of
digestive system
Change complex organic nutrient
molecules into simple organic and
inorganic molecules that can be then be
absorbed into the blood or lymph to be
transported to cells.

Division of digestive
system
1. Alimentary tube (canal)
It consists of oral cavity, pharynx,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine Digestion
and large intestine. This is a process by which food is broken
down into soluble form for easy diffusion
2. Accessory organs of digestion and absorption.
It consists of teeth, tongue, salivary
glands, liver, gall bladder and
pancreas. These organs contribute Types of digestion
something to the digestion process.
There are two types of digestion namely;
i. Physical (Mechanical) digestion
ii. Chemical digestion
The human alimentary
canal
This is a long hollow muscular tube that Physical digestion
runs from mouth to anus.
This is the breaking down of large pieces
The significant functions of the of food into smaller pieces by exerting
alimentary canal; external physical forces onto the food.
i. Food digestion Example of physical digestion is chewing.
ii. Food absorption into
bloodstream
Regions along the alimentary canal
where physical digestion occurs
Parts of human
1. Mouth
alimentary canal In the mouth food is chewed and
mixed with saliva by the action of

60
 teeth. Chewing reduces the food to When the food is taken into the mouth is
suitable sizes for swallowing and mixed with saliva. This saliva;
increases the surface. i. Softens the food so that it is easily
2. Duodenum digested physically by the teeth
and tongue.
The bile from the liver is poured
into the duodenum that physically ii. Contains an enzyme ptyalin which
breaks down drops of fats into chemically digests cooked starch
droplets of fats. This process is into maltose.
called Emulsification. iii. Makes food slippery due to the
mucus so that it is easily
Advantages of physical digestion swallowed.

i. Ease swallowing; makes the food

to be in form which can be easily
swallowed.
ii. Produce small surface area;
smaller pieces of food, it increases
the surface area of food on which
enzymes act during chemical
digestion.
Oesophagus
Behind the trachea is the oesophagus
Chemical digestion (gullet) which takes food down to the
This is the breaking down of large stomach.
molecules of food into new and smaller As you swallow, a piece of cartilage called
molecules through action of enzymes.
epiglottis covers the entrance from the
Advantages of chemical digestion
mouth into the trachea called glottis, this
It makes food to be in such a form of small stops the food from going into the trachea.
molecules that can be absorbed into As a result food goes into the oesophagus.
bloodstream for body use.
The oesophagus is lubricated with mucus
produced by it.
Remember that, there is no digestion of
Digestion in different food in the oesophagus.
parts of the alimentary
canal Stomach
It is an elastic sac with many glands. Its
Mouth
lining has many folds called rugae which
In the mouth there are salivary glands that flatten to let it enlarge. Its walls secrete a
produce saliva which is secreted into the
mouth through salivary duct. The saliva is digestive juice called gastric juice which
a mixture of water, mucus and enzyme contains mucus, hydrochloric acid (𝐻𝐶𝑙)
ptyalin (salivary gland).

61
and enzymes including renin, Emulsification, as such bile emulsifies
chymotrypsin and pepsin. fats.
Mucus covers the inner walls of the Pancreatic juice is secreted by the
stomach thereby protecting them from pancreas. It consists of a salt called
being burnt by the𝐻𝐶𝑙. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate and enzymes
including lipase, trypsin and pancreatic
Hydrochloric acid; (ptyalin) amylase.
i. Brings about the acidic PH The salt, sodium hydrogen carbonate
essential for the enzymes working brings about the alkaline PH essential for
in the stomach. the pancreatic enzymes to work properly.
ii. Kills germs that might be eaten The enzyme lipase chemically breaks
together with food down emulsified fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
iii. Softens hard food particles such
as bones for easy digestion. Trypsin chemically digests polypeptides
into peptides. Pancreatic amylase
Renin in babies coagulates milk into a chemically breaks uncooked starch
semi – solid form. Chymotrypsin breaks (polysaccharides) into maltose.
down a milk protein in babies called
Caseinogen into Casein. Pepsin
chemically digests proteins into
polypeptides.

Duodenum
Two secretions are made into the
duodenum.
i. Bile
ii. Pancreatic juice

Ileum
Its walls secrete a digestive juice called
intestinal juice (Succus Intericus) which
is composed of enzymes such as maltase,
peptidase, sucrase, lactase and cellulase.
 Maltase breaks down maltose
into glucose.
Bile is produced by the liver but stored in  Peptidase breaks down
the gall bladder. Bile consists of iron and peptides into amino acids.
salt called sodium bicarbonate. Bile  Sucrase breaks sucrose into
physically breaks down drops of fats into glucose and fructose.
droplets of fats. This process is called

62
  Lactase breaks lactose milk 4. Have enzymes that chemically break
sugar into galactose. down large food molecules into simple
food molecules.
 Cellulase breaks down
cellulose in vegetables into
glucose. Adaptations of small intestines
to the function of food
absorption
Food absorption 1. Length; is very long to increase the
surface area for food absorption.
Soon after chemical digestion is
completed, the small intestines tend to 2. Highly folded to increase the surface
have a higher concentration of food area for food absorption.
substances than the surrounding blood 3. Have finger – like projection called
capillaries. End products of chemical villi that increase the surface area for
digestion therefore move by Diffusion and food absorption. The villi are the actual
Active transport from the small intestine sites on which food absorption takes
into bloodstream in surrounding blood place.
capillaries. This movement is called Food
Absorption.
The end products are then carried away in
the capillaries to the liver through The structure of the villi
Hepatic Portal vein. The liver changes
any of the digestion products. The digested
food then reaches the general circulation.

Functions of the small

intestine
There are two functions of small intestine:
i. Digestion of food
ii. Absorption of food substances

Adaptations of small intestines

Adaptations of villi to their
to the function of digestion
function
1. Length; is very long to increase the
surface area for food digestion. i. Thin walls; have extremely thin
walls, only one cell thick to make
2. Highly folded to increase the surface diffusion of food substance faster.
area for food digestion.
ii. Presence of mitochondria;
3. Have an alkaline PH, essential for their cells have mitochondria that
proper functioning of the intestinal provide energy for food absorption
enzymes. that is, active transport.

63
iii. Dense network of blood glycerol and is either sent to
capillaries that bring more blood connective tissues or under the
into which more food substances skin for storage.
diffuse.
iv. Bile production, cells in the
iv. Permeability; have a more liver make bile and stored in
permeable lacteal into which fatty the gall bladder. The green
acids and glycerol diffuse. colour of the bile results from a
pigment bilirubin from the
Large intestine (colon) breakdown of haemoglobin of
worn out red blood cells.
i. Absorption of water
v. Stores iron as red blood cells
ii. Absorption of mineral salts
break the iron from their
haemoglobin is stored in the
liver.
Fate of food substances vi. Formation and excretion
of bilirubin the liver contains
after absorption macrophages that engulf and
digest old red blood cells.
Assimilation Bilirubin is then formed from
the haemo portion of the
That is, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids
haemoglobin. The liver also
and glycerol, vitamins, mineral salts and
removes bilirubin in blood
water are used up in the body in various
formed in spleen and red bone
metabolic processes in the body.
marrow and excretes it into bile
to be eliminated in faeces.
Liver related functions to
digestion Figure below shows an experimental set
i. Control of protein level up to relate permeability of visking to
through Deamination and small intestines.
Transamination.
Transamination is a process by
which the liver converts one
form of amino acid into another
form of amino acid.
ii. Control of carbohydrate
level, the liver removes excess
glucose from the blood and
stores it as glycogen. When
glucose concentration falls, the Observation
liver converts some of its stored
The visking tube has semi – permeable
glycogen into glucose and
membrane. After some time visking tube
releases it into the bloodstream.
will inflate. This happens because water
iii. Control of lipid level in the diffuses into visking tube across semi –
body, the liver chemically permeable membrane. Water has small
changes excess fatty acids and particles than water solution hence moves

64
into visking tube. The level of water in the work properly in a human
beaker will decrease. being is 37±10C. Higher
temperature denatures
enzymes.
v. Affected by PH
Enzymes
Enzymes are affected by PH.
Enzymes are biological catalysts. Enzymes The PH at which an enzyme
are categorized as intracellular and works best is called Optimum
extracellular enzymes. Digestive PH.
enzymes are called extracellular enzymes
because they work outside the site of their
secretion.
Enzymes are denatured outside their
range.

Properties of enzymes
i. Protein in nature
All enzymes are proteins in Factors that affect
nature since they have long enzyme activity
polypeptide chains folded and
curled into 3-D shape with its 1. Enzyme concentration
active shape fits the specific Supply of enzymes that is, less enzyme
substrate6. – less activity.
ii. Catalyst 2. Substrate concentration
All enzymes are catalyst. A Supply of substrate that is, less
catalyst is a substance that substrate – less activity.
speeds up a chemical reaction 3. Removal of end products
without itself becoming part A buildup of end product will slow the
and parcel of the reaction.
reaction.
4. Presence or absence of co-factor
iii. Specificity or co-enzymes and enzyme
Enzymes are specific in inhibitor such as toxins which are
function because one enzyme
natural inhibitor. They are important
will act only on one substrate
that is, has one function only. in controlling enzyme action.
iv. Affected by temperature 5. Abiotic condition whether they are
Enzymes are affected by available for example, temperature, PH
temperature. The temperature at and salinity.
which an enzyme works best is
called optimum temperature.
For example, the optimum
temperature for enzymes to Investigations on
enzymes
6
Substrate is a substance on which an
enzyme acts on during chemical digestion.

65
 1. The effect of enzymes on food
substances
(i) Tube A
2. The effect of temperature on
Turns into brown colour since
enzymes
there is unboiled saliva in
3. The effect of PH on enzymes which salivary amylase is not
4. Presence of enzymes in food denatured, hence, breaks starch
sample e.g into glucose.
 Germinating seed (ii) Tube B
 Pineapples Turns into blue black since
there is boiled saliva. The
5. Presence of enzymes in the liver
enzyme in saliva is denatured
by boiling it.

Experiments on enzymes
Experiment 2:
Experiment 1: Optimum PH for enzymes
To investigate the property of enzyme

Tube A contains unboiled saliva and starch Enzyme A is most likely to be secreted by
solution. Tube B contains boiled saliva and the stomach. Enzyme B is secreted by
starch solution. pancreas. The activity of enzyme B at PH 2
The property being investigated in the fails because it is denatured. This enzyme
experiment is temperature. Enzymes are B works best in alkaline PH only.
affected by temperature. This graph tells that enzymes are affected
After 10 minutes the contents were tested by PH.
for starch, the colour changes would be
observed; Experiment 3:
Describe an experiment that
could be conducted to show
that germinating bean seeds
contain enzyme that digests
starch.
Materials

66
  2 test tubes, water, germinating  Use glowing splint to test for the
bean seeds, iodine solution and presence of oxygen.
benedict’s solution.
Results
Water is used to activate enzyme in
The enzymes in liver will break the
germinating seeds in order to convert
hydrogen peroxide into hydrogen and
stored starch into glucose for growth of
oxygen molecules. The glowing splint
shoots and radicle.
bursts into flames.
Procedures
Conclusion
 Soak the germinating bean seeds in
The glowing splint relight proves that gas
water about 2 – 3 days.
produced is oxygen from hydrogen
 Crush the bean seeds and put them peroxide has been broken down by
into different test tubes that is tube enzymes in liver cells.
A and tube B.
 Add few water to both test tubes.
 Test both tubes for starch and Abnormal conditions
reducing sugar using other test
tubes. associated with the
Results digestive system
When testing for starch the extract will
stain brown colour but when testing for 1. Diarrhoea
reducing sugar the extract will turn into
This is a condition in which an individual
brick red, orange colour.
passes watery faeces. It is caused by virus
Conclusion or bacteria. When the virus or bacteria
Enzyme in germinating bean seeds break attacks the inner lining of the digestive
starch into glucose. Thus, one test tube tract, its walls become irritated. This forces
stains brown colour showing absence of the inner walls to secrete more mucus as
starch. well as contract and relax more frequently
and vigorously.
The more frequent and vigorous
Experiment 4: contraction forces the food to move fast
Extracting and testing for the along the digestive tract so much that the
large intestine has no time to absorb the
presence of enzymes in living water. The faeces therefore become
cells (tissues) watery.
Procedures
Signs and symptoms
 Crush the liver tissue into small
pieces  Vomiting

 Add small amount of water  Fever

 Decant  Blood in stools

 Collect the extract  Watery faeces

 Add Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) Treatment

67
  Oral Rehydration formula e.g. walls of the stomach thereby creating
Thanzi ORS to replace the water and painful wounds. These wounds are called
mineral salts in the body. Ulcers.
 Antibiotics e.g. Tetracycline and The condition arises as a result of either
deoxycline to kill the virus and  Failure to produce mucus an
bacteria. adequate quantities to cover all parts
of the stomach in order to effectively
2. Constipation protect them from 𝐻𝐶𝑙.

This is a condition in which the faeces  Producing too much hydrochloric

become too hard. acid so much that mucus fails to
withstand its effect.
Causes
5. Nausea
 Suppressing the reflex defaecation
for too long so much so that more This is a general condition in which the
water is absorbed from the faeces by alimentary canal is upset so much that an
the large intestine. individual loses appetite and feels to eat. It
is a psychological problem.
 Eating too much over refined food.
This food has little or no dietary fibre
which stimulates digestion.
Revision questions
3. Indigestion
1. State two adaptations of a villus to
This is a condition in which too much its functions.
hydrochloric acid is produced in the
2. Explain why small intestines are
stomach due to eating the food too fast.
long?
Some of this hydrochloric acid is belched
up into the oesophagus where it causes a 3. In which part of alimentary does
burning sensation called heart burn. physical digestion end and why?
4. Describe the process of diffusion in
Treatment relation to digestion.
Use antacid such as Drews to 5. Digestive enzymes are called
neutralize the acidity. extracellular enzymes. Why is it so
by justifying your answer with
examples?
4. Ulcers
This is a condition in which hydrochloric
acid (burns) eats up the tissues of the inner

68
Topic 7 human circulatory system

Human circulatory Components of blood

system system
The function of the circulatory system is to There are three components of blood
link the exchange surface such as lungs, system namely;
guts and kidney to the tissues so that both
a. Blood vessels
essential and metabolic wastes are
transported faster between the two b. Heart
surfaces. c. Blood
The circulatory system is, therefore, a
transport system.
Blood vessels
These are pathways of blood round the
Types of transport body.
system
There are two types, namely; Types of blood vessels
i. Blood system There are three types of blood vessels
ii. Lymphatic system namely;
i. Arteries
Blood system ii. Veins
iii. Capillaries
General functions of blood
1. Transportation
Arteries
 Food substances from the guts to the
respiring tissues. The function of arteries is to carry blood
from the heart to all parts of the body.
 Oxygen from lungs to the respiring
cells. Facts about arteries
 Hormones from the endocrine glands i. Have thick elastic walls to
to the target organs. withstand great pressure of
blood since it is under the
2. Removal; metabolic wastes such as pumping force of the heart.
carbon dioxide and urea are removed
from the respiring cells to the excretory ii. All arteries carry oxygenated
organs such as lungs and kidneys blood except pulmonary artery
respectively. which carries deoxygenated
blood.
3. Protection body defence against
infection. iii. The blood is bright red in
colour due to the presence of
4. Regulates body temperature. oxygen.

69
 iv. Blood flows in spurts Characteristics of capillaries
v. Have narrow lumens. i. Have narrowest lumens
vi. The largest artery is aorta . ii. Are the smallest
vii. Have no valves at intervals. iii. Are the shortest
iv. Have extremely thin walls –
only one cell thick.

Veins
The function of veins is to carry blood
from all parts of the body to the heart.
Facts about veins
i. Have thin walls with less
elastic in them since the blood Above characteristics of capillaries enable
has low pressure as the them have large surface area on which
pumping force is not felt in more substances are exchanged between
veins. them and the tissues. Being one cell thick
makes diffusion of the substances to be
ii. All veins carry deoxygenated faster.
blood except pulmonary vein
which carries oxygenated
blood. Heart
iii. The blood is dark red in colour Heart is made up of a special type of
due to the presence of carbon muscle called the Cardiac muscle which
dioxide. never tires throughout one’s life.
iv. Blood flows smoothly. The heart has its own system of blood
v. The largest vein is called supply called the Coronary (system)
vena cava . arteries. They bring food and oxygen for
the heart.
vi. Have wider lumens.
vii. Have valves at intervals that
stop blood from going back Function of the heart
since the flows on its own in
The primary function of the heart is to
veins.
pump the blood through arteries,
capillaries and veins. The heart is therefore
Capillaries a pump that keeps blood circulating
properly.
They form bridge between arteries and
veins.
Location of the heart

70
The heart is located in the thoracic cavity Pumps blood a longer distance to all
between the lungs. It is enclosed in the parts of the body. For this reason, left
pericardial membranes. However, outside ventricle is thicker than right ventricle
the heart are fluid – filled cavities called in order to be able to force the blood
pericardial cavities that are filled with through a longer distance.
pericardial fluid which cushions the heart
thereby minimizing friction between the 5. Right ventricle
heart and thoracic (chest) cavity. Pumps blood a shorter distance to the
lungs. It has less thick walls.
Note
The left hand side of the heart carries
oxygenated blood while the right hand
side carries deoxygenated blood.
6. Valves
The valves found in the heart are;
a. Tricuspid valve – found
between the right atrium and
right ventricle.
b. Bicuspid (mitral) valve – found
between the left atrium and left
Structure of the heart ventricle.
1. Chambers c. Semi – lunar valves are found
in pulmonary vessels between
There are two upper chambers called right and left hand side of the
Atria (Auricles). There are also two heart. They are also called
lower chambers called Ventricles. aortic valves.
2. Septum
One atrium and one ventricle on the
right hand side of the heart are
separated from one atrium and one
ventricle on the left hand side of the
heart by a muscle called Septum.
3. Atria How the heart works
The function of atria is to receive Ventricles contract that is, shorten. This is
blood. The atria are less than
called a systole. The systole creates high
ventricles, that is, ventricles are thicker
pressure called systolic pressure. It is this
than atria.
systolic pressure that forces (pumps) blood
The other function of atria is the out of the heart to all parts of the body.
production of a hormone involved in The next thing that happens is that the
blood pressure maintenance.
ventricles relax. This is called diastole.
4. Left ventricle Diastole exerts a low pressure called
diastolic pressure. It is diastolic pressure

71
that sucks blood from atria into the
ventricles. Blood circulation in the
During the diastole, blood may also be human heart
sucked from the aorta and pulmonary Blood flows from the head, arms and the
artery just outside the heart and back to rest of the body into the right atrium
ventricles. This is however prevented by through the anterior and posterior vena
the presence of the semi – lunar valves cava. The blood is deoxygenated since it is
inside the heart within both aorta and dark red in colour.
pulmonary artery. The semi – lunar valves
The tricuspid valve opens when the right
stop the blood from going back into the
atrium is filled with blood and allowing
heart due to the diastolic pressure.
the blood into the right ventricle. This
happens because of down wards force of
Blood pressure the tricuspid valve. The right ventricle
contracts and pushes the blood through
One’s blood pressure is determined by the pulmonary artery. The blood is oxygenated
ratio of the systolic pressure to diastolic in the lungs. The contraction of right
pressure, that is, ventricle pushes the tricuspid valve
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Blood pressure = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 upwards thereby preventing blood from
going back. The tendon controls the flow
Blood pressure is the force per unit area of blood.
exerted by the blood against the inner
walls of blood vessels due to the action of The semi – lunar valves in the pulmonary
the heart. Blood pressure is measured in artery prevents the blood from slipping
millimeters of mercury. back. Then the oxygenated blood from the
lungs enters the left atrium through
pulmonary vein. The blood pressure forces
the bicuspid valve to open and allowing
blood into left ventricle. The left ventricle
contracts and pushes the blood into the
aorta. The contraction of left ventricle
creates blood pressure that pushes the
bicuspid valve upwards that is to prevent
blood from going back. The tendon again
controls the flow of blood. Semi – lunar
valves in this case preventing the slipping
back of blood in the aorta.
Factors that affect blood
pressure Heart beat (pulse rate)
This is the number of beats of heart per
i. Heart rate – increased rate minute. Heart beat occurs due to
increases the blood pressure. contraction and relaxation of ventricles. A
ii. Blood volume – increased healthy adult has a resting heart rate of 60
volume increases blood to 80 beats per minute.
pressure.
iii. Peripheral resistance –
decreases vessels diameter
Measuring pulse rate
increases resistance.

72
Pulse rate = systolic pressure – diastolic 4. Viscosity
pressure This means thickness or resistance to
flow. Blood is about three to five times
thicker than water. Viscosity is
Effects of physical increased by the presence of blood
exercise on the pulse cells and plasma protein and this
contributes to normal blood pressure.
rate (heart beat)
i. Increases the rate of heart beat
Composition of blood
ii. Increases the speed at which Blood sample left in a test tube to settle
blood flows appears as below;
iii. Increases the breathing rate
thereby;
o Increasing the amount of Liquid
inhaled oxygen part
o Increasing the amounts of
exhaled carbon dioxide.
Solid
part

Blood However, the actual components are;

This is a liquid tissue consisting of several
types of cells. Blood is a fluid connective i. Plasma
tissue that is pumped by the heart ii. Cells
throughout the vessels of circulatory iii. Platelets
system.
Plasma forms the liquid part of blood
while cells and platelets form the solid part
Characteristics of blood of blood.
Blood has the following distinctive Plasma
physical characteristics; This is a liquid part of blood. Plasma is an
1. Amount aqueous solution of dissolved food
A person has 4 to 6 litres of blood substances (glucose, amino acids, vitamins
depending on his or her size. and excess mineral salts), carbon dioxide,
hormones and antibodies.
2. Colour
The blood is red in colour, however, Functions of plasma
the colour varies. Arterial blood is i. Transport food substances to the
bright red because it contains high respiring tissues.
levels of oxygen. Venous blood is dark
red (dull red). ii. Transport hormones from the
endocrine gland to the target
3. PH organs.
The normal PH range of blood is 7.35
to 7.45, which is slightly alkaline. iii. Transport antibodies round the
Venous blood normally has a lower PH body.
than arterial blood because of more iv. Removes waste metabolic products
carbon dioxide. such as carbon dioxide and urea

73
 from the tissues to the excretory Are produced in red bone marrows of short
organs. bones. A bone marrow is a fatty tissue
Experiment found in the hollows of short bones.
Red blood cells are numerous than white
Describe an experiment that could blood cells. They have also short lifespan.
be carried out to show that blood As such, they are produced at a faster rate
contains glucose content. Your than white blood cells.
answer should include procedures, Red blood cells are red because they
expected results and conclusion. contain a red pigment called
haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is made up
You will need: blood sample, 2 test of iron and protein molecule. ‘Haemo’
tubes, water, benedicts solution, sodium
means iron while ‘globin’ means protein.
citrate and heater.
Old and dead red blood cells are broken in
Procedures the short bones to release the iron that was
 Collect the blood sample and pour part of the haemoglobin while the rest of
them into test tube. the remaining iron is excreted through bile
 Add 2 cm3 of sodium citrate to prevent formation and then faeces.
agglutination of blood. Structure of the red blood cells
 Allow the blood to settle for some
minutes. i. Are disc – shaped that is,
 Pour the liquid part of blood into biconcave in shape.
another test tube. ii. Have no nuclei
 Add 2 ml of benedict’s solution to that
test tube containing liquid part.
 Heat gently and then cool the test tube
with cold water.
 Observe the colour change on the
blood sample.

Expected results
We expect that the blood sample will turn
brick red or yellow colour in the presence Functions of red blood cells
of glucose.
i. Transport oxygen from the lungs
Conclusion to the respiring tissues.
The blood sample that was poured in the ii. Transport antigens. Antigens are
test tube that is, the liquid part is plasma proteins that are found on the
that contains dissolved food substances surface of red blood cells.
including glucose.
Adaptations of red blood cells
for the transportation of
Blood cells
There are two types of blood cells; oxygen
a. Red blood cells Presence of haemoglobin which
has high affinity for oxygen, that is,
b. White blood cells
attracts oxygen.
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

74
 Biconcave shape which increase the
surface area on which more oxygen is
transported.
Absence of nuclei and this increases
the surface area for carrying more
oxygen.

Role of haemoglobin in oxygen

transportation
Haemoglobin has an affinity for oxygen Types of white blood cells
and readily combines with it in conditions There are two main types of white blood
of high oxygen concentration. Such that, cells namely;
oxygen diffuses into the blood from a. Phagocytes
alveoli of the lungs to be attracted and
transported by haemoglobin on the red b. Lymphocytes
blood cells. It forms an unstable compound
called oxy – haemoglobin which,
however, in conditions of low oxygen
concentration readily breaks down and
releases the oxygen. This property makes
it most efficient in transporting oxygen
from lungs to the tissues.

Haemoglobin +oxygen oxyhaemoglobin

Haemoglobin is a protein with iron found
in red blood cells. Phagocytes
They provide body defence by engulfing
and digesting the germs (pathogens).
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Have irregular shape, that is, can change There are two types of
their shapes depending on the
environment. Have nuclei and they work
phagocytes;
outside the blood stream in the infected i. Neutrophils
tissues. ii. Monocytes
They provide body defence against
infection. Irritated by a chemical substance Neutrophils
produced by the infected tissues, the white These are most abundant white blood cells.
blood cell squeezes itself through the tiny They arrive at the site (scene) of infection
pole of the blood capillary and out into the first. They engulf and digest the germs.
tissues. The process by which a white
blood cell squeezes itself out of the blood Monocytes
capillary is called diapedesis. Arrive at the site of infection later after the
Once outside the blood capillary, the white fighting between neutrophils and
blood cell moves between cells by using pathogens. They engulf and digest dead
flow of its cytoplasm. This is called germs, dead neutrophils and dead cells.
phagocytosis. They also engulf and digest any living

75
pathogen that might have remained after Clump (stick) the germs together
the fighting. Thus monocytes, act as so that they fail to live properly.
‘‘Mop up crew.’’ d. Opsonis
Some monocytes reside permanently in Weaken the germs so that they are
connective tissues to act as ‘’ watchful easily engulfed and digested by the
soldiers,’’ such monocytes are called phagocytes.
macrophages. Phagocytes are produced
in Bone marrow. T – Lymphocytes (t - cells)
Produce cell – mediated immunity. Upon
Lymphocytes interacting with a specific antigen they
become sensitive.
Are produced in the lymphoid organs such
as the lymph nodes and the spleen. Types of t – cells
There are two types of i. Memory T – Cells
lymphocytes namely; Remain inactive until future
exposure to same antigen.
i. B – Lymphocytes
ii. T – Lymphocytes ii. Killer T – cells (Cytotoxic T –
cells)
B – Lymphocytes (b - cells) They attack bacteria and tumor
Produce antibody mediated immunity. B (cancer) cells by killing all infected
lymphocytes become sensitive to an body tissues.
antigen. iii. Helper T – Cells (CD4 T – Cells)
Types of b – cells They control the proper functioning
i. Plasma cells of all the immune systems
including the phagocytes, B – cells
Transform plasma enzymes into
and killer T – Cells.
antibodies that provide body
defence against infection. CD4 simply means Cluster Determinate 4.
ii. Memory B – cells
They keep the memory of both the Platelets (thrombocytes)
pathogens and antibodies used to kill
them so that next time they come These are tiny fragments of cells produced
again they should easily and timely by a large cell called the megakaryocyte
be controlled. found in red bone marrow.

Types of antibodies
a. Antitoxins
Neutralize poisonous made by
pathogens in the body.
b. Lysins
Dissolve the germs on contact.
c. Agglutinins Function of platelets

76
Platelets help in formation of a blood clot. Serum
A clot is important in the following ways;
This is a blood without fibrinogens.
i. Stops bleeding
ii. Prevents entry of germs in the
body
Abnormal conditions
associated with the
Formation of clot circulatory system
Damaged tissues and platelets with the 1. High blood pressure (HBP)
help of calcium ions and vitamin K
produce a chemical substance called This is also called hypertension. Some
people have high blood pressure all the
Thromboplastin. Thromboplastin is also
time. This puts an extra strain on the
called thrombokinase, which converts a heart and may lead to heart failure.
plasma enzyme called prothrombin from
High blood pressure pushes the walls
its inactive form to an active form called
of the arteries and may burst them.
thrombin. Prothrombin is produced by This leads to stroke when such
the liver. bursting occurs in the arteries of brain
Thrombin in turn converts soluble blood cells hence the spillage of blood kills
protein called Fibrinogen into an cells in part of brain.
insoluble form called fibrin. This fibrin
forms a network of fibres over the cut or Factors associated with high
wound. It is this network of fibres which is blood pressure
called the clot.
 Over – eating.
Blood is prevented from clotting as it
 Drinking too much alcohol
circulates within the body by an anti-
coagulant.  Stress and tensions of modern
life.
 Smoking.
2. Heart attack
This is the problem in which the heart
cannot contract so that it stops beating.
This is also called cardiac arrest.

Causes
 When a coronary artery is blocked, the
part of the heart to which the coronary
artery serves is deprived of oxygen and
nutrients.
 A clot in the coronary artery.
 A fatty substance called Cholesterol
being laid down in the walls of the
coronary artery also cause coronary
artery blockage.

77
Factors that increase the i. Keeping the body fit through
physical exercises.
chances of heart attack
ii. Healthy living e.g. avoids
 Eating a lot of saturated fats smoking and excessive alcohol.
found in animal foods.
iii. Keeping the body weight at
 Inhalation of carbon monoxide reasonable levels. Reasonable
through smoking. body weight is between 45 –
 Obesity 84 kgs.
These encourage the deposition of
cholesterol in the walls of the arteries.
3. Oedema Lymphatic system
This is caused due to blockage of This is responsible for returning tissue
lymph vessels which results from an fluid to the blood and protecting the body
infection of tiny nematode worms against foreign material. It also contributes
called filarial worms. to homeostasis.
Oedema is swelling up of lymph
because tissue fluid is formed at the Parts of lymphatic
rate higher than the lymph vessel drain
it away. system
a. Lymph
4. Fainting
b. Lymph vessels
The brain relies on oxygen in the blood
to function properly. Fainting can c. Lymphatic tissues – such as lymph
occur when blood flows to the brain is nodes and nodules as well as
reduced. thymus gland.
It is caused by temporary problem with Lymph vessels
part of nervous system that regulates The system of lymph vessels begins as
blood pressure. dead – end lymph capillaries found in most
tissue spaces. They return fluids to the
Preventive measures blood system that would otherwise collect
 Avoid overcrowding conditions in the tissues.
 Lying down to increase blood Lacteals are specialized lymph capillaries
flow to the brain in the villi of the small intestines.
 Avoid dehydration by There are two large lymphatic
increasing fluid intake
vessels;
 Avoid over eating and decrease
1. The right lymph duct
salt intake
Empties lymph into the right
subclavian vein in the neck.
Ways of preventing 2. The thoracic duct
problems associated Empties into the left subclavian
with the circulatory vein in the neck.

system

78
The two subclavian veins empty into the the tissues, bathing the tissues. This blood
vena cava. becomes Tissue Fluid. The formation of
tissue fluid occurs through filtration.
Capillary bed On the venous side of the capillary bed
some tissue fluid goes back into the blood
On one side of an artery branches into capillaries.
smaller arteries called arterioles that
branch further into capillaries. On other This happens because of the
side, the capillaries join together to form following factors;
larger blood vessel called venules that
i. There is low pressure of blood
further join to form another larger vessel on the venous side of capillary
called vein. Such arrangement is called bed.
capillary bed.
ii. Most tissue fluid is water hence
the water moves by osmosis
from the tissues across semi –
permeable walls into the blood
capillaries.

Composition of tissue
fluid
The composition tissue fluid is as follows;
glucose, amino acids, water, oxygen,
hormones, white blood cells and
Reasons for high blood antibodies. All these substances are made
pressure in arterial side up of small molecules that can pass across
i. Pumping force of the heart rises the the wall of a blood capillary.
blood pressure on the arterial side On the other hand, large blood molecules
ii. Blood flows from wider lumen into such as red blood cells and fibrinogen
narrower lumen hence its pressure remain in the blood capillaries.
rises. Functions of tissue fluid
Reasons for low blood pressure i. Provides
in venous side o Food to the tissues.
i. The pumping force of heart is o Oxygen to the tissues.
not felt in veins.
ii. Removes metabolic wastes such
ii. Blood flows from narrower as carbon dioxide and urea from
lumen into wider lumens. the tissues into the blood
capillaries.
Formation of tissue fluid iii. Cleanses dirt and cellular debris,
Blood capillaries leak. They are porous so bacteria and other particulate
that small molecules pass across them. On matter from the cells into the
the arterial side of the capillary bed there is lymph vessels.
high blood pressure. This high pressure
forces some blood to seep out (leak) into

79
 For this reason, the lymphatic
system is also known as the
Lymphoid organs
Drainage system of the body. 1. Tonsils
iv. Transport antibodies. These are pharyngeal, palatine and
lingual tonsils. They function to fight
infection of the nose, ear and throat
Lymph regions.
Lymph is the tissue fluid that is drained 2. Spleen
into the lymphatic capillaries. Located in the upper left part of the
Lymph is found in Pleural membrane and abdominal cavity. It is not vital organ
pericardial cavities. in the adult but assists other organs in
producing lymphocytes.
Collects damaged and old red blood
Lymph flow cells, breaking them down and
There is no pump to make lymph flow. releasing the haemoglobin in them.
Lymph flows because of the following
3. Thymus
factors;
Found in the anterior thorax. This is
a. Gravity the most important gland in children
Pulls lymph from upper parts of the and wastes away as an individual
body. grows through atrophy.
b. Contraction of skeletal muscles
Squeezes onto the lymph vessels, Importance of the
forcing the lymph to flow on.
lymphatic system
c. Valves
i. Provides oxygen to the organs it
Presence of valves along the lymph encloses e.g lungs.
vessels enable lymph to accumulate ii. Provides food substances to the
enough force to let it moves on. organs it encloses.
Lymph (nodes) glands iii. Acts as a lubricant, preventing
Each lymph node has tiny spaces in which friction between surfaces.
the lymph is filtered before it goes to the iv. Provides immunological defence
bloodstream. The lymphatic tissue consists by producing lymphocytes that
mainly of lymphocytes that produce produce antibodies.
antibodies. These antibodies therefore
provide immunological defence.

80
Topic 8 human reproductive system

Reproduction Male Reproductive

Reproduction is one of the most important
characteristics in living organisms for organs
example in multicellular organisms. The external sex organs of male are the
The word reproduction refers to breed penis and the scrotum. The scrotum is a
another organism. In many multicellular pouch that hangs below the penis and
organisms reproduction involves sex7 – contains the two testes which produce
something that is pleasant in feelings. sperm – the male sex cell responsible for
fertilization. The position in which
Reproduction is the formation of new scrotum lies protect the testes from injury
organism from already existing ones. and keeps testes about 3 – 4 ℃ lower than
body temperature. Thus, the temperature
that enables sperms to develop properly
All living things eventually inside the testes.
die, but before dying, some
organisms produce new Parts of male reproductive
organisms of their own kind. organs

Importance of
reproduction
 Maintains existence of species of
organisms on earth.
 Leads to the arising of new species of
organism.

The human reproductive

system
The parts of organs that form reproductive
system are called genitalia.

Functions of parts of the

male reproductive
organs
Penis
7
You can suggest that sex is engaged for The penis is a sensitive organ
several reasons; some being for fertilization and
important to reproduction and
pleasure.

81
 urination as well as to sexual pleasure Transport the sperms from the
– copulation. epididymis through the prostate, after
At the tip of penis is the glans which which the vas deferens becomes the
contains the urethral opening through ejaculatory duct. Here, fluids from the
which urine passes. The ridge that prostate and seminal vesicles combine
separates the glans from the body of with the sperms to form semen – a
the penis is called the corona. thick yellowish white fluid.
The glans and the corona are the most The average discharge of semen called
sensitive parts of the penis. ejaculation contains approximately 300
million sperms.
Foreskin
It covers the glans (the head of the
penis) thereby; Seminal vesicle
 Protects the penis Opens into sperm duct and produce a
 Keeps the glans moist to fluid called seminal fluid which;
prevent it from drying up.  Dilutes the sperms
 Acts as medium in which
Scrotum sperm swim
Protects the testes and help to regulate  Nourishes the sperms.
temperature. The testes are also
primary producers of testosterone
(male sex hormone). Prostate gland
The scrotum can pull up close to the Also opens into urethra and produces
body when surrounding temperature is an alkaline fluid which neutralizes
low and drop farther away when the urine.
temperature is high in order to keep
testes at optimal, constant temperature
somewhat lower than body
temperature. Sperm production
The lining of the sperm producing tubules
in the testis consists of rapidly dividing
Seminiferous tubules cells. After a series of division, that is,
Inside the testes are about 1 000 meiosis, the cells grow long tails and
seminiferous tubules that manufacture become sperms which pass into
and store sperms, thus, the actual site epididymis.
of sperm production. The tissues in this
site undergo the process of meiosis to
form spermatozoa.

Epididymis
This is a long tube coiled against the
testis, where the sperms are stored and
mature. After sperms are produced in
the seminiferous tubules, they move
out of each testis and into the
epididymis.

Sperm duct (vas deferens)

82
During copulation, the epididymis and vas
deferens contract and force the sperms out Female reproductive
through urethra. organs
Sexual organs of a female include the
external genitalia (vulva) and internal
organs that make it possible for a woman
to produce ova (eggs) and become
pregnant. The vulva includes the mons
pubis, the most visible part of the female
external genitalia, which is layer of fatty
tissue that covers the pubic bone and
covered by pubic hair and labia.
The inner labia come together in front to
form the clitoral hood, which covers the
clitoris – a sensitive organ that is very
important to the female sexual response.
Adaptations of sperm for movement
The internal sex organs of the female
 Presence of tail used for swimming consist of the vagina, uterus, fallopian
by flapping it. tubes (or oviducts) and ovaries.
 Presence of a lot of mitochondria
in the middle piece where a lot of
energy is produced during respiration Parts of female
and is used for movement.
reproductive organs
 Streamlined shape that reduces the
drag so that the sperm easily swim in
the semen.

Note;
The middle piece is referred to as the
power house because it produces a lot of
energy during respiration in the
mitochondria, which the sperm uses for
movement.

A sperm cell consists of several parts. The

head contains the 23 chromosomes. On Functions of parts of the
the tip of the head is the acrosome which
is similar to a lysosome and contains female reproductive
enzymes to digest the membrane of an egg organs
cell. Within the middle piece are
Ovary
mitochondria that produce ATP. The tail
provides movement, the capability of the  Site for egg development and
sperm cell to move. maturation.

83
  Produces hormones such as
oestrogen and progesterone.
Vagina
The vagina is a flexible tube shaped
Oviduct (fallopian tube) organ that is the passageway between
This is a tube that transports ovulated the uterus and the opening in the vulva.
egg from ovary through funnel to the Because during birth the baby travels
uterus. The funnel receives ovulated from the uterus through the vagina, the
egg which is then transported by the vagina is known as the birth canal.
oviduct.
Oviduct is the actual site of
fertilization.
The development of an
Adaptations of oviduct for egg ovum in the ovary of a
transportation into the uterus woman
i. Presence of cilia that pushes the
Oogenesis is the process of meiosis for
zygote towards the uterus.
egg cell formation. It begins in the ovaries
ii. Has thick muscular walls that
and is also regulated by hormones.
contract to push the zygote to the
Follicle Stimulating Hormones (FSH)
uterus.
iii. It is extensively folded initiates the growth of ovarian follicles
(or graafian follicles), each of which
contains an oogonium, a stem cell for egg
Uterus (womb) cell production. This hormone also
It is a hollow muscular organ in the stimulates the follicle cells to secrete
pelvic cavity of the female, in which oestrogen, which promotes the maturation
the embryo develops before birth, thus of the ovum. Notice that for each primary
providing a site for pregnancy. The oocyte that undergoes meiosis, only one
zygote is attached (implanted) to the functional egg cell is produced. A mature
uterine wall, as the microscopic ball of ovarian follicle actually contains the
cells. secondary oocyte; the second meiotic
Implantation is the attachment of division will take place if and when the
fertilized egg to the wall of the uterus. egg is fertilized. The production of ova
begins at puberty (10 to 14 years of age)
The cells of the zygote divide to and continues until menopause (45 to 55
produce embryo and beginning of years of age), when the ovaries atrophy
umbilical cord and thin membrane and no longer respond to pituitary
called amnion. hormones.
Remember that, uterus as a muscular
organ has an inner lining called During this 30- to 40- year span, egg
endometrium richly supplied with production is cyclical, with a mature ovum
blood vessels and glands. being produced approximately every 28
days (the menstrual cycle is discussed later
in this chapter). Actually, several follicles
Cervix usually begin to develop during each
The cervix is located at the bottom of cycle. The rupture (ovulation) of the first
the uterus and includes the opening follicle to mature stops the growth of the
between the vagina and uterus. others.

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Ovulation is the release of an ovum Once a sperm nucleus enters the ovum,
changes in the egg cell membrane block
by the ovary. The ovum is released with a
the entry of other sperm. The nucleus of
coating of cells called zona pellucida the ovum completes the second meiotic
and ovum is received into the funnel of division and the nuclei of ovum and sperm
oviduct. fuse restoring the diploid number of
chromosomes in the zygote. The human
diploid number of 46 chromosomes is
actually 23 pairs of chromosomes; 23 from
the sperm and 23 from the egg. By the
time the ball of cells reaches the uterus it
forms embryo and finally becomes firmly
implanted in the uterus wall where it
undergoes mitotic division.

Note
Fertilization in human beings occurs
during sexual intercourse as a man is
sexually excited; the penis stiffens and
lengthens as the blood fills the spongy
tissue of the shaft. In woman, the labia are
filled with blood and swell a little. The
Important swollen labia helps guide the erect penis
Graafian follicle is a liquid into the vagina. The muscle of the vaginal
filled sac. The remaining wall relaxes helping entry. Fluid produced
by the vaginal wall lubricates the
Graafian follicle from which
movement of penis which results into
the ovum is released becomes continuous movement from which
yellow solid called corpus ejaculation occurs. During ejaculation, the
luteum that produces man experiences pleasant feeling called
hormone progesterone. orgasm.
The woman’s orgasm is usually caused by
gentle pressure stimulating the clitoris.

Fertilization and
conception
Although millions of sperm are deposited
in the vagina during sexual intercourse,
only one sperm will fertilize an ovum. As
the sperm swim through the fluid of the
uterus and fallopian tube they undergo a
final metabolic change called
capacitation. This change involves the
acrosome which becomes more fragile.
When sperm and egg make contact, the However, when the ovum is not fertilized
acrosomal enzymes will digest the layers within three days after ovulation, it dies
of cells and membrane around an ovum. upon reaching the uterus. Hence,
fertilization does not take place in the

85
uterus because the ovum is dead by the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is also
time it reaches the uterus. This is followed increasing, but more slowly that helps
by menstruation. in ovulation.
FSH and oestrogen promote the
growth and maturation of the ovum.

The role of hormones in Oestrogen stimulates the growth of

the menstrual cycle blood vessels in the endometrium to
regenerate the functional layer and
The menstrual cycle includes the
develop the rapid growth of cells lining
activity of the hormones of the ovaries and
the uterus. This phase ends with
anterior pituitary gland and the resultant
ovulation, when a sharp increase in LH
changes in the ovaries and uterus. The four
causes rupture of a mature ovarian
hormones involved: Follicle Stimulating follicle.
Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing
Hormone (LH) from the anterior
Luteal phase
pituitary gland, oestrogen from the Under the influence of Luteinizing
ovarian follicle, and progesterone from Hormone (LH), the ruptured follicle
the corpus luteum. The fluctuations of becomes the corpus luteum and
these hormones are shown as they would
begins to secrete progesterone as
occur in an average 28-day cycle.
well as oestrogen.

*A cycle may be described in terms Progesterone stimulates further

growth of blood vessels in the
of three phases: menstrual phase, functional layer of the endometrium
follicular phase and luteal phase. and promotes the storage of nutrients
such as glycogen.
Menstrual phase As progesterone secretion increases,
The loss of the functional layer of the LH secretion decreases, and if the
ovum is not fertilized, the secretion of
endometrium is called menstruation.
progesterone also begins to decrease.
Although this is actually the end of a
menstrual cycle, the onset of Without progesterone, the
menstruation is easily pinpointed and endometrium cannot be maintained and
is, therefore, a useful starting point. begins to slough off in menstruation.
Menstruation may last 2 to 8 days, FSH secretion begins to increase (as
with an average of 3 to 6 days. At this
oestrogen and progesterone decrease),
time, secretion of Follicle Stimulating and the cycle begins again.
Hormone (FSH) is increasing, and
several ovarian follicles begin to
develop.

Follicular phase
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
stimulates growth of ovarian follicles
and secretion of oestrogen by the
follicle cells. The secretion of

86
 During the entire time of pregnancy, the
part of the ovary which produced the egg
continues to control the development of
the uterus and produces a progesterone
hormone which causes the uterus to grow
more muscle and increase in thickness,
while sinuses – (blood filled spaces)
develop to surround the villi of the baby.
Progesterone hormone also inhibits any
further development of other eggs.

Development of embryo maintains

pregnancy as it develops several structures.
The embryo grows and produces new cells
by mitosis, to form tissues and organs.
The first organ to be formed is heart that
pumps embryo’s blood through the tiny
body out by umbilical cord to the villi
and back again. The villi increase to form
Note
Menstruation is simply followed by the the tissue called placenta. Embryo
release of blood and tissues through the develops into foetus when all organs are
vagina and is meant by a period. Blood formed after six weeks.
released during period can be absorbed by
the sanitary towel which the woman wears Notice that, foetus’ kidneys and lungs
as lining to her underwear. will not function until it is born. At 7
months and 2 weeks, the couples should
Ovulation occurs on day 14 but it may stop having intercourse, since there is
occur either day 13 or 15 from counting danger of causing an infection in the uterus
day 1 of menstruation. Ovulated egg has and that would harm the baby.
lifespan of 3 days. Between ages of 40 and The mother gets tired from the mass of the
55 the ovaries lose the ability to release baby. Although the pelvis bone gives
ova. Thus, the woman starts losing support and protection to the foetus,
fertility. The loss of fertility in a woman is abdominal muscles are attached to the
called menopause . lumbar vertebrae and mother may have
backache. Her legs may swell, especially if
she has reduced her activity.

Embryonic development
This refers to the period of pregnancy
which is also called gestation period.
Pregnancy is therefore the time taken for
the embryo to develop into foetus from
conception then into a baby.
This period begins soon after implantation
and ends during the birth of an organism.
It usually takes 9 months (38 weeks) in
humans.

87
 Functions of placenta
Umbilical cord
i. Blood vessels, carries a vein and Forms a barrier
artery from the embryo to the placenta. Placenta separates the embryo’s blood
 Blood in the artery has lower and mother’s blood system. The barrier
concentration of oxygen, amino is important in the following ways;
acids and glucose, and has high  Prevents mother’s high blood
concentration of carbon dioxide pressure from damaging the
and urea. It is dark red in colour. embryo’s delicate blood
 Blood in veins has lower vessels.
concentration of carbon dioxide  Reduces the entry of harmful
and urea, and has high substances into the embryo
concentration of oxygen, amino from mother.
acids and glucose. It is bright in  Prevents agglutination as when
colour. the blood groups of the mother
and embryo are incompatible.
ii. Diffusion – forms the passage of
materials from the mother’s blood to
the embryo’s blood and vice versa. Diffusion
Glucose, amino acids, vitamins, The process of diffusion exchanges the
minerals, water and oxygen diffuse materials such as glucose, amino acids,
from mother’s blood into the embryo’s oxygen, vitamins and mineral salts to
blood. diffuse from mother to embryo. Waste
The waste products such as carbon products such as urea and carbon
dioxide and urea of the embryo diffuse dioxide diffuse from embryo to
from the placenta to the mother’s mother’s blood for excretion.
blood.
Production of hormone
Placenta The placenta produces the hormone
This is the vascular structure in the uterus progesterone which prevents
of the pregnant woman to supply nutrients menstruation and any further
and oxygen to the foetus through the ovulation. The hormone also stimulates
umbilical cord. further thickening of the uterus lining.
Placenta is responsible for respiration and
excretion in the growing foetus. It is
expelled after birth.

88
 This keeps a constant temperature of
Adaptations of placenta the surrounding embryo.
to the function of
diffusion 3. Assists during birth
i. Close contact with a dense It makes the birth canal slippery so that
network of blood capillaries. the baby passes through it easily.
This enables good supply of blood to
carry away and bring in materials for
exchange by diffusion.
Requirements of
ii. Finger like projection called villi
that increase the surface area of a place pregnant woman
for diffusion to occur.  During pregnancy the woman should
iii. Highly folded to increase surface eat balanced and enough diet since
area of the placenta on which a lot of foetus needs proteins, vitamins and
diffusion occurs. mineral salts such as iron, calcium and
iv. Thin membrane for the materials to phosphorus to grow well. Protein is
diffuse faster and easier. used for production of tissues, calcium
and vitamin D for bone development
v. Attachment to the uterus lining to and iron for formation of haemoglobin
supply nutrients and oxygen to the in foetus’ blood.
foetus through the umbilical cord.
 Pregnant woman should visit an
antenatal8 clinic where she is examined
Amnion by the doctor and if goes for treatment
This is the thin inner membranous sac that of any sickness, she should tell the
encloses the developing embryo. It has a doctor that she is pregnant in order not
dense concentration of blood vessels and to be given any medicine that will
aids in the formation of the placenta in harm the foetus.
women.  The woman should avoid drinking
Amnion is filled with a serous fluid called alcohol or smoking. The harmful
amniotic fluid in which the embryo is chemicals in alcohol or cigarette may
suspended inside the amnion. diffuse from mother’s blood into the
embryo’s blood through placenta and
this can lead to miscarriage and
Functions of amniotic fluid sometimes may damage the developing
brain of the foetus.
1. Acts shock absorber  She should also avoid contracting
sexually transmitted diseases. Germs
It cushions the embryo thereby
may also diffuse from mother’s blood
protecting the embryo from external
into the embryo’s blood through
physical forces that may damage the
placenta and attacks the embryo before
embryo.
and after birth.

2. Insulation
The amniotic fluid is an insulator that The process of birth
prevents any exchange of energy
between the embryo and the mother.
8
Pre- birth or prenatal.

89
The month before birth the uterus walls of  Placenta is expelled through the vagina
the mother develop muscle fibres that will with the remainder of the umbilical
be used to expel the baby from the cord. This is called afterbirth.
mother’s body. A few weeks before birth, The umbilical cord is damped near to
the baby turns within the uterus until the where it joins the baby and is cut; the
head points towards the cervix. stump that remains forms the baby’s navel.

The nature of the initial force of birth is As soon as the baby is born, it cries to
almost certainly controlled by the changes make sure it breathes immediately because
in the amounts of hormones, which are even a minute delay in breathing causes
produced by the mother in pituitary gland. brain damage. The baby cries as it
Giving birth takes 12 to 18 hours, but the experiences sudden change in temperature
first born may take longer. The hormone of its surrounding upon birth.
called oxytocin brings about muscular
contraction of the uterus and this occurs in If the fetus is positioned other than head
stages. down, delivery may be difficult. This is
called a breech birth and may involve a
cesarean section which is delivery of
the fetus through a surgical incision in the
Stages during birth abdominal wall and uterus.
Stage 1
 The muscle of the uterine wall begins Note
to contract. The muscular contraction
becomes more frequent and powerful. Babies born before nine months of
This is called labour. pregnancy are described as premature
 The cervix dilates to about 10 cm. babies. They are often kept in incubators.
 The amniotic fluids flow out. This Incubator is a cabinet with controlled
lubricates the vagina. environment that keeps the baby warm and
provides extra oxygen to help in breathing.
Stage 2 Occasionally, pregnancy may be disturbed
 More vigorous contractions of the at an early stage and embryo is expelled
uterine wall pushes the baby and from the uterus either dead or dies
comes out with the head first. This immediately afterwards. This is
contraction is helped by the mother’s miscarriage (or sudden abortion).
abdominal muscles, slowly push the
baby out. The remainder of the body
passes easily. After delivery, the uterus will return to the
 The umbilical cord is tied close to the size it was before pregnancy in about 6 to
baby and cut with a sterile knife or 10 weeks. After 8 weeks, the father and
scissors. mother may resume having intercourse.
The ovary stops producing special
hormone once the baby is born, and
Stage 3 menstrual cycle starts again. However,
 The placenta is still attached to the some women do not resume the menstrual
uterus. Further contractions of the cycle while they nursing their baby.
uterus separate the placenta.

90
Twins
In human pregnancy usually results in the
birth of only one baby since one embryo
develops in the uterus at a time. However,
two embryos may develop at once in the
uterus, each with its placenta and umbilical
cord. The babies born are called twins.

Siamese twins
Types of twins
Sometimes in identical twins, the zygotes
Identical twins
formed do not completely separate and
such embryos are joined at a point. These
These twins arise as one egg is released Siamese twins can be separated through an
from ovary and fertilized by a sperm. The operation at a hospital after their birth. But
fertilized egg then divides into two cells in the case on the diagram operation
forming two zygotes. The zygotes develop cannot be done.
into two separate embryos.
The identical twins have exactly same
genes and alike since they are formed
from one fertilized ovum. They have
same sex either as males or females.

Milk production
Milk production happens soon after birth
and is called lactation. Lactation is the
secretion and ejection of milk from the
Non – identical twins mammary glands. A principal hormone in
promoting milk production and secretion is
These twins are also known as fraternal prolactin, which is secreted from the
twins. They arise when two eggs are
anterior pituitary gland.
produced from the ovary and fertilized by
different sperms and both develop into
Even though prolactin levels increase as
embryos.
the pregnancy develops, no milk secretion
occurs because progesterone inhibits the
Non – identical twins are different from
effects of prolactin. After delivery, the
one another because they have different
genes. However, they may have same or levels of oestrogen and progesterone
different sex. in the mother’s blood decrease, and the
inhibition is removed.

91
 temperature for the baby which is
The principal stimulus in maintaining 37±℃.
prolactin secretion during lactation is the 6. Mother – child bond; breast feeding
sucking action of the infant (baby). provides emotional and psychological
Suckling initiates nerve impulses from benefits to both the mother and the
stretch receptors in the nipples to the baby.
Hypothalamus and the impulses decrease
hypothalamic release of prolactin –
inhibiting hormone and increase release of
prolactin releasing hormone, so more The baby within three days receives thick
prolactin is released by the anterior liquid called colostrum rich in proteins,
pituitary. vitamins and antibodies. Colostrum helps
the baby to be defensive from infections.
Oxytocin causes release of milk into the After six months, the first teeth appear and
mammary ducts through the milk solid food can now be gradually added to
ejection reflex. Oxytocin stimulates the baby’s diet. At this stage the baby’s
contraction of epithelial cells in the breasts, milk intake decreases. This is weaning.
which squeezes the glandular and duct Lactation continues until weaning.
cells and causes milk ejection.

Importance of breast Contraception

This is prevention of fertilization when
feeding over bottled sexual intercourse takes place, thus
feeding prevention of pregnancy from taking place.
1. The colostrum and breast milk Contraception as the prevention of
contain antibodies and living cells pregnancy involves use of artificial
which help to protect the baby from methods and birth – control pills or natural
diseases. The antibodies destroy germs methods.
that may enter body of the baby and
fight early infections such as diarrhoea
and bronchitis.
Methods of
2. Pure and fresh; that its contents are
constantly changed to meet the needs contraception
of the baby. 1. Sheath/ condom
3. Inexpensive; breast milk is cheap A thin rubber sheath is placed on erect
since it is available at the moment it is
penis before sexual intercourse. The sheath
needed, hence baby sucks it at the time
it needs up to the beginning of traps the sperms and prevents them from
weaning. reaching the uterus. The condom is not
4. Ease digestion; breast milk is expensive, easy to use, and does not
digested more quickly and more easily require a prescription.
than bottled milk. It has right
concentration and is naturally diluted. 2. The diaphragm
5. Normal temperature regulation; A thin rubber disc placed in the vagina
breast milk is regulated at a right before intercourse which covers cervix and
temperature, that is, the normal body stops from entering the uterus.

92
3. Spermicides that she predicts roughly when an ovum is
Spermicides are chemicals which though likely to present in her oviducts. She must
harmless to tissues, kill or immobilize abstain from sexual intercourse for several
sperms. The spermicides are in form of days around ovulation.
cream and are placed in the vagina.
Note
4. Intra – uterine device (IUD) Vasectomy and laparotomy are called
A small metal or plastic strip bent into a sterilization. This just involves a minor
loop or coil is inserted and retained in the operation.
uterus, where it prevents implantation of a
fertilized egg (ovum). However, this
method has some implications. Abnormal conditions
5. The contraceptive pill associated with
The pill contains chemicals which have the reproduction
same effects on the body as the
oestrogen and progesterone, when Sterility
mixed in suitable proportions. These This is a state in which an individual is
hormones suppress ovulation and prevent unable to produce the reproductive
conception. The pill should be taken each gametes. Sterility is sometimes caused by
day for the 21 days between menstrual presence of acidic secretion particularly
periods. lactic acid in the vagina and soon as semen
is released all the sperms are killed.
6. Vasectomy
Sterility is also due to failure of the ovaries
This is simple and safe surgical operation
to yield the ova.
in which man’s sperm ducts are cut and the
ends sealed. This means that semen
contains the secretions of prostate gland
Sexually transmitted diseases
and seminal vesicle but no sperms and so These diseases pass from person to person
cannot fertilize an ovum. This method is during sexual activity. These diseases
almost 100 percent effective in preventing include syphilis, gonorrhea among others.
pregnancy.
The sexually transmitted diseases may
7. Laparotomy (tubal ligation) cause the foetus in the uterus to
impairment. Oviduct becomes blocked.
A woman is sterilized by an operation in
The babies are affected in the uterus and
which oviducts are tied, blocked or cut so
may be born blind.
that sperms can no longer reach the ova.
This method is almost 100 percent
effective in preventing pregnancy.
Maternal mortality
This is the death of pregnant woman
8. Abstainance during the delivery perhaps because of
The woman keeps careful record of her diseases that affect reproductive organs or
menstrual cycle over several months so either early pregnancy.

93
 o vaccination against HPV
Fistula
This is abnormal connection between the o undergo pap test
vagina and rectum or bladder. o limit number of sex partner and use
It is caused by complication from surgery, of condom
heredity, injury, radiation and
inflammatory bowel disease including Revision questions
crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.
1. a. State any two things that happen
during the first stage of birth.
Treatment b. Mention two advantages of breast
 Medication feeding. (2007 Maneb)
 colostomy 2. State any five contraceptive methods
and explain how each one works. Your
answer should be in an essay form.
Cervical cancer (2009 Maneb)
It occurs when abnormal cells on the
3. Name the hormone that promotes
cervix grow out of control. It is caused by
thickening of the uterus during
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) through
ovulation. (2014 Maneb)
sexual contact.
4. State two roles played by the amniotic
Symptoms fluid during the development of the
- bleeding foetus.
- pain on the lower belly or pelvis 5. Explain why breast feeding is
- pain during sex
important. Outline five points. (2012
- abnormal vaginal discharge
Maneb)
Prevention and treatment
o surgery, chemotherapy and
radiotherapy

94
Topic 9 Genetics and Evolution I
genes from the sex cell of each parent
Genetics combine during sexual reproduction.
The resulting offspring will be a mixture
Genetics is the study of inheritance. of the characteristics of the parents.
This study of inheritance involves
variation and heredity in organisms.

Importance of genetics
i. Helps in understanding of heredity.
o By investigating how offspring
inherit characteristics from
their parents.
ii. Helps in understanding theory of
evolution.
iii. Introduces new techniques such as
the use of monoclonal antibodies
and genetic engineering.
o Help fight diseases. Exampl es of characters
o Make new products
o Improve food production and i. Skin colour
protect environment. ii. Fatness
iii. Tongue rolling
iv. Blood group
Heredity v. Height
This is a process by which characters are
transferred from the parents to the Principles underlying
offspring.
Mendelian genetics
Organisms acquire characters from their The principles underlying Mendelian
parents. The characters are also called genetics were written by Gregor Mendel in
Australia who taught in a local state school
traits.
and kept bees and flowers in the monastery
Characters are body structures that garden long before anyone had described
DNA to use the word ‘‘gene’’.
make the phenotype.
He carried out a number of breeding
experiments after 1860, pollinating
Inheritance is the transmission of different kinds of peas with pollen from
genetic information from one generation to other kinds of peas as well as their own.
the next.
Inheritance is about the passing of These experiments were carefully
characteristics or traits from parents to
recorded. He described every cross
their offspring. This is achieved when

95
where pollen came from and which type of Phenotype
flowers and plants, which grew white or
purple or brown flowers. This is the final appearance of an organism
due to expression of genes.

Characters always give different

From these experiments, he phenotypes depending on the gene
came up with the following combination.
principles:- For example, grey colour, brown seeds,
1. Characteristics are controlled by pairs tall man etc.
of alleles (genes).
2. Alleles of same gene do not blend.
3. Alleles of same gene pass into separate Homozygous condition
cells during gamete formation. This is a condition in which a pair of
4. Alleles of the same gene are inherited similar genes controls a character. BB and
independently. bb are homozygous condition.
An individual with a pair of similar genes
controlling a particular character is called
Cross homozygote or pure breed.

A cross is a genetic diagram that shows a

means of inheritance of genes by offspring Heterozygous condition
from their parents. This is a condition in which a pair of
different genes controls a character.
Bb is an example of heterozygous
Genetic terms used to condition.

describe crosses
An organism with a pair of different genes
Genotype regulating a particular character is called
heterozygote.
This is a term given to a pair of genes
controlling a character.
Dominant gene
It is, as such called a gene combination for This is a gene that gives its phenotype in
a character, both homozygous and heterozygous
For example; BB, Bb and bb. condition.
A dominant gene is always denoted by
capital letters.
Genes that control a particular character
are represented by the same letter.
However, when a capital letter and small Therefore, BB, GG and HH can be
letter are represented together, it means defined as homozygous dominant.
that the two genes are different that is, Bb.

Recessive gene

96
This is a gene that gives its phenotype in dominance). Such genes are said to be
the homozygous condition only. A additive genes.
recessive gene is always denoted by small
letters.

Modelling genetic
Therefore, bb, gg and tt can be defined as
homozygous recessive. crosses
The results recorded by Mendel can be
Alleles summarized as follows;
These are alternative forms of a gene
which control the characteristics.
Parents: purple flower × white flower
Selfing
This is a process that involves crossing the
filial (F1 generation) to produce next
generation (F2 generation). Filial are
Offspring: all purple flowers
offspring produced after crossing.
Take P to denote a gene for purple flower
and p to denote a gene for white flower
F1 generation then the following cross can be done to
The offspring produced by the parental display how offspring inherited these
generation. genes from their parents.

F2 generation
The offspring of the first filial generation
(F1).

Pure line (breed)

An organism with homozygous
characteristics.

Codominance
This is the genetics of two or more genes
(alleles) that are equally dominant. Such
The next experiment that was taken by
genes are said to be co-dominant genes.
Mendel was to cross (self) the offspring
produced during the first experiment.
Another circumstance where co-
dominance is practical is when a recessive
gene is not fully masked by dominant gene
in a character of an organism (i.e. partial

97
 generation is called the first filial
generation or F1 generation.

In Mendel’s incident the cross produced

F1 generation. F1 generation grow into
adults and produce second filial
generation. F1 generation is selfed to
produce F2 generation which can again be
selfed to produce F3 generation.

Genotypic ratio is determined by the

categories of genotypes such as;
Note; when parents with same phenotype homozygous dominant, homozygous
who are heterozygotes cross, they produce recessive and heterozygous.
offspring with different phenotypes.
For example, the results of Mendel’s
The genetic diagram illustrates the second experiment indicate 1 homozygous
dominant, 2 heterozygous and 1
following important points;
homozygous recessive.
o There is a pair of genes for each
characteristics, one gene from each i.e. genotypic ratio: 1:2:1 (1RR: 2Rr: 1rr)
parent.
o Although, the gene pairs control the
same characters, they may have Phenotypic ratio: The results of
effects. One gene (allele) is dominant second experiment indicate that 25% or ¼
over the other. have white seeds while 75% or ¾ have
o The alleles of each gene are on brown seeds. In other words, there is
corresponding positions. phenotypic ratio of 1:3
(1white seed: 3brown seeds)
Allelomorphic genes are also called
alleles. The word Allelomorphic means This means that if there are 240 plants in
‘alternative form’. the F2,
(i) ¼ of 240 plants have white
seeds
1
The ratio of genotype 4
× 240
60 plants have white seeds
and phenotype of
offspring in monohybrid (ii) ¾ of 240 plants have brown
seeds
crosses up to f2 3
× 240
generation 4
180 plants have brown seeds
The generations formed as an outcome of a
cross are called Filial. Hence the first

98
Question If an X sperm fertilizes the ovum, the
zygote will be (XX) and will grow into a
When a grey cock was mate with a grey
girl. If a Y sperm fertilizes an ovum, the
hen, grey and white chicks were produced.
zygote will (XY) and will develop into a
a. Using G for grey colour and g for boy.
white colour, draw a genetic diagram
to determine the genotype of the There is an equal chance of an X or Y
offspring. chromosome fertilizing an ovum, so the
b. Give the genotypic ratio of the numbers of girl and boy babies are more or
chicks. less the same.
c. If the parents produced 12 chicks, Using a genetic diagram we can show
how many were white? Show your inheritance of sex in human being.
working. (2012 Maneb)

Sex chromosomes
Whether you are a male or female depends
on one particular pair of chromosomes on
each somatic cell called sex
chromosomes since they determine the
sex of an individual.

In females, the two sex chromosomes

called X chromosomes are of same size as
each other.
In males, the two sex chromosomes are of This shows that there are 50:50 chances
different sizes. One corresponds to the for any fertilization resulting into
female sex chromosome which is X production of a male or female offspring.
chromosome and the other one is smaller
which is Y chromosome.
How sex linked
Hereditary, female genotype is (XX) and
the male genotype is (XY). As such, sex is characters are inherited
determined by X and Y chromosomes.
The X and Y chromosomes have other
genes on them that cause sex linked
How sex of a baby is characters to be inherited by the offspring.
Some genetic disorders affect many more
determined at males than females.
fertilization
Sex linkage result from the fact the X
Once meiosis takes place in the female’s chromosome is longer than Y
ovary, each ovum receives one of the X chromosome. Thus, there are genes on the
chromosomes, so all ova are the same. X chromosome which have no
Meiosis in male’s testes results in 50% of corresponding alleles on the Y
the sperm attaining an X chromosome and chromosome.
50% getting a Y chromosome.

99
 2. Red – green colour blindness
The alleles for red – green colour
blindness are recessive. But since they
lie on the section of X chromosome
which is not matched by the Y, there is
no chance of their effects being
suppressed by the dominant allele.

Genes a, b and c are sex – linked to the X

chromosome and they are recessive,
however, they will be expressed in the
phenotype.
3. Hairy ears
Examples of sex linked The gene for this character is inherited
in Y chromosomes and it is
characters particularly males who have hairy ears.
This is so because of Y chromosome.
1. Haemophilia
A few of the genes are carried on the X A carrier is an organism with a
chromosome. One of them is a gene for
blood clotting. The dominant allele of recessive gene in their cells, but has
this gene H allows the blood to clot a normal phenotype.
normally. But the recessive allele, h,
causes haemophilia, a disease where
The sex linked characters are represented
even a bruise or small scratch will go
on bleeding for a very long time. on a pedigree diagram.
There are three possible genotypes that
a woman might have for the Pedigree diagram
haemophilia characteristics.
This is a family tree diagram in which
there is inheritance of sex linked diseases.

There are only two possible genotypes

for a man. This is because the Y
chromosome does not have a
haemophilia or blood clotting gene.

100
 Two bodies called centrioles move to
opposite ends of the cell.
Protein fibres form round each other.
Chromosomes become shorter and
thicker.

Metaphase
Types of cell division The protein fibres arrange themselves
As already stated above, there are two between centrioles into a structure
types of cell division, namely; called spindle.
a. Mitosis The nuclear membrane disappears.
b. Meiosis Pairs of chromatids of chromosomes
arrange themselves on the equator of
the spindle.
Mitosis
This is process by which a cell divides and
Note; the spindle of a plant
splits to give rise to two cells. The new
cells are formed from parent cells called cell forms without the help
somatic cells. of centrioles.
The significance of mitosis is to bring
about growth in multicellular animals,
repair and replacement of damaged or
worn out cells and for asexual
reproduction. Mitosis results into two new
cells that are genetically identical to each
other.

Anaphase
Interphase is the first cycle of cell Chromatids separate and move to the
division before mitosis. Interphase is opposite ends. The cell starts to split.
the preparatory stage of mitosis.

Stages of mitosis
Mitosis occurs in four stages.
Prophase Telophase

101
 The chromatids are now the new This is a process of cell division that gives
chromosomes. They gather into two rise to eggs or sperms. The diploid cell
bunches. A nuclear membrane forms divides and splits into four daughter cells.
around each bunch. Thus, production of sperms and ova is the
The two daughter cells are formed. result of a special nuclear division which
Each cell has the same number of reduces to half, the number of
chromosomes as those of parent cell. chromosomes in the cells. This division is
therefore described as reduction
division.

In ovaries and testes, diploid cells undergo

meiotic division during which their
chromosome pairs recombine and then
separate into different new cells. The
After mitosis the cytokinesis resulting daughter cells are haploid, that
follows to complete cell is, they contain half the chromosome
division. number. These cells are now gametes.

Stages in meiosis

First reduction division

Summary of mitosis Prophase

A cell containing pairs of homologous Chromosomes divide into pairs of
chromosomes in mitosis is called diploid identical chromatids joined to one
cell. The total number of chromosomes in another by centromere.
a diploid cell is called a diploid number Centrioles move to opposite ends of
and such condition is known as diploid the cell. Protein fibres form around
condition. The parent cell and daughter each of them.
cell are all diploid cells formed from
somatic cells.
Late prophase
Chromosomes pair up to form two
chromosomes of a pair called
homologous chromosomes.
Metaphase 1
The nuclear membrane disappears. A
spindle forms between the centrioles.
Homologous pairs of chromosomes
arrange themselves on the equator.
Anaphase 1
Homologous pairs of chromosomes
separate, each chromosome of a pair
Meiosis moves to opposite ends of the cell.

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Telophase 1 meiosis produces genetically
The chromosomes gather into two different cells.
bunches and the cell begins to divide  Chromosome number; in
where new nuclear membrane forms mitosis, chromosome number of
around each bunch. Two daughter cells parent cell is equal in daughter
are formed. cells while in meiosis, chromosome
number of parent cell is halved in
daughter cells.
Second reduction division  Number of cells; mitosis
produces two daughter cells while
Metaphase II meiosis produces four daughter
The chromosomes arrange themselves cells.
on the equator. The nuclear membrane
disappear and new spindles form at  Site of occurrence; mitosis
right angles. occurs in ordinary body cells
(somatic cells) while meiosis
Anaphase II occurs in certain cells in
The chromatids separate and bunch at reproductive organs.
opposite ends of each cell that begins
to divide. The centromeres divide
leading to separation of the chromatids. Chromosomes
Telophase II These are threadlike structure of nucleic
The spindle fibres disappear and a new acids and protein found in the nucleus of
nuclear membrane forms around each the cells.
new group of chromosomes to form Chromosomes are further defined as rod
four haploid cells. shaped structure usually found in pairs in a
cell nucleus that carries the genes that
determine sex and characteristics of an
organism inherited from its parents.

A human body cell usually contains 46

chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.

Homologous chromosomes
These are identical chromosomes that form
pairs. The number of chromosomes in
organisms, however, varies from one
species to another.

Homologous chromosomes cross over at a

point where they exchange genes during
fertilization. The crossing over occurs
because of synapsis in meiosis when
gametes are made.
Summary on comparison between
mitosis and meiosis
Structure of a
 Nature of cells; mitosis produces
genetically identical cells while chromosome

103
 According to the location, gene is
therefore the portion of DNA that codes
for protein or RNA molecule.

A chromosome consists of DNA wound

round a core of protein and folded tightly
into compact structure. The protein
contains strands called chromatids. The
pair of chromatids are joined at a point
called centromere.

A chromosome contains about 10, 000

times its own length of DNA –
deoxyribonucleic acid. Forms of genes
a. Regulatory genes
Functions of b. Structural genes

chromosomes
a. Carry genetic information in the
form of DNA molecules necessary to Facts about genes
produce all enzymes which direct all o Genes are represented by letters of
metabolic reactions. alphabet. The letters act as symbols for
b. Control activities of a living cell that the genes.
is, vital for cell division. o Genes exist in pairs. A pair of genes
controls a character.
Necessary conditions for o Genes are described as hereditary
chromosomes to be seen on the messages.
nucleus under microscope. o Different varieties of genes are called
 Cell division; at this condition the alleles.
chromosomes become shorter and
thicker easily to be seen.
 Application of cell with a dye;
this gives colour to the Functions of a gene
chromosomes for easily be seen. i. Controls characters in an organism.
This happens when instructions are
Genes sent by RNA to the ribosome which
makes a polypeptide chain. These
A gene is a sequence of chemicals which form cell structures and/or enzymes
controls the development of particular controlling character.
characteristics in an organism. ii. Transmits an organism’s hereditary
Genes are found on the Deoxyribonucleic materials.
Acid – DNA molecule. One gene is a iii. Acts as switch in response to local
section of DNA which is a part of the conditions.
chromosome.

104
iv. Dictates how cells specialize that is,
how cells develop.

Nucleic acids

There are two categories of

nucleic acids namely;
1 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
A molecule of DNA consists of two
Acids) chains, strands composed of a large
number of chemical compounds, called
2 RNA (Ribonucleic Acids) nucleotides, linked together to form a
molecules. chain. These chains are arranged like a
ladder that has been twisted into the shape
DNA molecule of a winding staircase, called a double
helix.
DNA molecule is a long chain of
nucleotides.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), a genetic
material of all cellular organisms and most Components of
viruses. nucleotides
In cells, DNA is a double stranded helical Each nucleotide consists of three units
molecule in which the two single stranded namely;
chains are joined together by bonds 1. Deoxyribose – sugar molecule.
between the bases. DNA molecule is 2. A phosphate group
located in chromosome in the part of the 3. Bases – this is a nitrogen-containing
cell called nucleus. compound. Each nucleotide contains
one of four of these nitrogen
containing compounds.
Structure of DNA molecule
DNA is made of two strands, twisted
together into a spiral or helix. The two
strands are linked together through bases
as shown below.

105
The Deoxyribose molecule occupies the
center position in the nucleotide, flanked Functions of DNA
by a phosphate group on one side and a molecule
base on the other.
 Carries genetic materials from
parents to offspring.
The phosphate group of each nucleotide is  Carries the information needed to
also linked to the Deoxyribose of the direct protein synthesis and
adjacent nucleotide in the chain. These replication.
linked Deoxyribose – phosphate subunits  Storage of genetic information.
form the parallel side bars of the ladder.
The bases face inward toward each other,
forming the rungs of the ladder. DNA then combines with synthesized
protein to form long molecule of
chromosome.
Kinds of bases
There are four kinds of bases in DNA
molecule namely;
Protein synthesis is the production
1. Adenine (A) of the proteins needed by the cell or virus
2. Thymine (T) for its activities and development.
3. Cytosine (C)
4. Guanine (G).
Replication is the process by which
DNA copies itself for each descendant cell
The bases have different sizes and shapes, or virus, passing on the information
so that A will only fit next to T, and C will needed for protein synthesis.
only fit next to G. The complementary A sequence of three nucleotide bases,
bases are joined to each other by weak
chemical bonds called hydrogen bonds. called a triplet, is codon (the genetic
code word), that specifies a particular
amino acid.

106
Topic 10 tropisms
Removal of plant tips therefore prevents
Tropism auxin production hence there is no growth
response.
Higher plants are rooted in the ground and
are unable to move from place to place.
However plants move all the time by How tropisms occur
growing towards or away from a stimulus. From the meristems the auxins diffuse to
other parts of the plant where they affect
increase in length and growth of the plant
These growth movements are only in a
cells. Tropisms are caused due to the
part of certain plants and are so slow that
difference in concentration of auxin which
we often cannot see them. Plants move in
is brought about by a particular part of
the response to external stimuli take the
plant.
form of tropisms or nastic
movements.
The following are examples of
stimuli for plants;
A nastic movement is a response by a
plant which is independently to the  Light
direction of the stimulus, e.g. Mimosa
 Water
pudica
For the opening and
example,  Gravity
closing of many flowers in  Chemicals
response to changes in light
 Touch
intensity.

Types of tropisms
A tropism is the plant growth response
which is related to the direction of Phototropism
stimulus. Tropism is also called tropic This is a plant growth in relation to the
responses. direction of light. Plant shoots grow
and so bend towards the stimulus of
light. Plant shoots are therefore,
Plants produce hormones that influence positively phototropism.
their growth responses. The growth
hormones in plants are called auxins.
Plant roots grow and bend away from
The auxins are made in the tips of plant the source of light. Plant roots are said
called meristems. to be negatively phototropism.
A meristem is a region of active cell
division, that is, root tips and shoot tips. Experiment 1:

107
Which parts of a shoot of a
green plant respond to light? Clinostat
This is a piece of apparatus with a clock
Figure below shows three seedlings mechanism inside it.
placed in a box. The seedlings are to be
treated differently. It is adjusted that its cork disc rotates 4
times every one hour. Because of this
rotation, any part of a plant that is attached
to the disc can be given equal stimulation,
by light or gravity.

Experiment 2
Procedures The effects of light distribution
 Obtain a box containing three
newly germinating seeds as on a growing shoot.
shown above. Procedures
 Select two potted plants of similar
 Cut the tip of the first seedling. size and water them.
Cover the tip of one of the
seedlings with a transparent  Place one of them under a
material. Leave the other cardboard box with a window cut
seedling untampered. on one side so that light reaches
the shoots from one direction only
 Allow the light from one side as follows.
and leave the apparatus for
several days.

Expected results
After leaving the apparatus for several
days, the seedling left untampered will
bend much towards the light.
 Place the other seedling in an
identical situation but this time on
a rotating clinostat.

Results
The shoot in pot A respond by growing
towards the light source. The shoot in pot
B will grow vertically without any
curvature.
Conclusion
The seedling produced auxins due to the
stimulus of light that caused its shoots to Conclusion
bend towards the light.

108
Auxin is distributed evenly in pot B. All
parts of the shoot are exposed to the light
by the clinostat. This will expose each side
of the shoot to the light equally.

The mechanism of
phototropism The mechanism of
When a shoot is illuminated from above,
geotropism
auxin is made at its tip and passes equally When a seedling is placed in its
down to the region of the cell extension regular, vertical position with the shoot
that grows evenly and upright. upwards and the roots downwards, this
causes the shoot and the roots to grow
uniformly and vertically because there
The uniform supply and illumination of
is uniform distribution of auxin.
light on a shoot results into uniform
distribution of auxin, hence uniform
vertical growth.

One sided illumination results in unequal

distribution of auxin. The light causes the
auxins to diffuse from the illuminated side
to the dark side of the shoot, that is,
increase in auxin concentration on dark The more auxins are made at the tips of
side. the shoot and root that gather on the
The increased auxin concentration lower side of the shoot and the root
stimulates rapid cell extension on the dark when the seedling is placed with its
side. shoot and root horizontal.

Geotropism (gravitotropism) The higher concentration of auxin on

the lower side of the shoot causes the
This is a plant growth response in lower side grow longer more quickly
relation to the direction of gravity. since there is quicker growth.

When you place a newly germinated Experiment 3

seedling in a horizontal position in the
dark, that is, to avoid the effect of A plant response to gravity.
light, the shoot bends upwards while
roots bend downwards.
The root is said to have positive
geotropism since it grows towards
gravity and the shoot is said to have Procedures
negative geotropism since it grows  Obtain three seedlings of beans
away from gravity. whose radicles are visible.

109
  Put bean seedlings in a small Expected results
aquarium container with slight
Observe what happens to the bean seedling
amount of water at its base.
after some days.
 Observe the seedlings after some
days and draw their appearance. Conclusion
Base your conclusion on the difference of
seedlings before and after experiment.
Explain the difference with your colleague.

Hydrotropism
This is the growth response to the
stimulus of water. Plant roots grow
towards water. They are positively
hydrotropic.
Conclusion
It is seen that seedlings respond to gravity Importance of water for the
even though we place the seedlings in any germinated seeds
position. The roots grow in the direction of i. Activate enzyme in the seed to
gravity. convert starch into glucose for
immediate use.
Experiment 4 ii. help the conversion of proteins to
amino acids
Geotropism in a bean
radicle iii. transport the sugar in solution
from the cotyledons to the
growing regions
iv. expand the vacuoles of newly
formed cells and so cause the root
and shoot to grow and the leaves
to expand
v. maintain the turgor of the cells
and thus keep the shoot upright
and the leaves expanded
Procedures
 Obtain germinated bean seedling vi. provide the water needed for
about 10 mm long. photosynthesis once the plumule
and young leaves are above
 Cover the cork on the clinostat ground;
with wet cotton.
vii. Transport salts from the soil to the
 Pin seedling onto clinostat. shoot.

 Turn clinostat on its side. Switch

on clinostat.

110
 c. Facilitates the roots to grow down
Practical uses of auxin into the soil to get the necessary
i. Quick root formation in cuttings water and mineral salts for the plant
growth.
ii. Quick shoot and bud formation.
iii. Stimulates some plants to produce
fruits. Plant hormones help the fruits
to grow larger and ripen well. For Revision questions
example, many fruits produce the gas 1. Design an experiment that you would
ethane when they are ripening. This conduct to find out the region that
encourages fruits near them to ripen as responds to stimulus of gravity in bean
well.
seedling. (2006 Maneb)
iv. Prevent fruits from producing buds
2. a. Define tropisms
and germinate and allow longer
storage period of the fruits. b. Name the stimulus in geotropism.
v. Kill the weeds on the ground. (2014 Maneb)
3. a. What are ‘auxins’?
b. How does high auxin concentration
affect growth of the following parts
Advantages of tropisms of the plants? (i) shoots (ii) roots.
a. Permit the shoots to take along their (2005 Maneb)
leaves into the finest condition for
trapping sunlight for photosynthesis.
b. The flowers are visible to condition
of the pollination.

111
Topic 11 respiratory system
This is a process by which energy is
released from food in living cells. Thus,
Respiratory system cell use of oxygen for metabolism,
The general term of respiration describes yielding carbon dioxide as waste product.
the uptake of oxygen from the Types of tissue respiration
environment and disposal of carbon
There are two types of tissue respiration
dioxide into the environment at the body
namely;
system level.
a. Aerobic respiration
Respiration at the body system level
involves a number of processes like b. Anaerobic respiration
mechanisms of breathing and exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
capillaries. Aerobic respiration
This is a process by which oxygen breaks
All cells require a continuous supply of down glucose to release carbon dioxide
oxygen and must continuously eliminate a and water.
metabolic product, carbon dioxide.
Energy is the main product while both
On cellular level, it refers to the carbon and water are by – products.
processes by which cells utilize oxygen, Aerobic respiration is catalyzed by
produce carbon dioxide and convert phosphorus and potassium. Aerobic
energy into useful forms in the body. respiration occurs in the same way in
plants and animals.
Types of respiration
There are three types of respiration
namely;
i. External respiration
ii. Internal respiration Anaerobic respiration
iii. Tissue (Cellular) respiration This is a process by which glucose is
broken down in the absence of oxygen to
release energy. Anaerobic respiration
External respiration occurs differently in plants and animals.
This is a process by which air is exchanged
between the atmosphere and lungs. This is
also known as Breathing or Ventilation.

Internal respiration
This is a process by which oxygen diffuses
from the blood or tissue fluid into tissues
(cells). This is a gas exchange between the
blood and cells. Anaerobic respiration in
mammals
Tissue respiration

112
Glucose is broken down to release less
energy and lactic acid.
Glucose Energy + Lactic acid
C6H12O6 210 Kj + 2C3H6O3

Anaerobic respiration in plants

Glucose is broken down to release less
energy, carbon dioxide and alcohol called
Ethanol.
Procedures
C6H12O6 210Kj + 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH  Set up apparatus as shown above. You
also need a thermometer.
 Take the temperature of the water in
the test tube and record it.
Similarities between  Using the mounted needle, hold the
aerobic and anaerobic peanut in the Bunsen flame. The heat
from the flame will give the peanut
respiration enough energy for it to begin to
 Use of glucose as a raw material. combine with oxygen in the air, so it
starts to burn. This reaction is called
 produce energy Oxidation or Combustion.
 Hold the burning peanut under the test
Differences between tube of water until it stops burning.
 Quickly take the temperature of the
aerobic and anaerobic water again.
respiration Expected results
i. Energy release; aerobic The water in the test tube will boil because
respiration releases more of heat energy from burning of peanut. The
energy than anaerobic thermometer will measure the point at
respiration. which the water boils.
ii. Oxygen use; aerobic
respiration involves use of Conclusion
oxygen while anaerobic The heat energy that comes from peanut
respiration does not involve use indicates that some food substances
of oxygen. contain energy which is used in the body
iii. Site of occurrence; aerobic for various activities like respiration.
respiration occurs in
mitochondria while anaerobic
respiration occurs in cytoplasm.
Breathing (ventilation)
Experiment This is the taking of air into and out of the
lungs.
To show that peanuts release energy
when they are oxidized.

113
 This organ has thin bones called
Importance of gaseous turbinal bones covered by thin layer
exchange in organisms of cells that produce water and mucus.
i. Renewal of oxygen supply The cells have cilia that pushes and
to the lungs which is essential traps germs and dust particles. The
in aerobic respiration. The air is dust and mucus form catarrh in the
taken into the lungs. nasal passage that is expelled by
ii. Removal of carbon dioxide blowing.
from the tissues which would Mouth
otherwise, be harmful to the The palate separates the nose and
tissues. The air is taken out of mouth. The air also enters the body
the lungs. through the mouth. However,
The passage (path) of air into and out of breathing through the mouth is
the lungs is called the respiratory tract. discouraged because it does not filter
the air and moisten the air efficiently.
Trachea (wind pipe)
The trachea is made of rings of
cartilage that are kept open always to
allow free entry of air through it. At
the top of trachea is a flap of cartilage
called epiglottis.
Trachea contains cilia that constantly
push and force any dust entering it.
The dust and any foreign matter are
carried by film of mucus where it
forms phlegm and is coughed out
through the mouth.

Organs of the
respiratory tract
Nose
This is the organ that warms, moistens
and filters the air as it passes through
the nasal cavity. The air is warmed to
raise its temperature to body
temperature that is, 37 ± 1℃ proper
metabolic processes.
The air is filtered to trap dirt, dust and
germs and thus preventing them from Bronchi
infecting the lungs. The air is The trachea divides into two branches,
moistened to enable it diffuses faster in the right and left bronchi. The bronchi
a solution form. reach the lungs. They also have cilia
and mucus that further filter the air.

114
 They are made of a ring cartilage that The cells in the alveolus secretes thee
keep bronchi open to allow free entry watery liquid. Oxygen diffuses in
of air. liquid form across the wall of alveoli.
Bronchioles 4. They are numerous in number
These are narrower branches that run This increases large surface area for
from the bronchi. The branches of gas exchange.
bronchioles form structure called
5. Have diffusion gradients for
Bronchial Tree.
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Alveoli (air sacs)
The bronchioles subdivide into smaller
tubes which end in groups of small
sacs called Alveoli. The walls of the
alveoli are very thin and surrounded by
lung capillary. This is where gas
exchange occurs between the walls of
the alveoli and lung capillary in blood
vessels.

Gas exchange in the

lungs and tissues
When inhaled air reaches the alveoli inside
the lungs, oxygen from the inhaled air
diffuses into blood and carbon dioxide
diffuses from blood in the air in alveoli.
The oxygen diffuses from the blood into
tissues (cells) for tissue respiration.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into alveoli and
excreted by lungs into atmosphere during
exhalation. How diffusion gradients are
maintained?
Adaptations of alveoli 1. Inhalation which increases oxygen
concentration in the alveolar air than in
for gas exchange the blood capillary hence oxygen
1. Have thin walls diffuses from the alveolar air into the
It is only one cell thick that ensures bloodstream.
faster diffusion of gases. 2. Exhalation which lowers the
2. Have dense network of blood concentration of carbon dioxide in the
capillaries alveolar air than in the blood
The blood capillary has close contact capillaries. Carbon dioxide therefore
with its walls that brings oxygenated diffuses from the bloodstream into the
blood from alveoli into alveolar air. alveolar air.

3. Have thin layer of moisture 3. Transportation of blood to the

alveolus increases concentration of
carbon dioxide in the blood capillaries
surrounding the alveolus than in the

115
 alveolar air. Carbon dioxide therefore Lungs have no muscles of their own to
diffuses into the alveolar air from make them move, (expand and contract).
bloodstream. However, they are made to expand and
contract by the following factors;
4. Transportation of oxygen away
from the blood capillaries a. Movement of the ribs due to
surrounding the alveolus, lowers the contraction of the intercostal
concentration of oxygen in the muscles. This gives rise to rib
bloodstream than in the alveolar air, breathing.
oxygen, therefore diffuses into the
b. Movement of the diaphragm due to
bloodstream from the alveolar air.
contraction of its muscles. This
5. Presence of haemoglobin in the gives rise to diaphragm
bloodstream helps to pull oxygen from breathing.
the alveolar air into the bloodstream
since haemoglobin has high affinity for Breathing mechanism involves inhalation
oxygen. and exhalation.
Inhalation
Transportation of carbon This is the taking of air into the lungs. It
renews oxygen supply to the lungs. For
dioxide to the alveoli this to occur, the following things take
From the respiring tissues, carbon dioxide place;
is transported in the following ways; i. The external intercostal muscles
i. Some of it is bound to the contract, pulling the rib cage
haemoglobin. upwards and outwards.
ii. The bulk of carbon dioxide is ii. The diaphragm flattens due to the
transported by blood plasma in contraction of its muscles.
form of bicarbonate ions. These two movements outlined above
From the respiring tissues the carbon increases the volume of the chest cavity
dioxide diffuses into the red blood cell (rib cage). This is turn lowers air pressure
where it is dissolved to form carbonic acid. within the ribcage. Air therefore flows
As soon as the carbonic acid is formed, it from the atmosphere where pressure is
dissociates into hydrogen ion and high to the lungs where pressure is low.
bicarbonate ions. This is mechanism of inhalation.
The hydrogen and bicarbonate ions diffuse
back into the blood plasma from the red
blood cell. Thus the carbon dioxide now is
transported by the blood plasma in form of
bicarbonate ions. Upon reaching the
alveolus the hydrogen ion and bicarbonate
ions reacts to reform carbonic acid which
eventually dissociates once again into 𝐶𝑂2
and water vapour. The carbon dioxide
diffuses into the alveolar air from
bloodstream.

Breathing mechanism

116
Exhalation During normal breathing, 0.5𝑙 of air is
This is the taking of air out of the lungs. It exchanged between the lungs and
removes carbon dioxide from the lungs. atmosphere. This 0.5𝑙 is called Tidal air.
For this to occur, the following things take During deeper breathing, an additional 1.5𝑙
place; of air to tidal air that is, 2𝑙 is exchanged
i. The internal intercostal muscles between the atmosphere and the lungs. The
contract pulling the rib cage additional air to tidal air that is taken into
downwards and inwards. the lungs during deeper breathing is called
ii. The diaphragm domes (arcs Complemental air.
upwards) due to the relaxation The additional air to tidal air is taken out
of its muscles. of the lungs during deeper breathing is
These two movements outlined above called Supplemental air. Complemental
reduce the volume of the chest cavity. This air is equal to supplemental air and this is
in turn increases air pressure within the 1.5𝑙.
lungs. This in turn increases air pressure During an exercise, an additional 3𝑙 of air
within the lungs. Air therefore rushes out to tidal air that is 3.5𝑙 is taken into and out
from the lungs where pressure is high into of the lungs. This volume of air (3.5𝑙) is
atmosphere where pressure is low. This is called Vital capacity.
mechanism of exhalation.
Therefore, no matter how hard one breaths,
there is some air 1.5𝑙 that remains in the
lungs. This volume of air is called
Residual air. Residual air prevents the
lungs from collapsing thereby preventing
their inner walls from sticking together.

Breathing rate
This is the number of complete breaths per
minute. A complete breath consists of one
inhalation and one exhalation.
The average breathing rate of a normal
adult person when at rest is 18 breaths per
minute. During an exercise the breathing
Lung capacity rate increases to 27 breaths per minute.
This is the volume of air when the lungs
are inflated. This is 5 litres of air in a
normal adult person.
Breathing can be;
a. Normal as when one is sitting still
or sleep.
b. Deeper, as when one is voluntarily
chooses to stop breathing and then
resumes.
c. Breathing during exercise.

117
To find out the number of breaths per  Count the number of breaths per
minute we do calculations involving minute of a fellow student at rest.
simple proportions.  Tell your fellow student to jump up
and down or run for one minute.
 Then find his/her breathing rate soon
Regulation of breathing after the one – minute exercise.
The medulla oblongata regulates
breathing. At the base of the medulla Expected results
oblongata is centred by the structure called Account for the difference in the two rates,
Hypothalamus which detects that is, at rest and after exercise.
concentrations of carbon dioxide in blood Conclusion
passing through it. When carbon dioxide During exercise breathing becomes deeper
concentration is high the hypothalamus and faster since more oxygen is taken in
informs the medulla oblongata which in during inhalation and is allowed to
turn sends off nervous impulses to the dissolve in the blood, which supplies it to
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm to the active muscles for production of
contract and relax faster, thereby energy.
increasing the rate of breathing. This
removes the carbon dioxide faster.
Note
each lung is surrounded by a
Effects of exercise on
pleural cavity called a pleural
breathing membrane. This membrane
i. Increases the rate of breathing. produces fluid called pleural
ii. Depth of breathing increases causing fluid. The fluid acts as lubricant
the carbon dioxide to be removed more that greatly reduces friction
quickly from the blood. between the lung and chest
iii. Amount of carbon dioxide exhaled cavity (thoracic wall) during
increases since concentration of breathing movement.
carbon dioxide in the blood increases.
iv. Amount of oxygen taken into the body
increases for aerobic respiration.
v. The amount (volume) of residual air
Carbon monoxide
decreases during breathing since poisoning
breathing becomes much deeper. Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs due to
poor ventilation within an enclosure such
as a room with all windows closed with
Experiment burning fuels, e.g. charcoal or firewood.
Describe an experiment that could be
Oxygen supply is cut off and this brings
carried out to investigate the effect of about incomplete combustion (burning)
exercise on breathing rate in human which leads to buildup of carbon
beings. monoxide. Haemoglobin readily combines
Procedures with carbon monoxide.
 Take the stop watch to record the
Carbon monoxide is then transported to
number of breaths per minute.
the brain where it blocks the blood

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capillaries thereby cutting off oxygen This is when a person is
supply to the tissues. Besides the fact that abnormally tolerant to and
haemoglobin transports carbon monoxide, dependent on smoking that is
less oxygen is carried by it hence the brain psychologically or physically habit
is deprived off of oxygen. – forming.

The individual eventually falls into a coma

from which he never wakes up again.
Abnormal conditions
First aid for carbon monoxide associated with
poisoning respiratory system
 Provide mouth – to – mouth
resuscitation in case of mild case.
 Take the patient to the hospital. Asthma
Asthma is usually caused by an infection
or allergic reaction that affects the smooth
Prevention for carbon muscle and glands of the bronchioles.
Allergens include foods and inhaled
monoxide poisoning substances such as dust and pollen.
Ensure that the room is well ventilated Wheezing and dyspnea – difficult
whenever fuels are burning that is, always breathing) characterize an asthma attack,
keep the windows open for free flow of which may range from mild to fatal.
air.
As part of the allergic response, the
Effects of smoking on smooth muscle of the bronchioles
constricts. Because there is no cartilage
human health present in their walls, the bronchioles may
i. Respiratory infection close completely. The secretion of mucus
The upper respiratory tract such as increases, so the constricted bronchioles
bronchi and bronchioles and lungs may become clogged or completely
become infected by disease causing obstructed with mucus.
micro-organisms.
Bronchitis
ii. Lung cancer The smoke stops the cilia in the air
Tar in cigarette contains chemicals passages from beating and so the irritant
which include carcinogens, the substances in the smoke and the excess
substances that cause cancer. Tar mucus collect in the bronchi. This leads to
collects in the lungs as tobacco the inflammation known as bronchitis.
smoke cools.
Over 95 per cent of people suffering from
iii. Harm to foetus bronchitis are smokers and they have a 20
Pregnant women are always times greater chance of dying from
advised not to smoke. The bronchitis than non-smokers.
chemicals in cigarette smoke enter
the mother’s bloodstream and reach Pulmonary TB
the developing baby across the It is contagious bacterial infection that
placenta. involves the lungs. It may spread to other
organs.
iv. Addiction

119
It is spread by breathing in air droplets ii. Removes carbon dioxide away
from cough or sneeze of an infected from the fish, since concentration
person. The risk of this disease increases of carbon dioxide in the blood is
with poor nutrition and overcrowding higher than in water. As such,
conditions. carbon dioxide diffuses from the
gill lamellae into the water.
Respiratory system of iii. Provides food to the fish. The
fish water contains food particles that
Fish uses gills as the respiratory system, are filtered by gill rakers as water
that is, for breathing in fish. passes over them. The food
particles move to gullet of fish for
Structure of gills in fish digestion.

iv. Used for drinking to control all

metabolic processes in fish and
medium of chemical reactions in
fish.

v. Assists in locomotion in fish to

move forward as water flows out
through opercula opening. This
produces reaction that provides a
Gill arch (bar) push on to the fish.
This is a thin bar bone of gill that
supports the gill. Breathing mechanism in
Lamellae (gill filament) fish
This is a thin and soft flap of tissue Fish uses gills for breathing. The fish
where gas exchange takes place by sucks water through its mouth. As water
diffusion. passes over the lamellae, dissolved oxygen
Gill rakers diffuses into the blood through the
These trap dirt particles and stop them capillary network. At the same time carbon
from clogging up the lamellae. dioxide diffuses out of the blood and is
They also filter out food particles from carried away in the water current.
the water as it passes over them.
Exchange of gases is achieved because of
the opposite flow of blood through
Functions of water that lamellae and the flow of water over the
lamellae.
enters the mouth of fish
Inspiration occurs when fish opens its
i. Renewal of oxygen to the fish mouth; this increases volume of buccal
since concentration of oxygen in cavity and reduces pressure inside it.
the water is higher than in the Water flows in through the open mouth
blood in gills. Hence oxygen and over the gills.
diffuses from water into the gill
lamellae.

120
 Spiracles
These are tiny holes through which air
enters the body of an insect. These holes
are found in thorax and abdomen of an
insect.
Tracheae
The spiracles open into tubes called
tracheae. Tracheae are supported by a
spiral of chitin that keeps them open to
allow free entry of air.
Expiration occurs when fish closes its Tracheoles
mouth, this reduces volume of buccal These are narrower branches that run from
cavity and increases the pressure inside, trachea. Tracheoles lead the air directly
and then water is forced out through into tissues of the insect. Tracheoles are
operculum, as it flows over the gills. therefore places of gas exchange in the
insects.

Tracheoles do not have chitin in their walls

but they have thin walls for easy diffusion
of gases. Their ends are filled with fluid –
moisture content that dissolves oxygen.

Gas exchange in insects

From thin walls of tracheoles, as oxygen
dissolves, it diffuses across the membrane
from the air in tracheoles into tissues of
Adaptations of gills for insect and carbon dioxide diffuses out of
tracheoles into atmosphere.
diffusion of gases
i. Have dense network of blood The blood in insects is colourless and do
capillaries. not have haemoglobin to carry oxygen.
ii. Have large surface area. However, this blood transports food
iii. Their gill lamellae are thin, only substances and waste matters.
one cell thick.
iv. Are moist. The structure of respiratory system in
insects forms tracheal system.

Respiration in insects Adaptations of tracheal

system to its function
i. Are supported by spiral of chitin.

ii. Have thin walls.

iii. Their ends have fluid filled –

moisture content.

121
 4. During winter, a farmer decided to
Review questions light a charcoal burner to warm calves
in a modern cattle khola. Before the
1. State the role played by each of the charcoal completely got burnt, it was
following structures during inspiration. taken into the khola which had its
windows closed. The following
i. Diaphragm
morning the calves were found dead.
In an essay form, explain the steps that
ii. Intercostal muscles (2005
led to the death of the calves. (2011
Maneb)
Maneb)
2. Mention any two effects of smoking on
human health. (2012 Maneb)
3. State any two effects of exercise on
breathing. (2012 Maneb)

122
Topic 12 Excretory system
Excretion Note
The kidney is the largest
Excretion is the removal of metabolic excretory organ.
wastes from the body of an organism.
The system of organs that get rid of the
metabolic wastes is known as excretory
system. Parts of a kidney

Metabolism
These are cell activities aided by energy
produced by oxidation of food substances.

All metabolic wastes are drawn from

tissues. For this reason, defaecation is
not an example of excretion because
faeces are not drawn from the tissues.

Secretion is also different from

excretion because it produces substances
from cells and fluids within gland or
organs of the body and releases them.

Cortex
Excretory organs  A lighter outer layer of a kidney.
These are organs that get rid of metabolic Medulla
wastes (excretory product).  A dark inner area of a kidney. The
medulla is connected to the ureter.
Skin removes water and mineral salts
(sweat). Pelvis
Lungs remove carbon dioxide and water This is the expanded portion of the ureter
vapour. within a kidney. It is where urine is
discharged before passing into the ureter.
Liver removes bile pigment called
bilirubin that results from destruction of
red blood cells. Ureter
Kidneys remove urea, water, uric acid and This is a tube that connects and allows
mineral salts in form of urine. urine to travel from each kidney to the

123
urinary bladder. Ureter carries urine from and amino acids are carried by blood
the kidney to the urinary bladder. through hepatic portal vein.
The liver allows some of the amino acids
Renal vessels to carry on in the blood to other parts of
the body. Any excess amino acids are
 Renal artery carries oxygenated blood
deaminated into amino group by the liver.
and supplies it to each kidney.
 Renal vein carries deoxygenated The amino group of each amino acid is
blood away from the kidneys. converted to ammonia (NH3) which reacts
with carbon dioxide to finally form urea.
The urea is sent to the kidneys for
excretion.
The part of amino group containing the
energy is kept and turned into
carbohydrates or fat and stored for future
Note use.

There are two kidneys in

human being and many other
mammals. These are reddish,
bean – shaped organs situated
towards the back of abdominal
cavity.

Functions of the kidneys

i. Excretes the nitrogenous wastes.
ii. Controls the concentration of
mineral salts in the blood.
iii. Controls the amount of water in the
blood.
iv. Removes any substances produced
Nephron
in abnormal metabolism. Nephron is a basic functional and smallest
v. Maintains the alkalinity of the blood unit that consists of long tubule in the
at PH 7.4. kidney.

Each kidney contains about one million

Excretion of urea in nephrons.
The nephron contains a network of
human being capillaries called a glomerulus, enclosed
When the proteins are eaten, digestive in a cuplike capsule called Bowman’s
enzymes break them down into amino capsule. The capsule is linked to a long
acids. The amino acids are absorbed into coiled tubule.
the blood capillaries in the villi in ileum

124
The tubule winds and turns double back.
Finally it leads to a collecting duct. About
twelve nephrons share one collecting duct
that opens into the ureter.

Regions of the tubule of

a nephron
The tubule consists of three regions
namely;
Proximal convoluted tubule
First convolution after a capsule and it
is coiled.
Loop of Henle
It is U – shaped region.
Distal convoluted tubule
Second convolution after the U shaped
region.

Functions of the
Structure of a single
nephron nephron

Filtration
The great pressure of blood in the
glomerulus forces some substances to
diffuse out of blood into Bowman’s
capsule. These substances include
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and
glycerol, mineral salts, hormones,
antibodies, water, urea, uric acids and
toxins. This stage of the process is
called filtration.

Selective Reabsorption
As substances in Bowman’s capsule
flow through the tubule, only
important substances such as glucose,
amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, some
water, salts, hormones and antibodies are

125
 reabsorbed by active transport into walls of Bowman’s capsule into the tubule.
the capillaries surrounding the tubule. This is process of filtration.
The filtrate moves along the tubule. The
only important substances are selectively
Tubular secretion reabsorbed into the bloodstream from the
tubule. This process takes place in the
Tubular secretion occurs in the second proximal convoluted tubule and ends in
(distal) convoluted tubule. Blood PH the loop of Henle.
must be between 7.35 and 7.45.
Exactly the right amount of water and salt
Mineral ions such as K+, H+ and HCO3- ions are reabsorbed in the collecting duct
are either reabsorbed or not in this part to give blood its correct composition. The
in order to control the PH of the blood. remaining fluid in the collecting duct is
mostly water with some mineral salts, uric
How urine is formed in acids, toxins and urea dissolved in it, thus
forming urine.
the kidneys of the
human body Percentage composition of
Urine formation in the kidney occurs in the human blood and urine
nephron. Urine is formed by filtration
Substance Blood % Urine %
and selective reabsorption.

Water 90 96
Protein 9 0
Glucose 0.1 0
Urea 0.03 2
Uric acid 0.003 0.05
Creatinine 0.001 0.1
Chloride 0.37 0.6
Sodium 0.35 0.350.6
Potassium 0.02 0.15

The blood vessel that carries blood to the Urea is an organic chemical and it is
glomerulus is wider than that carries blood excreted in large quantities because it is
away from the glomerulus. waste product from amino acids and
This creates high blood pressure in the therefore contains nitrogen atom which is
glomerulus which squeezes the blood not needed in the human body.
against the walls of capillaries since they Glucose and protein are completely
are semi – permeable. The great absent in urine of a healthy person.
pressure forces small molecules of
substances in blood to pass across the

126
 When the urinary bladder is full of urine, it
Differences between the
expands as a balloon. The top of urethra is
blood flowing in renal surrounded by the ring of muscle called
artery and renal vein sphincter muscle which contracts to
squeeze the tube to empty the urine.
Normally, the sphincter muscle is tightly
Renal artery Renal vein contracted, so urine cannot get out of the
Contains more Contains less urinary bladder unless is completely filled
urea urea with urine.

Contains more Contains less

glucose glucose
Contains more Contains less The role of antidiuretic
oxygen oxygen
hormone in osmo –
Contains more Contains less
water water regulation
Contains less Contains more Osmo – regulation is the vital control of
carbon dioxide carbon dioxide water contents in the blood. The control of
water balance occurs in the kidney.

Micturition
Osmo – regulation is an example of the
This is process of urination in human
beings and other mammals. homeostasis. Control of the water
content in the blood is maintained by the
hypothalamus of the brain, thus
continuously detects the concentration of
the blood.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is secreted

by the pituitary gland. When the blood
passing through brain is too concentrated,
the hypothalamus causes pituitary gland to
secrete the hormone ADH. This hormone
dissolves in the blood plasma.
When it reaches the kidneys, this hormone
causes the kidney tubule to absorb more
water from the glomerular back into the
blood. Thus urine becomes more
The kidneys produce watery liquid called concentrated and little.
urine which contains other substances such
as urea that comes from liver. The urine
passes along the collecting ducts of the When the blood passing through the brain
kidney into the ureters which pass to the is too diluted, the pituitary gland
urinary bladder. suppresses the production of ADH and
little water is absorbed from the
glomerulus. Kidneys keep blood at

127
constant osmotic pressure to prevent
unnecessary movement of water.

Kidney failure
This is a condition in which a kidney of a
person fails to function properly.

Causes of kidney failure

1. Accident: this involves a drop in
blood pressure. Takes more than two
weeks, the patient may die as a result
of potassium (K+) ions imbalance in
the blood thus also causing heart
failure.
2. Kidney disease: in case of kidney
disease, the patient with one kidney
can survive with only that one kidney. The patient is hooked up to a dialysis
machine every 2 – 3 days. The dialysis
machine is similar to the functioning of the
Treatment of kidney failure kidney.
includes;
a. Dialysis machine (artificial
kidney) The dialysis fluid is constantly changed
b. Kidney transplant to:
Prevent the accumulation of unwanted
solutes in it.
The dialysis machine
Maintain a high diffusion gradient.
A dialysis machine consists of a long The patient’s blood and dialysis fluid
cellulose tube coiled up in the water bath. move to opposite directions in the dialyzer
to prevent such accumulation of
The patient’s blood is led from an artery in unwanted solutes.
the arm and pumped through the cellulose
(dialysis) tubing and then turned to the Adaptations of dialysis
vein in the arm of the patient.
machine to its function

1. Long and narrow

It consists of a long cellulose tube
coiled up in the water bath. This
increases large surface area to a
volume ratio to increase the rate of
diffusion.

128
2. Semi – permeable membrane tissues as it does to all foreign proteins and
produces lymphocytes which attack and
The submicroscopic pores in the
destroy them.
dialysis are semi – permeable to allow
small molecules such as salts, glucose,
and urea to leak out into the water
bath.
The rejection can be overcome
by;

3. Contents of sugar and salts 1. Choice

The liquid in the water bath consists of Choose a donor whose tissues are
a solution of sugar (glucose) and similar to those of the patient, e.g. close
salts which have same relative.
concentration to those of blood.
As such, glucose and salts do not 2. Immunosuppressive drugs
diffuse out of the blood because of They suppress the production of
same concentration in the dialysis fluid lymphocytes and their antibodies
and blood. against transplanted organ.

4. The dialysis fluid is warmed

Close to blood temperature which
increases the rate of diffusion. Effects of eating and
5. Presence of pump drinking habits on the
It has roller pump to push blood kidneys
through the dialyzer.
 Excess intake of protein from
meat causes kidney stones.
6. Concentration of waste products
in blood  Excess intake of salts in form
of calcium raises blood
There is higher concentration of pressure which may cause
waste products in blood than in damage to nephrons of kidney.
dialysis fluid hence waste products
 Excess intake of carbonated
diffuse into dialysis fluid.
beverages increase risk of
disease of kidney.
Kidney transplant  Eating genetically modified
food causes kidney toxicity.
The kidney transplant requires to find
enough suitable donors of healthy kidney  Excess intake of caffeine in tea,
and to prevent kidney from being rejected. coffee may cause chronic
Kidney transplant involves surgically kidney diseases.
removal of diseased kidney and replace it
with suitable kidney.

The problem with rejection is that the

body reacts to any transplanted cells or

129
 c. Name two substances which
Problems associated diffuse out of the dialysis tube
with excretion in the when it is in operation. (2004
Maneb)
kidneys 2. a. (i) Name the main nitrogenous waste
1. Diabetes Mellitus: this is the excreted by kidneys.
condition in which glucose is present (ii) Describe how the nitrogenous
in urine.
waste mentioned is formed.

2. Nephritis: this is a condition in which b. Name two substances found in

protein is present in urine. This may blood plasma that are not found
lead to blockage of ureters. in the urine of a healthy person.
(2012 Maneb)
3. Describe how nitrogen atoms eaten in
Revision questions a bean meal can eventually be
1. A dialysis machine is an artificial excreted in urine. Write your answer
kidney which is used when a person in an essay form. (2002 Maneb)
has kidney failure.
a. How is the loss of glucose and 4. Describe how urine is formed in the
other important substance from the kidneys of the human body. Write
blood prevented when a patient is your answer in an essay form.
on the dialysis machine? (2010 Maneb)
b. State one similarity between the
dialysis tube and the tubule of the
nephron.

130
Topic 13 Coordination
Structure; consists of nerve fibres such as
Co – ordination dendrons and axons which have special
The various physiological processes in property of transmitting electrical impulses
living animals are all very closely linked very rapidly.
and dependent on each other.
Coordination is the linking together in Function; control reflex actions.
time and space of various physiological
processes and activities.

Types of co – ordination Functions of the nervous

Co – ordination is effected by the; system
a. Nervous system  detection of changes and feel
b. Endocrine system sensations
 response initiate appropriate
Nervous system responses to changes
It is a series of conducting tissues running  organization of information for
to all parts of the body. immediate use and store it for
future use
Composition of nervous
Neurons
system
Neurons are nerve cells that contain
Central nervous system is small masses of cytoplasm with a central
composed of the brain and the spinal cord. nucleus.
Peripheral nervous system is Thus, a neuron is a basic functional unit of
branching network of the nerves linking the nervous system.
the brain and spinal cord with all parts of
the body. The central nervous system and
Autonomic nervous system, peripheral nervous system are made
include nerve centres that control vital up of neurons.
processes such as blood circulation and
digestion.
How does the neuron
function
Characteristics of Transmission of nerve impulses is carried
from one part of the body to another.
nervous system
These impulses are electrical in nature
Composition; is made up of nerve cells and are conducted along the neurons.

131
Neurons usually transmit impulses in one
direction only.

Note
The axon builds up within itself an
electrical charge which is released when
nerve is stimulated and has to be built up
again before the next impulses can pass.

Types of neurons
Sensory neuron; Relay neuron
These are neurons that carry impulses from These are neurons that relay impulses from
receptors (sensory organs) to the brain and the sensory neurons to the motor neurons.
spinal cord. As such, relay neurons are linking neurons
which are also called association or
Sensory neuron has cell body that lies multipolar neurons.
along its length (fibre).

They are numerous in the brain and spinal

cord.
These neurons lack myelin sheath.

Motor neuron
These are impulses that carry impulses
from the brain and spinal cord to the
effectors such as muscles and glands. Direction of impulses in
Motor neuron has cell body that lies at the neurons during
end of its fibre.
movement
Impulses move from dendrites of sensory
neurons to the dendrites of relay neurons
on the side before the cell body. Then
impulses move from the dendrites on the
other of the relay neuron after the cell
body to the dendrites of the motor neuron.

132
Structure of a typical These are small gaps in the myelin sheath
of medullated axons.
neuron
It allows rapid conduction of impulses by
forcing them to jump from one node to the
next.

Synapse
The small gap or space between the axon
of one neuron and the dendrites of cell
body of the next neuron is called the
synapse.
Functions of parts of a It is a microscopic gap existing between
two neurons where terminal branches of
neuron the axon of the one neuron lie very close to
dendrites of adjacent neurons. Thus, shows
1. Cell body the area of junction between two neurons.
This is an enlarged portion of the neuron.
It controls the metabolism of the nerve cell Significance of synapses
since it contains organelles.

2. Dendrites 1. Important in reflex actions

 Effective for other muscles in the
These are thin branched extensions of the body.
cytoplasm of the cell body. They receive  Send impulses to the brain from
information from other cells. spinal cord.
3. Dendron 2. Pass nerve impulse
This is a nerve fibre that conducts  From one neuron to another.
impulses towards the cell body.

4. Axon Transmission of impulses

This is a long fibre which carries across synapse
information away from the cell body
sometimes over long distances. The impulse is transmitted by the secretion
of a chemical into a microscopic space
5. Myelin sheath which exists between the termination of
This is a fatty layer that encloses many the fibre and the membrane of the cell
nerve fibres. It is made up of fats. body.
 It insulates the axon between close
cells. Within the synaptic knob (terminal end) of
 It speeds up the transmission of the presynaptic axon is a chemical
impulses. neurotransmitter such as acetylcholine
that is released into the synapse by the
6. Node of Ranvier arrival of an electrical nerve impulse. An
influx of Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles

133
containing neurotransmitter to fuse with The inflow of sodium ions makes the
presynaptic membrane. inside positive and the outside negative.
As a result a nerve impulse is generated.
The neurotransmitter diffuses across
the synapse, combines with specific
receptor sites on the cell membrane of the
post – synaptic neuron, and there generates
an electrical impulse that is, in turn,
carried by this neuron’s axon to the next
synapse, and so forth.

A chemical inactivator at the cell body

or dendrite of the post – synaptic neuron
quickly inactivates the neurotransmitter.

The neurons recover when sodium ions are

pumped out so that the charge difference is
restored.

Reflex action
It is an automatic rapid and immediate
response of the body to a stimulus.

Reflex actions are simply called reflexes.

Transmission of nerve
impulses along the axon Categories of reflex
(nerve conduction) action
The axon of the neurons in a resting Brain reflexes
condition has a difference in electro- These are reflexes controlled by the brain.
charge between the inside and outside.
The outside is positive and the inside is Examples of brain reflexes;
negative. Blinking, coughing, salivation, swallowing
The cell membrane is more permeable and contraction of the pupil of the eye.
to potassium ion than to sodium ion, so
that the K+ which is more concentrated
inside the cell diffuses outward faster than Spinal reflexes
Na+ which is more concentrated outside, These are reflexes controlled by the spinal
diffuses inward. K+ and Na+ move through cord.
the membrane using different channels.
Examples of spinal reflexes;
Knee jerk and ankle jerk

134
 Note Reflex action takes place when nerve
fibres conduct impulses passing in the
Withdrawing a hand from a hot
reflex arc up the spinal cord and brain.
object is reflex action
controlled by both brain and
spinal reflexes. Significance of reflex
action
It protects and prevents body parts and
Reflex arc tissues from damage.
This is the pathway taken by the impulse
involved in a reflex action.
The human brain
The pathway is made up of five parts.
The brain is an enlarged and specialized
front region of the spinal cord.
Receptors receive stimulus when one It is an organ that controls most of the
unexpected touches a hot object, the hand body activities.
is rapidly removed from the source of heat.
Heat or pain receptors in the skin are
stimulated and fire off impulses which The human brain is enclosed within part of
travel along the sensory fibres. The the skull called cranium. It is surrounded
sensory fibres enter the spinal cord by two membranes with a fluid in between
through the dorsal root. them called cerebral spinal fluid.
Cranium – protects the brain from
In the grey matter of the spinal cord, the external physical forces.
impulses pass from the sensory neuron to a
relay neuron across a synapse. The relay Cerebral spinal fluid – is formed
neuron in turn, makes synapse with motor from two masses of fine blood capillaries
neurons. The impulses are thus transmitted called plexuses.
to the motor fibres which leave the spinal The cerebral spinal fluid acts as shock
cord through the ventral root and pass in a absorber thereby protecting the brain
nerve travelling to a muscle to give from external physical forces.
response to a stimulus.

Summary diagram

135
 In the medulla oblongata there is a
Parts of a human brain structured located in it called
hypothalamus.
Cerebrum
It is the largest and foremost part of the
Hypothalamus
brain. It is sensitive to;
Cerebrum is composed of two identical  Carbon dioxide concentration
halves called    Temperature changes in the
that are joined by a band of nerve blood.
fibres called corpus callosum. The hypothalamus enables medulla
oblongata to control many vital
processes such as;
Cerebrum has two layers;
Breathing rate, heartbeat, blood
a. Grey matter – outer layer which is pressure and regulation of body
also called cerebral cortex. This temperature.
layer is highly folded.
b. White matter – inner layer.
Pituitary gland
Important factors that increase  Secretes hormones such as Follicle
surface area of the cerebrum Stimulating hormones (FSH) and
 Large size Anti – diuretic hormones (ADH).
 High folding of grey matter
FSH – regulate development of
female gametes.
Functions of cerebrum
 Control – speech, emotions, ADH – control water retention by the
memory and intelligence. kidney.
 Sensation – smell, vision,
taste hearing and touch. How do large size and high
folding of brain affect
Cerebellum complexity and activity of an
organism?
It is mid part of the brain.
 By increasing surface area that
Function of this part; accommodates numerous cell
 Control and coordination – bodies.
balancing organs, muscles as  The numerous cell bodies
well as postures.
increase complexity and
 Maintenance – muscle tones
for balance. activities possessed by an
organism.
People with brain smaller in size and
Medulla Oblongata les folded have a fewer cell bodies.
It is the hind most and smallest part of Such people are less intelligent and do
the brain. less complex activities.

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 It carries impulses out of the spinal
Functions of the brain cord to the effectors.
 Receiver: impulses are received
from all sensory organs of the
body.
 Sender: motor impulses are sent Parts of a spinal cord
to the gland and muscles causing
them to function properly.
 Storage: stores information so
that behaviour can be modified
according to past experience.
 Coordination: all body activities
are coordinated by the brain so that
the physical and chemical reactions
of the body work efficiently
together.
 Correlation: the various stimuli
are correlated from different sense
organs. White matter
It is concentrated with nerve fibres and is
The spinal cord outer region of the spinal cord.

The spinal cord arises from the medulla

oblongata and consists of many nerve cells Grey matter
of fibres and cell bodies grouped into It is concentrated with cell bodies of
cylindrical mass. neurons.

Ganglion
The spinal cord is protected It is a budge made by the cell bodies of
external physical forces by sensory fibres in the dorsal root.
a. Vertebral column (spine)
b. Cerebral spinal fluid Neural canal
This is a passage of the spinal cord. It is
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerve filled with cerebral spinal fluid that brings
connected to the spinal cord. nutrients to the brain and acts as shock
absorber.
Each spinal nerve is made up of two
groups of nerve fibres namely;
a. Dorsal (sensory) root Functions of spinal cord
It is made up of sensory neurons  Conduction
that bring impulses in from
o Sensory impulses are
receptors.
conducted from skin and
muscles to the brain.
b. Ventral (motor) root

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 o Motor impulses are conducted
from the brain to the muscles of
the trunk and limbs.
 Control – reflex action involving
body structures below the neck.

Conditioned reflex
It is reflex that is acquired through training
and past experience.

Examples of conditioned reflex

o Salivation of dogs upon food
o Walking
o Riding a bicycle How conditioned reflex
o Crying
o Fearing from danger develops
o Speaking different languages
The conditioned reflex is acquired in the
o Hitting a target
first place by concentration and
practice. Without association centres,
Main steps involved in conditioned reflex and learning would not
be possible.
conditioning an
Conditioned reflex to be made possible, all
organism impulses relay to the association
i. The original stimulus is presented, centres and according to the strength of
the related response is made. stimulation and past experience are
ii. The substitute stimulus is presented ‘‘stored’’ in the brain.
together with the original stimulus;
the same response as before is made. Uses of conditioned reflex
iii. The substitute stimulus is now
presented alone; the same response  Protection
as before is still made.  Learning or training as well as
Ivan Pavlov made an illustration on for survival.
conditioning an organism.
Investigations on
coordination
This involves carrying out experiments on
coordination.
Experiment requires procedures, expected
results and conclusion.
Procedures – established or correct
methods of doing something. Methods are
established from the materials required.

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Expected results are what observed Materials
in an experiment. o Target area, target range, object to
be hit, throwing object and
A conclusion is a summary of what experimenter.
have been observed. It explains what
happens in the observation. Procedures
o Measure the distance of about 5
metres and mark the target area.
Experiment 1 o Place an object to be hit on the target
area.
Effects of time of a day on o Start throwing object onto the target
memorizing a list of words area to hit the targeted object. Every
round of throwing should have
Materials maximum time of 10 minutes.
o Textbook, student, stop watch o Repeat step 3 using round 2 up to 4.
and experimenter. o Record the number of times you hit
the targeted object against each
Procedures
round.
o Let the student collect the
textbook for memorization. Expected results
o Tell the student to start Compare the number of times from round
studying the list of words for 1 to 4. You expect that fourth round will
the maximum time of 2 hours. have highest number of times you hit the
o The experimenter or supervisor targeted object.
should set questions from the
list of words the student has Conclusion
memorized and give them to This shows that the more you practise
the student. Observe how he or hitting the target, the more chances you
she performs. make.
o Repeat the steps but for this
time with maximum of 6 hours
and observe how he or she Drug
performs.
It is any substance that changes the normal
Expected results function of the body. These drugs include
The marks that the student will get will be alcohol and Indian hemp.
different depending on the time he/she
spends on memorizing a list of words.
Effects of alcohol on
Conclusion
The more time you spend on memorizing a
central nervous system
list of words, the more the brain stores  It leads to loss of self – control and
information so that memorization can be reduction of psychology.
modified according to past experience.  It reduces one’s attention and dulls
one’s judgement.
 It causes the body to lose heat. A
Experiment 2 drunken person can freeze to death
more quickly from exposure to
Effects of practice on hitting extreme cold.
target

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  It may lead to dehydration of the Mode of transmission
body.
o Through direct contact
 It causes muscular incoordination
including respiratory droplets.
and general nervousness.
Symptoms – headache, neck stiffness,
cough, vomiting and fever.

Indian hemp (marijuana)

Prevention
 It speeds up the action of the brain
and makes the person more alert. o Reduce direct contact and
 It makes a person become addicted. exposure to droplet infection.
o Reduce overcrowding.
 It damages brain cells by killing
them. o Isolate the patient
o Treated by using antibiotics.

Problems associated Leprosy

Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease
with the nervous system of a human being.
Leprosy affects the nervous system and
Polio
bacillus called mycobacterium leprae
The polio virus attacks some of the prefers the cooler parts of the body
motor nerve cells in the spinal cord of such as hands and feet are most often
the patient. affected.
As a result, some impulses do not When nerves are destroyed the affected
reach the effector muscles attached to part becomes anaesthetic and the
the skeleton. The effector muscles patient does not feel pain when
become inactive and prevent proper wounded or burned.
developments of the bones on which
muscles are attached. Treatment – use of modern drugs
usually taken in tablet form.

Mode of transmission Tetanus

Through faeces, nose and throat Tetanus is caused by an anaerobic
secretions. bacillus bacterium that forms spores
which resist boiling.
Symptoms – Fever, Headache, neck
stiffness, muscle and withered legs. The tetanus bacillus is present in soil
and dust where it reproduces in deep
wounds with insufficient oxygen.
Prevention
o Vaccination (Sabin and Salk Mode of transmission
vaccine).
o Through a wound where a
o Hygiene.
person is cut with a dirty
Meningitis implement.
This is an infection involving the
meninges and brain.
Symptoms – uncontrolled contraction
of muscles and death.

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 Types of glands
Prevention
o Vaccination Exocrine glands
o Avoid making cuts with dirty These glands release their secretion
implements. into a duct. The duct carries the
o Give anti – tetanus serum and secretion to where it is needed.
benzyl penicillin to the child.

These glands include;

Stroke  Sweat gland
High blood pressure pushes the walls  Salivary gland
of the arteries in the brain. When the  Pancreas
arteries rupture in the brain, the
spillage of blood kills cells in that part
of the brain leading to stroke. A severe Endocrine glands
stroke can be fatal.
These glands release their secretion
 directly into bloodstream. They do not
have ducts; hence they are also called
; ductless glands.
- over – eating
- drinking too much alcohol
- smoking These glands include;
 Pituitary gland
 Thyroid gland
Symptoms – impaired speech and  Adrenal gland
paralysis.
 Ovaries
 Testes
 Pancreas
Endocrine system Note
This refers to a group of specialized organs Pancreas is both exocrine and
and body tissues that produce, store and endocrine gland. Hence it is
secrete chemical substance called called exo- endocrine gland
hormones.
Endocrine system consists of glands that
secrete hormones. As such, it is also called
hormonal coordination. Position of glands in
human body
Glands
These are various organs that form
substances needed by the body and release
them through ducts or directly into
bloodstream.

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 o Adrenaline hormone.

Peptide hormone
These hormones are chain of amino
acid derivate. They are produced as
larger proteins.

o Growth hormone
o Insulin
o Antidiuretic hormone
o Oxytocin
o Thyroxin
Antidiuretic and oxytocin hormones are
Hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus.
These are chemicals that transfer
information and instructions between cells Steroid hormone
in an organism.
These hormones are synthesized from
cholesterol – a fatty substance
Since hormones carry information and produced by the body.
instructions from endocrine gland to target
organs, they are called chemical
These include hormones secreted by
messengers. adrenal gland, ovaries and testes.

Functions of hormones Nature of hormones – water soluble

 Regulation of metabolism and fat soluble.
 Control – growth and
development as well as function of
various tissues.
 Support reproductive function How do hormones work?
 Provision of resistance to stress.
Endocrine glands secrete hormones as a
result of stimulation by changes in the
environment of a human being. These
changes in the environment are called
Types of hormones
stimuli.
With respect to their chemical structure,
Hormones are secreted directly into blood
hormones are classified into three types
capillaries. They travel in the bloodstream
until they reach their target tissues (organs)
Amine hormones where they activate a series of chemical
These simple hormones are structural changes.
variations of amino acid tyrosine. , hormones must be
 recognized by a specialized protein in the
o Thyroxine hormone cells of the target organ called receptor.

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 o Increases transport of amino
acids into cells and increase the
Target organs – are organs affected by
rate of protein formation.
particular hormones.

Antidiuretic hormone
o Increases the water
Endocrine glands and reabsorption by the kidney
their secretions tubule into the blood.
o Decreases sweating.
Pituitary gland
This gland is also called hypophysis Oxytocin
and is located in the brain near
o Promotes contraction of
hypothalamus.
myometrium of the uterus
Significance of pituitary during labour.
o Promotes release of milk from
gland mammary glands.
 It determines the amount of
hormone produced by the
endocrine glands. Prolactin
 It stimulates other endocrine glands o Initiates and maintains milk
to produce their own hormones. production by the mammary
For this reason, pituitary gland is glands.
described as the master gland or
the conductor of the endocrine
orchestra. Follicle Stimulating hormone
 It directly influences growth of an o Stimulate the growth of ovarian
individual through its own growth follicles i.e. initiates egg
hormone which controls the size of development.
the bones. o Stimulates secretion of
oestrogen by the follicle cells.
o Initiates sperm production
within the testes.
Hormones produced by
pituitary gland
Luteinizing hormone
Growth hormone o It is responsible for ovulation.
o Stimulates the thyroid gland to o Stimulates the follicle to
produce hormone that promotes develop into corpus luteum
growth. which involves secretion of
progesterone.
Giantism is abnormal growth
o Stimulates the cells of the testes
when pituitary gland produces
to secrete testosterone.
too much growth hormone.
Dwarfism is the permanent
retarded growth when pituitary Thyroid gland
gland secretes too little growth
hormones.

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 The thyroid gland is located on the o Muscles of alimentary canal
front and sides of trachea. relax to slow down peristalsis
and digestion.
Thyroid gland produces thyroxine
hormone which controls the rate of Pancreas
metabolism in the body since
metabolism uses energy produced by Pancreas is an endocrine gland because
tissue respiration whose rate is it secretes two important hormones.
controlled by thyroxine hormone. On the pancreas, there are hormone
o Goitre is the swelling up of producing cells arranged in small
thyroid gland due to too much isolated groups called Islets of
secretion of thyroxine Langerhans. These cells produce
hormone. The metabolism insulin and glucagon.
speeds up and the person
becomes thin.
o Cretinism is a condition which The Islets of Langerhans secretes
occurs when less thyroxine insulin into the blood, when the
hormone is secreted. glucose (sugar) level in the blood is
very high soon after a meal. The
insulin stimulates the liver cells to
Adrenal gland convert glucose in the blood into
glycogen and store it for future use. As
It is found on top of each kidney. such, the glucose level is restored.
Adrenal gland produces adrenaline
hormone that prepares the body for an
emergency. The Islets of Langerhans secretes
glucagon, when blood glucose level
falls. Glucagon stimulates the liver
For this reason, adrenaline hormone is cells to convert some of the stored
described as the fight or fright glycogen into glucose for immediate
hormone. use and so restores the blood glucose
level.

Adrenaline hormone once secreted has

effects on various organs in the body NOTE
such as heart, liver, muscles of Insulin also promotes the
alimentary canal and breathing centre conversion of carbohydrates
of the brain. to fats and slows down the
conversion of protein to
The biological effect of adrenaline carbohydrates.
hormone is that the whole body tenses
up ready for action, i.e.
o Heart beats faster Diabetes Mellitus
o Faster and deeper breathing to This is a disease in which an individual
increase oxygenation of blood passes out sugar in his or her urine.
and rapid removal of carbon
dioxide.
Causes of Diabetes Mellitus

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 o Failure of the Islets of
Langerhans to produce  Message transmission
sufficient insulin. o Messages in nervous system
o Reduced ability of the liver are transmitted in form of
cells to use insulin. electrical impulse.
o Messages are transmitted in
Treatment form of chemicals called
hormones.
Patients with diabetes need regular
injection of insulin in order to
control blood glucose level.  Speed
o Messages in nervous system
travel quickly.
Problems associated o Messages in hormonal system
with endocrine system travel slowly.

 Disturbances in production of
hormones.  Mode of message
 Inability of tissues to respond to transmission
hormones. o Messages in nervous system
are transmitted along nerve
fibres.
Homeostasis is the process that keeps o Messages in hormonal system
the conditions in the body constant. are transmitted through blood
Homeostasis occurs with influence of system.
endocrine system.

 Duration of effect
o Effect of message in nervous
Examples of homeostasis system lasts for a short time.
o Regulation of body temperature o Effect of the message in
o Regulation of glucose level in hormonal system lasts longer.
blood.
o Osmo – regulation
o Tubular secretion Revision questions
1. Mention three steps involved in
Differences between conditioning an organism. (2007
Maneb)
nervous and hormonal 2. Describe an experiment that could be
carried out to show the effects of
coordination practice on hitting a target. Your
 Composition answer should include procedures,
o Nervous system is made of expected results and conclusion. (2014
neurons. Maneb)
o Hormonal system is made of
secretory cells.

145
Topic 14 Immunity
Skin; the outer surface of the human
Immunity body is covered with a thin layer of
It is the process by which the body dead cells called cornified layer of the
provides defense against infection. skin.
The cornified or keratinized layer acts
How does the body provide as barrier against entry of germs since
this layer is deprived of food and
defense against infection oxygen hence germs die. Thus, skin is
i. Prevents entry of germs into it. also called germ proof.
ii. Kills pathogens that enter it.
iii. Neutralizes toxins produced by
the pathogens. Respiratory tract; has trachea and
nasal cavity that have cilia and produce
mucus.
Types of immunity
The cilia and mucus trap germs and
1. Natural immunity dirt and get rid of the germs.
2. Artificial immunity

Tears; contain a substance called

lysonzyme that kills germs that might
Natural immunity enter the eye.
The defense against infection is provided They sweep away germs as they flow
by body on its own without being made to and blink movement until the eye is
do so by man. clean.
There is no influence made by man but the
body. Earwax (cerumen); the wax kills any
organism that might enter the ear. The
wax traps dust and germs.
Examples of natural
immunity
First line defense Digestive tract; the walls of stomach
contain hydrochloric acid (HCl) which
Prevent germs from entering the body. kills germs that might enter together
The first line defense acts as barriers with food.
that prevent entry of germs into the
body.
Symbiotic defence; in the small
intestines there are bacteria called E.
The following are the barriers against coli that produce some vitamins which
entry of germs into the body are important for immunity.

146
 Blood clotting; platelets clump
together and block smaller capillaries
Artificial immunity
thus forming clot. The clot prevents This is the body defense against infection
entry of germs into the body through by the influence of man.
the wound.

Second line defence Types of artificial

Kills germs that enter the body. This immunity
defense involves:
1. Passive artificial immunity
Under passive immunity an individual
Phagocytes; engulf and digest the receives ready-made antibodies to
germs in the blood and tissues. They provide body defense against infection.
are attached to the walls of lymph
nodes where they destroy germs in The individual’s body does not have to
them. produce the antibodies.

Examples of passive artificial

B – Lymphocytes; they have B –
immunity
plasma cells that transform into
antibodies that kill, weaken, neutralize i. Antibodies from colostrum to the
and make pathogens more susceptible baby.
to attack by the phagocytes. ii. Antibodies against diphtheria and
tetanus from horse’s serum
Fever; suppresses iron release from injected into an individual.
the liver, this in turn weakens and iii. Antitoxins from a recently
inactivates (deactivates) the pathogen recovered person from an attack
thereby killing them. of measles are taken and injected
into the body of healthy person.
Third line defence
This defense aims at getting rid of cells
that are severely infected.
2. Active acquired artificial
immunity
The individual receives killed,
Killer T – cells (Cytotoxic cells) weakened or attenuated germs through
Kill human cells that are highly vaccination so that his or her body
infected by the pathogens. In so doing responds by producing the antibodies
the pathogens (germs) are also killed. on its own.

Note: Artificial immunity is achieved

through a vaccine which is
Active natural immunity is when
administered in a process called
antibodies are produced in response to the
vaccination or inoculation.
presence of pathogens in the body.
Antigens actively produce antibodies thus
active natural immunity.
Vaccine

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 A vaccine is a dosage of killed, The helper T – cells are made to kill
weakened and toxoids (inactivated themselves prematurely and for no good
toxins) administered through reason.
vaccination.
Helper T – cells are the ones that control
The killed or weakened germs are similar and regulate other immune cells such as B
to those which cause a serious disease but – cells. In view of the HIV, CD4 or helper
are actually harmless. T – cells become fewer in person such that
Vaccination involves oral or injection. his or her immune system becomes
incapacitated and deficient
(immunodeficiency) and therefore person
How does an individual acquire will not be able to respond properly to
immunity through vaccine? other infections that one would not
succumb to in normal circumstances.
When a vaccine reaches the bloodstream
the body responds by producing antibodies
as if it were undergoing an attack from
actual disease causing organism. AIDS
AIDS is an acronym for Acquired
These antibodies once produced remain Immunodeficiency Syndrome. AIDS is the
thereby making the body immune to a stage of infection with HIV in which an
disease. infected person’s immune system has
These antibodies react with only the become so weak that he or she is at risk of
antigens which lead to their production developing other infections or cancers that
because they are specific. can potentially lead to death. This is so
because the virus damages the ability of
body to defend against diseases.
HIV and the immune
system
Virus has specific host cells. The Though all people with AIDS are infected
primary host cell for the HIV is Helper with HIV, not all people with HIV
T – cells. infection have AIDS nor will all of them
develop AIDS. However, AIDS is the final
life threatening stage of infections due to
How does the HIV affect the presence of HIV in the body.
helper T – cells?
i. The HIV infects the helper T – ABO blood systems
cells directly thereby killing
them or makes them useless. Blood groups are determined by antigen.
ii. The virus also makes the helper There are antigens on the surface of one’s
T – cells to undergo red blood cells.
apoptosis.

Apoptosis is a programmed cell death in

which cells kill themselves (cell suicide).

148
Antigens9 are proteins that influence the
production of antibodies.
Determination of one’s
Types of antigens
There are two types of antigens namely: blood group
i. Antigen A The blood group determination involves
ii. Antigen B the following procedures:
 Put anti – a serum on the slide and
Some individuals have antigen A on their should be dried. Anti – a serum
red blood cells. Others have antigen B on contains anti – a antibodies.
their red blood cells. Yet some have both  Put anti – b serum on another slide
antigens A and B on their red blood cells. and dry it. It contains anti – b
Other individuals have neither antigen A antibodies.
nor B on their red blood cells.  Then put blood samples of an
individual on these anti – sera.
Blood groups are named after the type of
antigen an individual has on his or her red
blood cells. Results
- The blood group is A when
agglutination occurs on anti – a serum
Antigen on red Blood group
but not on anti – b serum. This means
blood cell
the blood sample has antigen A that
A A has agglutinated with anti – a
B B antibodies.
- The blood group is B when
A and B AB agglutination occurs on anti – b serum
None O but not on anti – a serum. This means
the blood sample has antigen B that
has agglutinated with anti – b
Antigens influence the production of antibodies.
antibodies. - The blood group is AB when
agglutination occurs on both anti – a
serum and anti – b serum. This shows
Antibodies are blood proteins that are that the blood sample has both antigen
found in the blood plasma. A and B.
- The blood group is O when there is no
agglutination on both anti – a serum
and anti – b serum. This shows that
Antigen Antibody blood sample has neither antigen A nor
A anti – b antigen B.
B anti – a
A&B none
None anti – b & anti – a Blood transfusion
This is the practice of transferring blood
from an external source into the patient
9
See also red blood cells in circulatory
system for better understanding of antigens.

149
who must have lost blood through accident 15% with no Rhesus antigen and are said
or diseases. Rhesus negative Rh- . Giving Rh+ blood
to a Rh- person agglutination occurs.
Cross matching Before transfusion, make sure the patient’s
blood is compatible with donor’s blood.
This is the procedure of ensuring safe
blood transfusion.
Hepatitis
How cross – matching is carried This is inflammation of the liver caused by
any of several viruses. Hepatitis B is
out? contracted by exposure to the body fluids
- A blood sample from a patient is put of an infected person. These fluids include
on a slide. A blood sample from a blood and semen. Hepatitis B may be
donor is then added to the same slide. severe or even fatal and approximately
Mix the samples. 10% of those who recover become carriers
- Leave the mixture of samples for some of the virus. Hepatitis B may lead to
time. cirrhosis or primary liver cancer. However,
- Check if agglutination has or not before blood transfusion hepatitis B should
occurred on the slide. be considered.
 Clear mixture indicates that
there will be safe blood
transfusion. Syphilis
 Clump mixture indicates
This is caused by the bacterium
that will be unsafe blood Treponema pallidum. Although syphilis
transfusion. can be cured with penicillin, it is a disease
that may be ignored by the person who has
it because the symptoms may seem minor
and often do not last long. If untreated,
Factors to consider however, syphilis may cause severe or
before blood transfusion even fatal damage to the nervous system
and heart.
Blood group
Attention should be observed before
conducting blood transfusion because it is HIV/AIDS
factual that the antibodies in the recipient’s
blood agglutinate (destroy) the antigens in Since HIV/AIDS is blood borne infection.
the donor’s blood if these antigens do not Therefore, blood must be screened to
influence the production of particular ensure it is free from the virus before
antibody. transfusion.

Rhesus factor
Another group of antigen is Rhesus factor.
Anaemia
Rh antigens are present on surface of red
blood cells of about 85% of the This is a condition in a patient has
population. These people are said Rhesus insufficient red blood cells. For this reason
positive (Rh+). The rest of population is anaemic person cannot donate blood. In

150
most cases girls, women and older people o Kidney
are prone to anaemia. o Cornea
o Heart
Summary of safe blood o skin
transfusion
The information below summarizes the
pattern from whom or to whom donate or
receive blood (thus, safe blood transfusion) Factors to consider
- Blood group A can donate blood to A
and AB but can receive from A and O. before organ transplant
- Blood group B can donate blood to B i. Type of organ
and AB but can receive blood from B ii. Size of an organ
and O. iii. Age of a person
- Blood group AB can donate blood to iv. Blood group
AB only but can receive blood from A, v. Rhesus factor
B, AB and O. vi. Syphilis
- Blood group O can donate blood to A, vii. Hepatitis B
B, AB and O but can receive blood viii. HIV/AIDS
from O only.
Universal donor is an individual with
blood group O. This is so because
individuals with blood group O have no Importance of
antigens on the surface of red blood cells
to agglutinate any recipient’s blood.
immunization
Universal recipient is an individual with Immunization is based on the principle
blood group AB. This is so because ‘‘prevention is better than cure’’. As such
individuals with blood group AB have no immunization provides a resistance of a
antibodies to agglutinate any donor’s body to various infections.
antigen.

Organ transplant
Revision questions
It is the surgery that involves tissues 1. State two factors which must be
replacement to the patient (or victim) considered before a blood transfusion
Calcineurin is the target of is done. (2004 Maneb)
immunosuppressive drugs used to treat 2. Describe how an individual could
patient following an organ transplant. acquire natural active immunity.
(2004 Maneb)
Examples of organ
transplants

151
Topic 15 Cancer
Cancer
Cancer occurs when cells grow and
multiply in abnormal and uncontrolled
manner. Normal tissue development
depends on a balance between cell
multiplication and cell death. When cells
multiply faster than they die, the result is
an abnormal tissue growth called a tumor
(neoplasm).

The study and treatment of tumors is a

Note
branch of medicine called oncology.
Tumours are simply clumps of
cells.

Forms of tumors
Types of cancer
Benign
Cancers are classified according to the
These are harmless tumors but sometimes
type of tissues or cells in which they
can be fatal. Benign tumors are surrounded
originate.
by a fibrous capsule, grow slowly, and do
not spread to other organs; although they
are nevertheless sometimes fatal. A wart is
a benign tumor. Carcinoma
Found most frequently in the skin, nose,
mouth, throat, stomach, intestinal tract,
Malignant
glands, nerves, breasts, urinary and genital
These tumours have no capsule, grow structures, lungs, kidneys and liver.
rapidly and shed cells that can “seed” new
tumours in other organs, a phenomenon
called metastasis. Sarcoma
The word cancer refers only to malignant It is formed in the connective tissues of the
tumours. body such as bone, cartilage and tendons.

Melanoma
It arises from the melanin – containing
cells of skin.
Found most often in people who have had
extensive sun exposure.

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Neuroblastoma  Abnormal division
 Metastasize
It originates in the immature cells found  Do not stick together firmly.
within the central nervous system and  Differentiate; they look as if they have
usually found in children. reverted to an early stage in their
development.

Leukemia
It is found in cells of the blood and blood
forming tissues characterized by abnormal,
immature white blood cell formation and
several forms are found in children and
adults.

Causes of cancer
Lymphoma
Cancer is caused by abnormal multiplication
It arises in cells of the lymphatic tissues or of cells in the body due to mutation.
immune system tissues.
Characterized by abnormal white blood Factors that increase the risk
cell production and decreased resistance.
of cancer
How cancerous cells 1. Carcinogens
This includes chemicals such as cigarette tar,
spread nitrites (used as food preservatives) and
A primary tumour is a tumour in the site of many industrial chemicals.
origin, and a secondary (metastatic)
tumour is a tumour in a new site resulting 2. Some viral infections
from the spread of cells from the original Viruses such as the hepatitis B and herpes
tumour. Thus, spreading of cancerous cells simplex 2 viruses increase the risk of cancer.
is called metastasis.
3. Ionizing radiation
Human organs often affected This includes as X – rays and gamma rays.
by cancer are as follow; lung, 4. Smoking and over drinking
breast, colon, prostate, pancreatic duct, alcohol
leukemic, ovarian, stomach, nervous
system and bladder. Smoking greatly increases the chances of
getting lung cancer. The tar in a tobacco
smoke causes some cells to divide
abnormally developing into lung cancer.
Over drinking alcohol causes cancer of
Differences between stomach, oesophagus and liver since alcohol
cancerous cells and kills cells.

normal cells
Cancerous cells have distinct characteristics
5. Hereditary
The risk of cancer is often hereditary and
that make them different from normal cells.
many forms of cancer have been traced to

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two types of genes; oncogenes and tumour –
suppressor genes. Treatment of cancer

Surgery, remove cancerous mass

Note surgically.
All of these agents are Chemotherapy arrests the cancer with
mutagens; that is, they cause highly toxic drugs.
mutations, or changes in Radiotherapy, use of radiation such as x
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – rays from radioactive element like cobalt
to destroy tumours.
and chromosome structure,
Immunotherapy, provide antibodies or
which in turn result in
immune cells to attack cancer cells.
uncontrolled cell division.

Prevention and control

Effects of cancerous cells
of cancer
in the body
Death, by displacing normal tissue, Healthy living, avoid smoking, avoid
excessive drinking of alcohol and eating
so the function of an organ proper diet containing vitamin C and
deteriorates; an example of this is vegetables with fibres.
when a lung tumour replaces so Immunization, for example, liver cancer
much lung tissue so that the blood related to hepatitis B.
can no longer get enough oxygen, or
Palliative care
a brain tumour compresses and kills
brain tissue.
Revision questions
Cancerous cells by invading blood vessels,
1. Figure 2 is a diagram showing a lymph
causes fatal haemorrhages.
node which has a tumour beginning to
develop. Use it to answer the questions
Malfunctioning of organs: by that follow:
compressing vital passages. For example,
shutting off air flow into the lung or
obstructing blood flow through a major
vein or artery. a
a
a. Name the type of disease
Competition for nutrients; by shown.
a
competing with healthy tissues for a
b. State two ways in which the
nutrients, often causing the body to break cells of athe tumour might affect
down its own proteins (muscle, for A
the surrounding it.
example) to feed the “hungry” tumor, or 0
c. Suggest any two factors that
failing to make enough red blood cells and would increase the risk of
platelets because stem cells are diverted developing the disease named
into producing the abnormal white blood above. (2004 Maneb)
cells of leukemia.

154
2. Figure 7 shows the normal lining of a 3. State any two ways of preventing the
lung in W and an infected lining in X. disease. (2013 maneb)
use it to answer the questions that
follow.

a. Name the disease that causes

the condition in X.
b. Explain how the disease is
caused.

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Topic 16 Genetics and Evolution II

generation. Examples include; height,

intelligence, skin colour among others.
Variation
This refers to observable differences
that exist within species of organisms. Types of variation

Variation among organisms of same Continuous variation

species is called intraspecific variation.  Has several middle forms for a
character in organisms so that the
organisms can be arranged from
one extreme to another.
Causes of variation  Usually controlled by several pairs
of alleles.
among organisms of the  It is greatly influenced by
same species environment.

1. Heredity
These are variations that are inherited by Examples of continuous
organisms from their parents. variation
These are called genetic or heritable  Height
variation such as height, nose shape, face  Mass
shape and others.  Intelligence
2. Age
These are variations that are determined by A graph of students against height
the age of an organism in a species. character.
Example include skin colour among
human beings.

3. Environment
There are several variations which are
determined by factors in the environment.
Characteristics caused by an organism’s
environment are sometimes called
acquired characteristics.

They are not caused by genes as such they Interpretation – most students come in
cannot be handed on to the next the middle of the range, with fewer at the
lower or upper ends.

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 Fertilization
Discontinuous variation Any two gametes of opposite type can
 Has fewer or no middle forms and fuse together at fertilization, so there
so organisms cannot be graded into are many possible combinations of
a continuous sequence. genes which may be produced in the
 Usually controlled by a single pair zygote.
of alleles.
 It cannot be altered by In an organism with a large number of
environment. genes the possibility of two offspring
having identical genotypes is so small
that it can be considered almost
impossible.
Examples of discontinuous
variation
 Sex Mutation
 Tongue rolling Sometimes a gene may suddenly
 Blood group
change. This is called . Most
mutations are harmful, but
A graph of population in million against occasionally one may happen to give
frequency of blood group mutant organism an advantage in the
struggle for existence. It will then
survive to pass its new characteristics
on to the next generation.

Mathematical skills used

to describe variation
Blood group A (37%), Blood group B
You must collect data on the following;
(13%), Blood group AB (6%) and Blood
group O (44%). students’ heights, tongue rolling, among
others. Then do the mathematical
calculation on statistical terms.
How does genetic
Calculation
variation arise?  Frequency; this is the total
number of tallies in each event.
Meiosis
During sexual reproduction, gametes
 Mean; this is also called average.
are formed by meiosis. In meiosis,
sum of numbers
homologous chromosomes Mean =
total frequency
exchange genes and separate from one  Median; this is the number which
another, so the gametes are not all is found exactly in the middle of
exactly the same. events.

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 The numbers are arranged in an b. Draw a histogram to compare the
order either ascending or mass and number of babies of each
descending. range.

Middle number =
𝑛+1 Mutation
2
Where n is the total number in This is a sudden change in gene or
chromosome.
the list
Then you count the numbers where Any change in a gene or chromosome
middle number is found is the usually has a harmful effect on the cell
median. in which it occurs.

 Range; it is the number found Inheritable mutation – occurs

when lowest number is subtracted in the primary sex cells or germ cell of
from highest number. an organism and is inherited by its
R = highest value – lowest value offspring. It is passed on to future
generation.
For example, find the range from
data 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
R= HV – LV R= 9 – 5 = 4 Non inheritable mutation –
occurs in body cell or somatic cell of
 Mode; it is the most frequent an organism and spread in that
number. organism if the cell multiplies by
mitosis. It is not transmitted to the sex
cells hence not inherited.
Drawing
 Histogram
It has no spaces between the bars Types of mutation
and the bars have same width.
Histogram uses grouped data. Chromosome mutation
 Bar chart This involves a change in chromosome
It has equal spaces between any number. There are two forms
bars that have same and equal
width.
 Nondisjunction
Ovum carries an extra
chromosome, so that it 24
chromosomes instead of 23
chromosomes. The affected child
Activity
has 47 chromosomes because the
Data below are the birth masses of 12 ovum fuses with a sperm that has
babies in kg. Use it to answer the questions normal 23 chromosomes.
that follow;
Effects – inheritance form of
3.1, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 3.4, 2.5, mental and physical retardation
2.6, 3.4, 3.0, 3.5, 2.0, 3.5 called Down syndrome or
a. Calculate the average birth mass mongolism

158
 3. Exposure to high energy
 Polyploidy radiation
The ovum carries 22 chromosomes The radiations such as X – rays, beta
instead of 23 chromosomes. The and gamma rays are the most
affected child has 45 chromosomes increasing rate of mutation.
because the ovum fuses with
normal 23 chromosomes. 4. Exposure to ultra violet rays
Effect – monosomy The radiations lying in the ultraviolet
range are longer than X –rays. This
occurs due to exposure to intense
Chromosome mutation also sunlight.
involves a change in chromosome
structure by the following ways;
i. Addition of extra Effects of mutation
nitrogenous base i. Cause variations among members of
ii. Deletion of a base the same species, for example, a
iii. Translocation of one base person having extra finger or toe.
for another. ii. Make organisms better adapted to
its environment for survival. This
may be beneficial effect of
Gene mutation mutation.
iii. Some mutations are harmful and can
This is a change in the sequence of
cause result in death.
nitrogenous bases in DNA molecule that
occur as an error during replication.
Note
Examples of characteristics
Mutants are homozygous recessive;
produced by mutations and therefore are very weak and die
i. Albinism
ii. Sickle cell anaemia before old age.
iii. Haemophilia
iv. Resistant germs to drugs
Evolution
Causes of mutation Evolution is the gradual change in
organisms from common ancestors.
1. Rise in temperature
In some organisms the mutation rate The general accepted ideas today about
increases as the temperature increases. where all living things came from is that
The rate appears to twice over with the forms of life that now exist have
increase of 100 0C. gradually developed from much simpler
ones.
2. Chemicals
Numerous chemicals cause rise in
mutation rate when applied to Forms of evolution
organisms.
Convergent evolution

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 Produces analogous structures in He arrived at this theory after visiting
organisms evolved from different many strange, distant and lonely places
ancestors. such as Galapagos, Chatham Islands, 960
km into the Pacific Ocean from the
Divergent evolution mainland of South America, a land at the
Produces modifications of structures unknown in Europe.
that have evolved from a common
ancestor. During his voyage, he saw many different
forms of life, growth of trees and varieties
of beetles and other invertebrates, giant
Theory of evolution slow moving tortoise and important fossils
were just beginning to be accepted by
All living things evolved from common scientist as remain to pass life.
ancestors over a long period of time, thus
the theory of evolution. Darwin’s theory of Evolution
However, scientists have been puzzled
by natural selection is
over the origins of forms of life wondering beautifully simple and stated in
where living organisms came from. At system.
different times, different ideas attempt to
explain the problem, but none stood the
test.
Variation
Many theories were proposed and later The organisms of a given species have
were disapproved and only one theory variation. Ever, individual differs from all
proposed by Charles Darwin was accepted others of the same species. This is not only
and it is widely applied as the theory of clearly seen in human beings and other
evolution. organisms but also true of simple
organism, for example, malaria parasite.
The variations are due to mutation and
resortment of genetic materials.

Over – production
All organisms can produce more offspring
than survive, that is, for example, a fern
plant may produce 50 million spores in a
Charles Darwin (1809 – year and other spores die. If all species
survived fern might cover most of Africa
1882) theory of within two generations.
evolution
In 1858, Charles Darwin was the first Struggle for existence
person (biologist) to theorize the ideas that Every organism faces a constant struggle
living things have through natural to survive. The struggle is worst amongst
selection or survival of fittest acting members of the same species because they
over a wide range of inheritable variances. compete for the same resources with the
struggle to reproduce and leave more

160
offspring, the others die before they Fossils are the remains of animals and
reproduce fewer offspring. plants preserved in various ways.
Sedimentation; The fossils show
how a skeleton of the fish might
Natural selection (survival of
become embedded in mud was settling
fittest) down on the bottom of a lake. It may
Throughout the past deep ocean of time become covered with sediment.
environment has been constantly changing.
Preservation of whole organisms;
Some members of any species given
any environment that prevents rapid
population of organisms that adapted
decay may produce fossils. Insects
change and become best suited to the new
have been found trapped in amber
environment will survive because their
which is formed from resin exuding
inheritance best suits the environment.
from trees, pollen grains are preserved
Others will not be suited to the new in the anaerobic conditions of bogs and
environment and will die without leaving their fossils remain are found in peat.
offspring, hence their genes will not
continue in the population. Darwin called Preservation of hard parts; such
this fittest through natural selection. as shells and bones, tree trunks and
other fossil remains give us some ideas
of the animals and plants that were
Advantageous characteristics living millions of years ago. Fossil
sequence; the deepest layers of rocks
passed to offspring are likely to contain the oldest fossils.
The organisms that survive pass their traits
Petrifaction; the fossil record appears
hence inheritable characteristics to their
to support the idea that fish like
offspring. Generally, offspring restore
creatures could have given rise to
parents that survive because of some
mammals because 300 million years
useful traits for that on their offspring.
ago, there were plenty of fish but no
Offspring whose traits appear will also mammals. The fossils were washed
tend to survive and the same will be true in away and replaced by minerals from
each generation as long as same forces are the water.
at work in the environment.
Other tracers such as dinosaurs,
worms and other burrowing animals.
Gradual change
No single person can observe the process Comparative anatomy
taking place, but it can be proved by
evidences. In this way, over a period of The skeleton of the front limb of five
time the population will lose all poorly types of vertebrates such as
adapted individuals. The population will amphibians, reptiles, birds and
gradually become better adapted to its mammals have arrangement and
environment. number of the bones that is almost the
same in all five animals. The same
design is pent dactyl limb.
Evidence of evolution This suggests that all mammals may
have evolved from the same ancestors
Fossil Records which lived long time ago. Structures
which are found in different animals

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 but have the same design are called
homologous structures.
Structures that have no function today
but are thought to have been important
in the past such as coccygeal vertebrae
in human beings and part of skeleton
of snake that is thought where the legs
were joined are called vestigial
structures.

Geographical distribution
Biogeography is the study of the
geographical distribution of organisms.
Mammals are distributed on all great
continents. The mammals are not
exactly alike, though they are similar.
The similarity supports the idea that
they arose from a common ancestor
many millions of years ago and have
evolved along their own lines in
separate continents.

Comparative Biochemistry
Comparative Embryology The composition and structure of the
The development of the embryo of biochemical compounds in different
organisms that are quite different in the species can be compared to be similar
mature form often shows a similar such as haemoglobin molecules and
early pattern and similar structures in amino acid sequences in their proteins
the early stages. All vertebrate and the chlorophyll molecules in
embryos, for example, pass through plants.
stages that are very similar in structure As such, the closer the relationships
and organization before differentiating like chimpanzees and humans in terms
into special structures of the species. of haemoglobin molecules, the closer
This is believed that the vertebrates the similarity.
have development pattern of a
common ancestor.
The embryos possess gill slits (gill Comparative Cytology
clefts) in mammals, reptiles and birds Cell organelles, such as the cell
in the pharynx. This means vertebrates membrane, ribosomes and
have aquatic ancestors. mitochondria are very similar in
organisms of all kinds.

Natural selection

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 This is the process in which nature The common form of peppered moth is
selects the fittest individuals and speckled but there is also variety which is
rejects the weak ones. black. The black variety was rare in 1850
This natural selection is based on ‘‘the but by 1895 in the Manchester area its
better adapted varieties are selected by numbers had risen to 98% of the
the pressure of the environment’’ population of the peppered moths.
hence selection pressures.
Observation showed that the light variety
was concealed better than the dark variety
when they rested on tree trunks covered
with lichens. In Manchester area, pollution
Examples of natural had caused the death of the lichens and the
darkening of the tree trunks with soot. In
selection in action the industrial area the dark variety was
better camouflaged (hidden) of the two and
Sickle cell anaemia was not picked off so often by birds.
The dark variety survived better, left more
A person with sickle – cell disease has
offspring and nearly replaced the light
inherited both recessive alleles (HbSHbS)
form.
for defective haemoglobin. The distortion
and destruction of the red blood cells
which occurs in low oxygen Existence of Drug Resistance
concentrations lead to bouts of severe
New species of germs that are resistant to
anaemia.
drugs have arisen through the process of
evolution. Today, there are species of TB
There is thus a selection pressure which bacteria that are resistant to drugs used to
tends to remove the homozygous recessive TB.
from the population. In such a case you
expect the harmful Hbs allele to be New species have evolved and they are
selected out of the population altogether. resistant to penicillin.
However, the heterozygotes (HbAHbS)
have virtually no symptoms of anaemia In an ordinary population of weevils there
but do have the advantage that they are
are some resistant to certain insecticides
more resistant to malaria than
homozygotes HbAHbS. and some not. For example, resistant
individuals may have slightly thicker
The selection pressure of malaria
cuticle so that insecticides does not
therefore, favours the heterozygotes over
homozygotes and the potentially the penetrate, or may possess an enzyme that
harmful HbS allele is kept in the breaks down the poison. As such, in
population. normal natural environment the resistance
When Africans migrate to countries where is genetic that is inherited and they
does not occur, the selective advantage of produce offspring.
the HbS allele is lost and frequency of
population diminishes.
Importance of natural
Peppered Moth selection

163
 a. Improves other characters as well population over a period of time and
as size of organisms. which may result in the origin of
b. Changes the genetic composition species.
of a population.
c. Enables organisms to adapt their 2. Isolation
environment.
Isolation can produce new species.
Human communities practice a form of Isolation is a process which gives an
selection when they breed plants and account on how speciation is for the
animals for specific characteristics. This is existing species to be split into two
artificial selection. groups.

Examples of artificial selection They must be separated by some kind

1. Farmers cross strong bulls in herds of of barrier which they cannot cross. For
cattle for breeding and kill or castrate example, one population may live in
all weak ones. drier area and another in wetter area.
2. Farmers breed cattle with high milk Each group continues to live and breed
production or fast meat production.
in its environment. If the two
3. Farmers choose only those tomatoes
environments are different, then the
that produce large fruits for growing
selection pressures on the organisms
purposes.
will be different.

Speciation
This is the formation of new species. Biotechnology (Plant
Specie is a group of living organisms and animal breeding)
which are all very similar to one another.
The biologists use their knowledge of
genetics to produce new varieties of plants
How speciation occurs and animals by cross pollination and
cross breeding respectively.
1. Natural selection
For example, suppose one variety of wheat
Some of the members of any produces a lot of grain but is not resistant
population will be better suited for the to a fungus. Another variety is resistant to
new environment. They will have a the disease but has only a poor yield of
greater chance of surviving to maturity grain. If these two varieties are cross –
and producing offspring. Others will pollinated, the F1 offspring should be
disease resistant and give a good yield of
not be suited for the new environment
grain.
and will die young without leaving
offspring. Hence their genes will not Another instance, is when one breed of
goats is found to have some resistance to
continue in the population. diseases but its milk production is low
while another breed has high milk
Natural selection will have taken place production but not resistant to diseases. If
which results in changes in the these two breeds of goats are cross –bred,

164
the new breed of goats will have high milk varieties are readily available such as
production and high resistance to diseases. eggs.
The crossing process that involves plant
and animal breeding is called
Production of dairy cattle
hybridization. The offspring from the
cross of the two varieties are called Desirable characteristics such as high
hybrids. milk yield and resistance to disease
may be crossed. Stock breeders will
select calves from cows which give
Importance of large quantities of milk.
Selective breeding in farm stock can be
hybridization slow and expensive because the
i. The hybrids gain valuable animals often have small number of
characters from both parents. offspring and breed only once a year.
ii. Improves the quality and yield of
plants and animals.

Application of
Examples of plant and
biotechnology
animal breeding in 1. Agriculture
Malawi It is used in agriculture through
genetically modified organisms
Production of hybrid seeds (GMOs) in order to increase food
production on a yield.
Low yield/high resistant seed was 2. Medicine
crossed with high yield/low resistant 3. Manufacturing industry
seed and all offspring are o food microbiology (using
heterozygotes having high yield/high microbes to produce and
disease resistant. protect food and beverages
When the farmer grows the seeds of o Fermentation technology
these hybrids, the maize harvested will (production and
be of high yield and high resistance to manufacture of products
fungus disease. However, if the farmer like vitamins and enzymes).
plants seeds from the harvest of this
hybrid maize, there is difficulty that
the farmer will experience.
Implication of
biotechnology
Production of varieties of
 Advances in biotechnology may
poultry produce biological weapons that
Nowadays, new varieties of poultry are even more toxic, fast acting,
such as hybrid chicken have been and resilient.
introduced. These chickens take short  Production of new organisms or
period of time to grow old and such toxins designed to target specific
production has increased food populations
availability. The products of these

165
 Genetic engineering is used for
Genetic engineering producing frost- and disease-resistant
This is the process that involves crops and products with a longer
transferring lengths of DNA from one period and a better taste. For example,
species to another. it could result in the herbicide-resistant
Genetic engineering consists mainly of gene inserted in a grain variety being
obtaining lengths of DNA from an transferred through involuntary
organism and inserting them into other hybridization into a natural population
organisms, usually bacteria of a related “weedy” or deleterious
species, allowing it to prosper out of
control.
Application of genetic
How insulin is produced
engineering
The gene for human insulin is harvested
and be inserted into a bacterium called
1. Improves the quality of yields Escherichia coli. Its bacterial cells are
Genetic engineering has been used to given genetic instructions to produce
improve the qualities of rice. In the human insulin. The bacterium is thus made
1960s, shorter semi – dwarf varieties to produce insulin which can be isolated
were bred. This allowed farmers to and purified from the bacterial culture and
increase yields with fertilizers without used for treating diabetics.
having the long thin stems of full-
height rice fall over before harvest.
This development was a major part of Note
the “green revolution” in the 1960s, in
Human insulin was the first
which grain yields kept pace with a
rise steeply world population, medicine to be created
preventing widespread famine. More through recombinant DNA
recently, genetic engineering technology. Insulin is a
techniques have been used to introduce protein hormone produced by
a gene for a precursor of vitamin A,
the pancreas that is
lacking in white rice. This so-called
“golden rice” may help prevent important for regulation of
blindness due to vitamin deficiencies. blood sugar.

2. Production of resistant crops and

products

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Topic 17 Human diseases
Human disease is noticed by This disease is caused by bacteria
microbiology, thus, study of called streptococcus pneumonia.
microorganisms (microbes). Furthermore, Pneumonia is buildup of a fluid in the
the microorganisms that cause infectious lungs.
diseases are called pathogens. Pathogens
are also known as parasites and they live Mode of transmission
on another living organisms called host
Airborne – through inhaling
and cause harm to the host.
contaminated air which is coughed or
exhaled by infected person.
When pathogen establishes itself in a host,
Bacteria attacks the lining of the lungs
there is a period of time before symptoms
causing them to produce quantities of
appear. This is called incubation
liquid filling the lungs.
period. Incubation period is the period of
development of symptoms of diseases after
infection.
Symptoms
The pathogen is spread throughout the
body by the way of lymph or blood.  Chest pains
 Coughing
 Fever
Human diseases are caused by  Patients die by drowning
the number of groups of
microorganisms such as;
a. Bacteria
b. Viruses Prevention, control and treatment
c. Fungi  Treated by antibiotics.
d. Protozoa Antibiotics are chemicals used
Parasitic bacteria cause diseases by to treat bacteria.
entering and establishing themselves in a  Artificial ventilation with
host and begin reproducing as well as additional of oxygen may be
producing toxins that cause irritation of needed to help the patient
tissues. breath.
 Avoid overcrowding, that is,
live in a well – ventilated
rooms.
Diseases caused by
bacteria
Tuberculosis (TB)
Pneumonia

167
 This disease is caused by  Pasteurization of milk – heat
mycobacterium tuberculosis and bovis. treatment of milk to destroy
This is a major killer and commonest mycobacterium bovis.
cause of death of women in developing  Better nutrition helps reduce
countries. incident of the diseases. A high
protein content in the diet reduces
incident of this disease.
Mode of transmission
 Airborne – pulmonary
Cholera
tuberculosis is caused by
mycobacterium tuberculosis which This disease is caused by bacteria
is inhaled in droplets spread from called vibrio cholerae which
coughing of an infected person. multiply in the small intestines and
 Through milk from infected cows invade its epithelial cells.
– bovine tuberculosis is caused by
mycobacterium bovis which is Mode of transmission
present in the untreated milk of Waterborne – common where
infected cows. drinking water has been contaminated
by human faeces especially after
Symptoms flooding.
 Fever
 Bacterium can infect many organs
that lie dormant for years after Symptoms
initial mild infection.  Toxins released by bacteria cause
 Tuberculosis of lungs inflammation of the gut and severe
 General weight loss and coughing diarrhoea.
with blood.  Loss of water and mineral salts
 Scaring of lung tissue thus, reduces may result in death by dehydration
the area for gas exchange. and kidney failure.
 Death arises from ventilatory
failure. Prevention, control and treatment
 Antibiotics to kill the bacteria
Prevention, control and treatment
 Rehydration either by saline
 Treated by antibiotics, i.e. para- drippers or oral rehydration using
amino salicylic acid and isoniazid.
clean water mixed with salts and
 Controlled by vaccination – the glucose.
BCG vaccine is harmless form  Controlled by purifying water
gives immunity for 3 – 5 years and
streptomycin is used to kill the and supply of drinking water away
bacteria causing tuberculosis. from domestic sewage outlet.
 Vaccination
 Eradication of tuberculosis in
cows by vaccination.  Dispose human sewage safely.

168
 surface and may be spread through
touch.
Typhoid
This disease is caused by a bacterium Symptoms
called salmonella typhi.
 High body temperature
 Production of mucus which run
from nose.
Mode of transmission  Sneezing
 Waterborne  Sore throat
 Food borne
Prevention, control and treatment
 Isolation of patients
Symptoms  Avoid overcrowding
 Incubation period of 6 to 7 days.
 Mild fever initially followed by
higher fever. Influenza (Flu)
 Severe diarrhoea. A serious illness which kills older
 Ulceration of small intestines people and children.
 Death by dehydration
Mode of transmission
Air by droplet infection
Prevention, control and treatment
 Treated by antibiotics
 Controlled by clean water supply Symptoms
and safe disposal of human sewage.  High body temperature
 Vaccination  Aching joints
 Safe food handling  Fever
 Sneezing

Diseases caused by Prevention, control and treatment

viruses  Isolation of patients
 Avoid overcrowding places
Common cold
It is caused by many different viruses.
Measles
Mode of transmission One of the six diseases which regularly
Air by droplet infection – through kills children. Symptoms develop from
coughing or sneezing. Viruses remain 7 to 14 days of infection. This is called
ineffective for some hours on a skin incubation period.

169
Mode of transmission
Air by droplet infection AIDS
AIDS – stands for Acquired Immune
Symptoms Deficiency Syndrome. This disease is
caused by a virus called Human
 High fever Immune deficiency Virus. The virus is
 Running nose and cough found in body fluids such as blood,
 Red and sore eyes semen or vaginal fluids. The virus
 Temporary blindness in severe attacks the cells in the body that
protect against many fungal and
cases.
bacterial infections.
 Rash in the mouth and behind ears,
spreading to the rest of the body.
Mode of transmission

Prevention, control and treatment  Through sexual intercourse,

there is much higher risk of
 Isolate patients to prevent further infection when a person has more
spread. than one sexual partner.
 Vaccinates the children  Injections, especially when
 Immune after first infection. unsterilized needles are used for
injection of drugs by addicts and
when people share implements
such as razors and tooth brushes.
Chicken pox
 Blood transfusion10.
This disease is caused by varicella  Through placenta, an infected
virus. mother can also pass on the disease
to her child before and possibly
during birth.
Mode of transmission
Spread by direct contact or indirect Symptoms
from scabs clothing or other things
touched by infected person.  Chronic diarrhoea
 Sudden loss of weight
The virus may also be transmitted
 Severe cough
through the air by droplets.
 Inflammation of lymph nodes.

Symptoms
 Fever with headache Prevention, control and treatment
 Aching limbs  Abstain sex before marriage
 Having protected sex by using
 Blister like lesions (rash)
condoms.
 Education

Prevention, control and treatment


10
Isolation of infected patient Blood transfusion is well explained in
immunity, you may refer topic 14 on blood
 Vaccination transfusion.

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  Treated by anti – retroviral drugs Prevention, control and treatment
(ARVs)
 Applying fungicidal creams
 Isolation

Diseases caused by fungi

Athlete’s foot
Ring worm This disease is also known as tinea
Ringworm is a skin infection caused pedis and is caused by tribopbyton
by the fungus tinea. This fungus lives rubrum. This fungicidal disease is
on the skin and causes scalp in contagious mostly in hot weather.
children.
Forms of tinea are tinea canis
Mode of transmission
and tinea corporis.
Direct or indirect contact with skin
lesions of infected people or
Mode of transmission contaminated floors and other articles
 Direct contact of head used by victims.
 Using infected combs, brushes and
hats. Symptoms
 A highly infectious parasite
 Blisters or splitting of skin between
toes.
Symptoms  Itching between toes.
 Scaly round grey patches on the
skin which causes itching. Prevention, control and treatment
 Hair loss
 Personal hygiene
 Avoid contact with affected parts
Prevention, control and treatment of the patients or personal objects
 Isolate infected person of the patients.
 Personal hygiene  Keep the affected parts clean and
 Controlled by using your own dry.
combs.  Apply ointment in between toes.
 Treated by fungicidal creams and  Apply antiseptics e.g. alcohol in
drug griseofulvin. between toes.

Thrush (Candidiasis)
This fungal disease is caused by yeast Diseases caused by
like fungus called candida albicans. protozoa
Attacks the epithelium of the mouth or These diseases are caused by protozoa
vagina. carried by a vector. A vector is an animal
that carries disease causing organism.
Symptoms Hence diseases caused by protozoa by a
means of vector are called vector
 Itching of the infected parts transmitted diseases.
 Rash

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Malaria  Treated by antibiotics such as
This is caused by plasmodium quinine, chloroquine, paludrine,
carried by people and mosquitoes. It is novidar and LA.
one of the commonest and most  Get rid of mosquitoes.
weakening of all the illness in tropical
countries.
How to control the population
Mode of transmission of mosquitoes?
a. Spraying rooms and houses with
Female anopheles mosquitoes bite a insecticides to kill the adult
person with malaria and the mosquitoes.
plasmodium is sucked together with b. Spray oil on all stagnant water
blood. found in our surrounding area. The
Anopheles mosquitoes must have oil forms a layer at the surface of
blood to produce its eggs. The the water and it cuts off the oxygen
anopheles mosquito bites a healthy supply to the larvae and die due to
person so that he becomes infected. suffocation.
Plasmodium reproduces asexually in c. Use of fish or ducks in slow
form of cyst and ripens which burst breeding mosquitoes. The fish or
into sporozoites. They enter ducks eat the larvae and pupae of
bloodstream of the mosquito and are the mosquitoes.
carried into its salivary gland. The d. Drain the breeding areas that is all
mosquito bites a person firstly it injects stagnant water. This kills and
saliva to prevent the person’s blood prevents the mosquitoes at the
from clotting and it sucks blood as its larvae, egg and pupae stage.
meal.
The sporozoites remain in the liver for
8 days and later enter bloodstream Sleeping sickness
where they attack red blood cells. This disease is also known as
trypanosomiasis. It is caused by
Symptoms protozoan called trypanosome. This
microorganism lives in bloodstream of
 High fever human beings, cattle and buffaloes.
 Shivering and chills followed by
sweating which regulates
temperature. Mode of transmission
 General ill – health, aches and The parasite enters the human blood
pains. stream through the bite by a vector
 The patient becomes anaemic due called tsetse fly. The vector carries
to destruction of red blood cells. the parasites and passes it to the human
 Enlargement of liver and spleen. beings through the bites. The parasite
releases poisonous chemicals that
moves to the brain and cause a person
Prevention, control and treatment to become unconscious.

 Sleeping under nets. This prevents The vectors are prevalent in the bushy
an individual from mosquito. places near game parks or streams
 Covering the skin by wearing long where buffaloes are numerous.
trousers and sleeved shirts.

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 Prevention and control
Symptoms measures of diseases at
 Fever and lethargy household and
 Loss of appetite. community level
 Running nose and possible
1. Water treatment
blindness.
Water must be treated with chlorine so
 Frequent sleeping resulting into
that bacteria causing disease should be
death.
killed. Another way of killing bacteria
 Swollen lymph nodes. is by boiling drinking water. The
treated water must be then poured into
Prevention, control and treatment clean storage and cover them properly.
 Treatment by drugs to kill the
parasite. 2. Disposal of human and domestic
 Controlled by clearing the bush to wastes
get rid of tsetse flies.
The sewage discharge should be free
 Application of insecticides from any intestinal bacteria before its
discharge into rivers. This should be
ensured regularly because untreated
Elephantiasis
sewage contains pathogenic micro-
This disease is caused by tiny
organisms which become a source of
nematode worms called filarial worms.
infection.
The worms move into lymph vessel
and block them. This leads to chronic
inflammation of the affected organs 3. Personal hygiene
and repeated attacks by filarial worms We are always encouraged to wash our
lead to permanent blockage of lymph hands after visiting the toilet with soap
vessels which results into gross to get rid of bacteria. Wearing shoes
enlargement of the affected organs during rainy season and when visiting
called elephantiasis. the toilet can help prevents infection of
The affected organs become thick and athlete’s foot.
hard. The organs mostly affected are
legs, arms and breasts.
4. Pest control
Mode of transmission The kitchen utensils should be kept
clean to prevent spread of diseases.
Anopheles and culex mosquitoes pass Application of insecticides can get rid
filarial worm one person to another of mosquitoes, flies and cockroaches
person. that carry disease-causing organisms.

Prevention, control and treatment

5. Food treatment
Get rid of mosquitoes. Note that some The intestinal disease can be prevented
of the methods of prevention, control by washing hands before and after
and treatment elephantiasis as are the handling food substance. Food should
same as those of malaria. be treated by being prepared, stored
and displayed in such a way that flies

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 cannot walk on it, or infected droplet cuts in the skin, and we know the
fall on it. purpose of this is to prevent bacterial
infection. The use of such chemicals
destroys many harmful bacteria.
6. Health services
The practice of applying iodine,
hydrogen peroxide, or alcohol to minor

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Complete Biology; WR Pickering
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Jones
Introduction to Tropical Biology; John
Murray, 2nd and 3rd Edition.
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Applins
Life; The Science of Biology – 7th
Edition.
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Education Teaching Syllabus for
Biology (New syllabus).
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Senior Biology – Medi and Meredith.

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