20/09

A sets is a collection of elements, for example A=[a,b,c,d], where a∈A (which means
that a is an element of a set) and e ∉A (which means that e doesn’t belong in
the set).
Take into account another set of element B=[a,b,e,f], we have that
A∩(intersection of)B=[a,b] → A∩B ⊂ A and A∩B ⊂(inclusion) B.
A∪B=[a,b,c,d,e,f] → A⊆ A∪B and B⊆ A∪B
A disjoint sets is when 2 sets have no element in common A[a,b] and
B[c,d] A∩B=∅

SETS OF NUMBER
N = natural number, that you can count. N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…}; set of non-negative
integers, countably infinite number.
Z = set of all integers. Z= {…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…}; N⊆Z
Q = set of rational numbers. Q= { m/n : m, n ∈ Z, n≠0}; N (ex. 3/1)⊆Z
(ex. -3/1)⊆(subset of)Q
Q con righetta sopra = set of irrational numbers (uncountable and infinite) → if we take the
union Q∪Q con righetta sopra = R
R = set of real numbers, uncountably and infinite. R= {x | -∞ < x
<+∞}

INTERVAL
If a,b∈R : a<b
Bounded intervals:
[a,b] = {x∈R : a ≤ x ≥ b} → closed interval
]a,b] = {x∈R : a < x ≥ b} → left-open interval
[a,b[ = {x∈R : a ≤ x > b} → right-open interval
]a,b[ = {x∈R : a < x > b} → open interval
Unbounded intervals:
]-∞, a[ = {x∈R : x<a}
]a, +∞[ = {x∈R : x>a}

FUNCTION
Real-valued functions of a real variable
A,B⊂R
x→ f → f(x)=y; where x∈R and y∈R
f: A → B
Domain of f → D(f)
Range of f → R(f)
f: D(f) → R(f)
1. Increasing functions: given x1,x2∈D(f) : x1<x2 if and only if
f(x1)≤f(x2)
2. strictly increasing functions: given x1,x2∈D(f): x1<x2 if and only
if f(x1)<f(x2)
3. decreasing functions: given x1,x2∈D(f): x1<x2 if and only if
f(x1)≥f(x2)
4. strictly decreasing functions: given x1,x2∈D(f): x1<x2 if and only
if f(x1)>f(x2)

NATURAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

y=e^x → strictly increasing
e= nepero’s constant
LOGARITHM FUNCTIONS
y=loga x
a= base of the logarithm; a>0 and a≠0
a^y=x; y is the exponent of a to have x
D(f)= R++ ={x∈R : x>0}
- 0<a<1 strictly decreasing
- a>1 strictly increasing

NATURAL LOGARITHM FUNCTIONS

y = loge (x) → e^y=x
y = ln (x) → striclty increasing

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHM:
- loga (x*y) = loga x + loga y
- loga (x/y) = loga x - loga y
- loga (x^y) = y*loga x

COMPOSITION:
f,g s.t. R(f)⊆D(g); so the composition of g with f is the function h(x) =
g(f(x)), x∈D(f); y=f(x) → z=g(y)

27/09

INVERSE FUNCTIONS
One to one functions
- f is one to one if it never assumes the same value at 2 different
points in its D(f); if x1,x2∈D(f) and x1≠X2 then f(x1)≠f(x2)
- if f is one to one in D(f), then f has an inverse function f^-1; D(f^-1)=R(f)
- f and f^-1 are symmetric about the equation y=x
ODD vs EVEN FUNCTIONS
- f is an odd function on D(f) if f(-x)= -f(x), x∈D(f) (symmetric
about the origin)
- f is an even function on D(f) if f(-x)= f(x), x∈R (symmetric about
the y-axis)

LIMIT of a FUNCTION
We say that the lim x→xo f(x)= l, l∈R if for ∀ε>0, ∃δ(ε)>0 s.t. |x-x0|<δ(ε) ⇔ |f(x)-l|<ε;
x0 - δ(ε) < x < x0 + δ(ε) and f(x)∈]l-ε, l+ε[
In general we say that lim x→xo f(x)= +∞ if ∀M>0, ∃δ(M)>0 s.t. |x-x0|<ε ⇔ f(x)>M
lim x→∞ f(x)= l, l∈R
lim x→∞ f(x)= ∞
lim x→xo f(x)= ∞

PROPERTIES OF LIMITS
if lim x→xo f(x)= l1 and lim x→x0 g(x)= l2
1. lim x→xo f(x) +- g(x) → lim x→xo f(x) +- lim x→xo g(x) = l1≠l2
2. lim x→xo [f(x) * g(x)] → lim x→xo f(x) * lim x→xo g(x) = l1*l2
3. lim x→xo [f(x) / g(x)] → lim x→xo f(x) / lim x→xo g(x) = l1/l2 C.E. l2≠0
4. lim x→xo [f(x)]^2 = [lim x→xo f(x)]^2 = l1^n
5. limit of a constant is a constant lim x→xo c = c

ONE-SIDED LIMITS
lim x→xo+ f(x)= l; this is true if: ∀ε>0, ∃δ(ε)>0 s.t. |x-x0|<δ(ε) ⇔ |f(x)-l|<ε

PROPERTIES:
lim x→xo f(x)= l if and only if:
limx→xo+ f(x) = limx→xo- f(x)=l

03/10

CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
We say that the function f is continuous at x0∈D(f) if the lim x→xo
f(x)= f(xo); this is true if ∀ε>0, ∃δ(ε)>0 s.t. |x-x0|<δ(ε) ⇔ |f(x)-
f(xo)|<ε
- f(x)= a^x is a continuous function on R
- f(x)= ln(x) is a continuous functions on ]o, +∞[

PROPERTIES
If f(x) and g(x) are continuous at x0
1. f(x) +- g(x) is continuous at x0
2. f(x) * g(x) is continuous at x0
3. f(x) / g(x) is continuous at x0, provided C.E. g(x0)≠0
4. given r∈R, [f(x)]^2 is continuous at x0, provided f(x0)^r is defined
5. f is one to one is continuous at x0
6. f^-1 is continuous at x0

THEOREMS
1. Weierstrass theorem / existence of global extremes

Hp:| f is a continuous on a COMPACT INTERVAL(closed and bounded interval) [a,b]|

Th: | then f has a global maximum and a global minimum|

2. Bolzano’s theorem

Hp:| f is a continuous on a COMPACT INTERVAL(closed and bounded interval) [a,b]

and f(a)*f(b)<0; f(a) and f(b) have opposite sign|
Th: | then ∃c∈(a,b) s.t. f(c)= o (there is an intersection with the
zero-axis)|

3 TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY POINTS:

1°: we say that x0 is a 1° type discontinuity point for the function f if lim x→xo- f(x)= l1,
lim x→xo+ f(x)= l2 and l1≠l2; l1= f(xo) or l2= f(x0) → possibility

2°: we say that x0 is a 2° type discontinuity point for the function f if lim x→xo+ f(x)= ∞
or/and lim x→xo- f(x)= ∞
x0 is a 2° type of discontinuity point x=xo is a vertical asymptote

3°: we say that x0 is a 3° type discontinuity point if lim x→xo- f(x)= lim x→xo+ f(x)= l but
l≠f(x0) or f(xo) is not defined

04/10

An immediate limit is such because it is simple to compute.

a^x=0 (-∞); if and only if a>1; a^x=∞ (∞); if and only if a>1
INDETERMINATE FORMS

1. ∞/∞
2. 0/0
3. +∞-∞
4. 1^∞

11/10

3 NOTABLE LIMITS

DIFFERENTIATION
We say that the slope of a function f(x) at x0∈D(f) is the tangent line of f at
x0 and it is called DERIVATIVE of f at x0 f’(x0)

Consider the slope of the secant line PQ’ is closer to the slope of the tangent line.
As Q moves toward P the difference in slopes between the secant line PQ and the
tangent tends to 0:

If f’(x) exists and it is finite, it this is true, we say that f is DIFFERENTIABLE at x0

Suppose that
- f, differentiable in I, is an increasing function on the interval I if
and only if f’(x)≥0, ∀x∈I (strictly with >0)
- f, differentiable in I, is a decreasing function on the interval I, if
and only if f’(x)≤0, ∀x∈I (strictly with <0)

TABLE OF DERIVATIVES OF ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

f f’
k k, ∀x∈R
x^n nx^n-1, x∈R, n∈R\(0)
x^s sx^s-1, x>0, s∈R\(0)
a^x a^x*lna, x∈R, a>0, a≠1
ln(x) 1/x, x>0
loga(x) 1/x*ln(a), x>0, a>0, a≠1
 1/x -1/x^2

17/10-18/10

Differentiation
A function f is differentiable at x0 if lim h → 0 (f(x0+h)-f(x0))/(h)=f’(x0) exists and it is
finite.
f’(x0) is the derivative of f at x0 and it is the slope of the tangent line of f at x0.
The equation of the tangent line of f at xo → y=f(x0)+f’(x0)(x-x0)

Rules of dirrentiations
Given 2 differentiable function f and g, we have:
- f(x)+-g(x) → f’(x)+-g’(x)
- f(x)*g(x) → f’(x)*g(x) + f(x)*g’(x)
- f(x)/g(x) → f’(x)*g(x) - f(x)*g’(x)/(g(x)^2)

CHAIN RULE (derivative of a composite function)

f is differentiable at y=g(x) and g is differentiable at x
→ F(x)=f(g(x)) is differentiable at x and the derivative of F is F’(x)=f’(g(x))*g’(x)

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

Proposition: f is differentiable at x0, then f is continuous at x0.
differentiability implies continuity at x0, but not the contrary.
PROOF:
THEOREM ON DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTION
Rolle’s theorem(to find critical point)
Lagrange’s theorem(to find the point at which c is = to the slope of the secant line)
L'Hopital’s rule(serve per computare le forme indeterminate 0/0 e
∞/∞)

*anche 0*∞ è una indeterminata forma, che però non centra con la
regola sopra