Operational Amplifier

Introduction
• Various branches of electronics are: Industrial
electronics, Instrumentation, Communication,
Power electronics etc.
• Various electronic circuits used in the applications
of these branches are amplifiers, waveform
generators, timers, various arithmetic circuits
such as adder, subtractor, multipliers, Log-antilog
amplifier etc.
• One electronic device which can be used to
construct all the circuits mentioned above is
called an operational amplifier or OP-AMP.
 OP-AMP
• Voltage amplifier using a transistor uses many
other components such as coupling and
bypass capacitors, biasing resistors etc.
• In order to get higher voltage gain, we have to
use more than one such amplifiers together.
This will make the circuit bulky.
• So people started using the amplifier in the
integrated circuit (IC) form.
• Why it is called Operational Amplifier?
 An OP-AMP is basically an amplifier which could
be configured to perform a variety of operations
such as amplification, addition, subtraction,
differentiation and integration. Hence it is called
operational amplifier.
 OP-AMP is basically a multistage amplifier which
uses a number of amplifier stages interconnected
to each other in a complicated manner.
• Advantages of OP-AMP over conventional
amplifier:
1. It has smaller size.
2. Its reliability is higher than conventional
amplifier.
3. Reduced cost.
4. Less power consumption.
5. Easy to replace.
6. Same OP-AMP can be used for various
applications.
 OP-AMP Symbol and Terminals
• The OP-AMP is basically a voltage amplifier
with high voltage gain of 2 x 105 or 106 dB.

2 7
6

3 4
 Differential Amplifier
• Operational amplifier is expected to amplify
the differential signal present between its two
input terminals.

= V1 – V2
• Differential input signal (Vd):
The different between the input signals V1 and V2 is
called as the differential signal Vd.
Vd = V1 – V2
• Common mode signal:
A common signal to both the input terminal i.e. V1 = V2
= V is called as common mode signal.
• Differential gain Ad:
Ad = Vo/ Vd
Ad (dB) = 20 log 10 [Vo/Vd]
• Common mode gain Ac:
Ac = Vo/ Vc
where Vc = (V1 + V2)/ 2
• Total output voltage Vo:
Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc
• Common Mode Rejection ratio (CMRR):
CMRR is the ability of a differential amplifier to
reject the common mode signal successfully. It is also
called figure of merit.
CMRR = ρ = |Ad/ Ac|

IB1 = 0

IB2 = 0
 Important characteristics of Ideal
OP-AMP
1. Infinite voltage gain (AV = ∞)
2. Infinite input resistance (Ri = ∞)
3. Zero output resistance (Ro = 0)
4. Zero offset voltage:
In practical OP-AMPs a small output voltage is
present even though both the inputs V1 and V2 are
having zero value. This voltage is called as the offset
voltage.
5. Infinite bandwidth:
Bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of
frequencies over which all the signal frequencies are
amplified almost equally.
6. Infinite CMRR
7. Infinite slew rate (S = ∞):
The slew rate is defined change in output
voltage occur simultaneously with the input
voltage changes.
8. Zero power supply rejection ratio (PSRR = 0):
PSRR is specifies the degree of
dependence of OP-AMP output, on the
changes in power supply voltage.
Block Diagram of OP-AMP
• The Op-AMP consists of:
1. Input stage
2. Intermediate stage
3. Level shifting stage
4. Output stage
1. Input stage:
The input stage must satisfy the following requirements:
 It must have two inputs (inverting and non-inverting)
 It must provide a very high input impedance and low output
impedance.
 It must be directly coupled amplifier and must have a very high
CMRR.
2. Intermediate stage (gain stage):
The requirements of the intermediate stage are:
 Moderately high input and output resistance.
 High voltage gain.
3. Level shifting stage:
Due to the direct coupling between the first
two stages, the input of level shifting stage is an
amplified signal with some nonzero dc level.
Level shifting stage is used to bring this dc
level to zero volts with respect to ground.
4. Output stage:
Requirements of output stage:
 Low output resistance
 Large current sourcing capacity.
 Large output voltage swing.
 OP-AMP IC 741
• This is one of the oldest and most popular OP-
AMP IC.
• Features of IC 741:
1. No frequency compensation required.
2. Short circuit protection.
3. Offset voltage null capability.
4. Large common mode and differential voltage
ranges.
5. No latch ups.
Pin Configuration
• Pin configuration:
IC 741 is 8 pin IC.
 Pin 1 and 5:
These pins can be used to nullify the offset voltage.
 Pin 2 and 3:
Pin number 2 and 3 are inverting and non-inverting
inputs respectively.
 Pin 4 and 7:
Pin number 7 is for connecting the positive supply
voltage +VCC while pin number 4 is to be connected to a
negative supply voltage. Thus IC 741 needs a dual polarity
power supply.
 Pin 6:
We get the output voltage at pin number 6.
 Pin 8:
Pin number 8 is a dummy pin which is not connected
anywhere and hence should be left open or unconnected.
• Specifications:
Sr. No. Characteristics IC 741 Ideal value

1. Input resistance Ri 2 MΩ ∞

2. Output resistance Ro 75 Ω 0

3. Voltage gain AV 2 x 105 ∞

4. Bandwidth 1 MHz ∞

5. CMRR 90 dB ∞

6. Input offset voltage Vios 2 mV 0

7. Slew rate S 0.5 V/µS ∞

8. PSRR 150 µV/V 0

9. Input bias current IB 50 nA 0

10. Input offset current Iios 6 nA 0

• Applications:
1. Inverting and non inverting amplifiers.
2. Adder, subtractor.
3. Integrator, differentiator circuits.
4. Other applications such as V to I and I to V
converter, precision rectifier, log, antilog
amplifier etc.
 Virtual Short and Virtual Ground
• Virtual short:

I=0
• According to virtual short concept, both the input
terminals are approximately at the same
potential.
• The output voltage of an OP-AMP is given by,
Vo = AV x Vd
where, AV = open loop gain and
Vd = Differential input voltage
Vd = VO / AV
but AV = ∞ for an ideal op-amp and AV = 2 x 105
for IC 741.
• for ideal op-amp, Vd = 0. Thus the potential
difference between the input terminals is zero.
• Virtual ground:
If the non-inverting terminal of OP-AMP is
connected to ground, then due to the “virtual
short” existing between the two input
terminals, the inverting terminal will also be at
ground potential.
Hence it is said to be at “virtual ground.”
 Configurations of OP-AMP
• An op-amp can work in two different modes:
1. Open loop mode 2. closed loop mode
• Open loop configuration:
 The open loop configuration is that there is
absolutely no feedback present from the
output to input.
•Closed loop configuration:
In closed loop configurations, some kind of feedback
introduced in the circuit i.e. a part of output is returned back or
fed back to the input.
There are two types of feedback:
1. Positive or regenerative feedback
2. Negative or degenerative feedback
1. Positive feedback:
If the feedback signal or original signal are in phase with
each other then it is called as the positive feed back.
This feedback used in applications such as “oscillator”
and Schmitt trigger.
2. Negative feedback:
If the signal fed back to the input and the original input
signal are 180 out of phase, then it is called as the negative
feedback.
It is used in applications such as an amplifier.
 OP-AMP configurations
• Closed loop OP-AMP amplifier configurations are:
1. Inverting amplifier
2. Adder, subtractor
3. Non-inverting amplifier
4. Integrator
5. Voltage follower
6. Differentiator
7. Instrumentation amplifier
 Inverting Amplifier
• In inverting amplifier, the signal which is to be
amplified is applied at the inverting terminal of
OP-AMP.
• The amplified output signal will be 1800 out of
phase or “inverted” with the input signal.
• As shown in fig., input signal Vin is connected to
inverting terminal via resistor R1.
• Feedback resistor Rf connected between output
and inverting terminal and non inverting terminal
connected to ground.
IB2 = 0
• As we know, output voltage is given by,
VO = AV x Vd
but Vd = V1 – V2
• V1 = 0 since the NI (+) terminal is connected to ground. Hence
as per virtual ground concept the INV (-) terminal is also at 0 V
potential.
V2 = 0
• As Ri = ∞, the current IB2 goint into (-) terminal is zero.
• Hence current through R1 and Rf is same equal to I.
Vin = I x R1 and VO = -I x Rf
• Output voltage VO = AV x Vin
- IRf = AV x IR1
AV = -Rf /R1
• The negative sign indicates that there is a phase shift of 1800
between the input and output voltages
 Non- Inverting Amplifier
• In non-inverting amplifier, input signal is
applied to the non-inverting (+) terminal.
• Feedback resistor Rf is connected between
output and inverting terminal.
• Input and output voltages are in phase with
each other.
• For ideal Op-AMP, Ri = ∞, therefore the
currents entering into both the input
terminals of opamp will be zero. (I1 = I2 = 0)
• Therefore voltage across R1 is given by,
V2 = [R1 / (Rf + R1)] x VO
• As per the virtual short concept,
V2 = V1 = Vin
Vin = [R1 / (Rf + R1)] x VO
• Therefore closed loop voltage gain AV is given by,
AV = VO / Vin = (R1 + Rf) / R1
AV = 1 + (Rf / R1)
• The positive sign indicates that the input and
output are in phase with each other and closed
loop gain is always greater than unity (1).
 I2

I1
 Summing amplifier or Adder
• If more than one input signal is applied to an
any one input terminal of OP-AMP, the circuit
will add all these input signals to produce
their addition at the output.
• Adder circuit can be classified into two
categories as:
1. Inverting adder
2. Non-inverting adder
 Inverting Adder
• Fig. shows the inverting summing amplifier with
three inputs Vin1, Vin2 and Vin3 are applied to the
inverting terminal through resistors Rin1, Rin2 and
Rin3 respectively and Rf is the feedback resistor.
• Expression for output voltage:
 Let current through resistors Rin1, Rin2 and Rin3 be
I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
 apply KCL at node A to write,
I1 + I2 + I3 = IB2 + If ------(1)
 But for ideal op-amp, Ri = ∞, therefore IB2 = 0 and VA = VB = 0
due to virtual ground concept.
Hence, I1 + I2 + I3 = If
From input side, I1 = (V1 - VA) / Rin1 = V1 / Rin1
Similarly, I2 = (V2 - VA) / Rin2 = V2 / Rin2
and I3 = (V3 - VA) / Rin3 = V3 / Rin3
 And from output side,
If = (VA – VO) / Rf = (- VO) / Rf
 Substituting these values in eq. 1, we get,
(V1/ Rin1) + (V2/ Rin2) + (V3 / Rin3) = (-VO / Rf)
VO = - [(Rf/Rin1)V1 + (Rf/Rin2)V2 + (Rf/Rin3)V3]
 If we substitute Rf = Rin1 = Rin2 = Rin3 = R, then we get
VO = - (V1 + V2 + V3)
 Thus output voltage is the negative sum of the input voltage.
Therefore this circuit is called as “inverting adder”.
 A

I1

I2 If

I3 IB2
B
IB1
 Non - Inverting Adder
• An adder circuit which can produce the addition
of its input signals without inversion is called as
the non-inverting adder.
• Fig. shows the non-inverting adder with two
inputs V1 and V2.
• The output voltage is given by,
VO = V1 + V2
• The positive sign indicates that the inversion does
not take place in this adder and therefore it is
called as the non-inverting adder.
 Difference Amplifier
• The difference amplifier and subtractor circuits are used to
obtain the subtraction of two input voltages.
• Fig. shows the difference amplifier.
• Assume V2 = 0, then circuit become non-inverting amplifier
with output voltage VO1 and it is given by,
VO1 = AV x VA
VO1 = [1 + (Rf / R1)] x [Rf / (Rf + R1)] V1
= [(R1 + Rf) / R1] x [Rf /(Rf + R1)] V1
VO1 = (Rf / R1) V1
• The output voltage of the difference amplifier is given as,
VO = (Rf / R1) x (V1 – V2)
• (Rf / R1) is called as the “gain of the difference amplifier”.
B

A
 Subtractor
• The output voltage of difference amplifier is given
by,
VO = (Rf / R1) x (V1 – V2)
• If we substitute Rf = R1 = R in above equation,
then we get,
VO = V1 – V2
• And difference amplifier gets transformed into a
subtractor.
 Integrator
• Ideal integrator circuit:
If
f

1
IB
I1 V2
V1
IB
• The ideal integrator circuit is obtained by replacing the
feedback resistor Rf in the inverting amplifier
configuration by “C”.
• The output voltage of integrator is:

+C

where C is integration constant and it is proportional to

output voltage VO at t = 0.
• Practical Integrator:
• Applications of an integrator:
1. In the triangular wave or ramp generator
2. In the analog to digital converter
3. In analog computers to solve differential
equations.
4. As a low pass filter.
 Differentiator
• Ideal Differentiator Circuit:

= Rf
• The differentiator can be constructed from the
basic inverting amplifier by interchanging
resistance Rf and C1.
• The expression for the output voltage of
differentiator is given by,
• Practical Differentiator:
• Applications of differentiator:
1. In the P-I-D controller.
2. As a high pass filter
3. In the wave shaping circuits to generate
narrow pulses corresponding to any sharp
change in the input signal.
 Instrumentation Amplifier
• In many industrial and consumer applications the
measurement and control of quantities such as
temperature, pressure, humidity etc. is required.
• A transducer is used to convert these quantities
into a proportional electrical signal first.
• Output of the transducer is then applied to an
amplifier called “instrumentation amplifier.”
• This amplifier amplifies the low level output
signal of the transducer to such a level that it can
drive the indicator or display.
 Block Diagram of an Instrumentation
Amplifier

Physical
quantity to Pre- Instrumentation Indicator
be
Transducer or display
amplifier amplifier
measured
• fig. shows the block diagram of instrumentation
amplifier.
• The transducer is generally connected in a
bridge circuit. Its output is amplified using a low
noise pre-amplifier and through shielded cables
it is applied to an instrumentation amplifier.
• Output of the instrumentation amplifier is the
amplified version of its input.
• Practical Instrumentation Amplifier used for
temperature control:

R3
• The three OP-AMP Instrumentation Amplifier:
VO1

VO2
• The output voltage of three OP-AMP
instrumentation amplifier is given by,
VO = AV x (V1 – V2)
where AV = Overall voltage gain of the circuit
= [1 + (2 R1 / Rgain)] x [R3 / R2]
 Comparators
• Op-AMP used in open loop mode of
operation, operates as a comparator.
• A comparator will produce either a high
output voltage equal to + Vsat or a low output
voltage equal to – Vsat only, hence it can not
be used as an amplifier.
• There are two types of comparators:
1. Non inverting comparator
2. Inverting comparator
 Non Inverting Comparator
• In non-inverting comparator, ac signal is
connected to non inverting terminal while
positive dc reference voltage is applied to the
inverting terminal.
• As the current through resistors R is almost
zero, the voltage drop across them will be
equal to zero. Hence V1 = Vin and V2 = Vref.
Hence Vd = V1 – V2 = Vin - Vref
 V1

V2

Vin
• The operation of this circuit is given in
following table.
Input voltage Difference Voltage Output voltage VO
Vd
Vin > Vref Vd positive VO = + Vsat
Vin < Vref Vd negative VO = - Vsat

sat

sat
 Inverting Comparator
• In inverting comparator, ac input voltage is
applied to inverting terminal while dc
reference voltage Vref is applied to non
inverting terminal.
• Here, differential input voltage Vd is given by,
Vd = V1 – V2 = Vref - Vin
in
• The operation of this circuit is given in
following table.
Input voltage Difference Voltage Output voltage VO
Vd
Vin < Vref Vd positive VO = + Vsat
Vin > Vref Vd negative VO = - Vsat
Thank You