Name ___________________________________________

Unit 1:
Polynomial &
Rational Functions
Notes
Lesson 1-A: Change in Tandem

Function Rules

A function is a mathematical relation that maps a set of input values to a set of output values
VOCABULARY

such that each input value is mapped to exactly one output value.
The set of input values is called the ____________________ of the function, and the set of output
values is called the ______________________ of the function.
The “Rule of Four” concept, developed by the Harvard Calculus Consortium, will strengthen
your understanding for different ways to represent functions.

THE RULE OF FOUR (G.N.A.W.)

FOUR WAYS TO REPRESENT A FUNCTION

by points on a coordinate plane where input values are on the horizontal axis
Graphically
and output values are on the vertical axis

Numerically by a table or a set of ordered pairs that matches input values with output values

Algebraically by an equation in two variables

Words by verbally describing how the input variable is related to the output variable

Evaluating Functions

EX #1: Given the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥, evaluate

A. 𝑓𝑓(3) B. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓(3)

C. 𝑓𝑓(2𝑥𝑥) D. −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

E. 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) F. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 3)

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 Finding the Domain of a Function

If a function 𝑓𝑓 is defined by an equation and no domain is specified, then the domain will be the
largest set of real numbers for which the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is a real number. Exclude any real numbers
from a function’s domain that cause division by zero or that result in an even root of a negative
number, that is, an imaginary number.

EX #2: Find the domain and range in each of the relations below. Determine if the relation is
a function.
x y
A. { 7, −2 , −3, 5 , 1, 6 , 3, −4 , 2, 5 } B.

–6 −1
−3 −4
2 0
3 −2

C. D.

EX #3: Find the domain of each of the following relations. Is the relation a function? Use a graphing
calculator to verify your findings.
𝑥𝑥
A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2−9

C. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 4 − 2𝑥𝑥 D. 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 = 4

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 In general terms, we can say that a function increases over an open interval of its domain if its graph
rises from left to right on the interval. Likewise, a function decreases over an open interval of its
domain if its graph falls from left to right on the interval. Finally, a function is constant over an
open interval of its domain if its graph is horizontal on the interval.
It is important to note that the intervals refer to the x-values where the y-values either increase,
decrease, or remain constant.

Definition of Increase, Decrease and Constant

Suppose that a function 𝑓𝑓 is defined over an open interval, 𝐼𝐼 and 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 are in 𝐼𝐼.

 f is increasing on an interval 𝐼𝐼 if, for any two points in the interval, a positive change in
KEY CONCEPT

𝑥𝑥 results in a positive change in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). That is, for all 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 in the interval, if 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏,
then 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 .
 f is decreasing on an interval 𝐼𝐼 if, for any two points in the interval, a positive change in
𝑥𝑥 results in a negative change in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). That is, for all 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 in the interval, if 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏,
then, 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 > 𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 .
 f is constant on an interval 𝐼𝐼 if, for any two points in the interval, a positive change in
𝑥𝑥 results in a zero change in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). For every 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏, 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 .

We read a graph in mathematics from left to right,

the same way we read a book.

EX #4: Consider the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 shown at right,

trace each interval where the function behavior is

A. Increasing, using a GREEN pencil

Identify the interval(s) ___________________________________

B. Decreasing, using a RED pencil

Identify the interval(s) ___________________________________

C. Constant, using a YELLOW pencil

Identify the interval(s) ___________________________________

D. State the Domain of the function ______________________________

E. State the Range of the function ________________________________

F. What thoughts do you have about the intervals stated above? Did you use brackets
(closed/included points) or parentheses (open/non-included points)? Why or why not?

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Lesson 1-B: Change in Tandem

Concavity and Inflection Points

An inflection point is where a curve changes from concave upward to concave downward (or vice
versa). We need Calculus to algebraically find where a curve goes from concave up to concave down.

Concave Up Concave Down

Slope is increasing Slope is decreasing

EX #5: Use the graph of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) shown at right to determine

intervals of concavity and state the points of
inflection.

Concave Up: __________________________________________

Concave Down: _______________________________________

Points of Inflection: __________________________________

EX #6: The function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 − 4 is shown

at right.
A. Find the average between the high point and
the low point to determine an approximate value
for the x-coordinate for the point of inflection.
B. Substitute your findings into the function to locate
the approximate point of inflection on the graph of 𝑓𝑓.
C. State the intervals where the function is concave up
and concave down.

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 Intercepts

x - intercepts y - intercepts

The x-intercepts of the graph of 𝑓𝑓, if there are If 𝑥𝑥 = 0 is in the domain of a function
any, are the solutions of the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), then the y-intercept of the graph of
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 0. That is; (𝑥𝑥, 0) 𝑓𝑓 is the value of 𝑓𝑓 at 0, or 𝑓𝑓(0). That is ; (0, 𝑦𝑦)

EX #7: In the graph below, name the EX #8: Find the intercepts for the function
intercepts. algebraically. Given:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 12

Applications

EX #9: Tina is a sales-clerk at Electronix Depot who earns $325 base pay plus $18 for each item sold.
Express her gross salary 𝐺𝐺 as a function of the number 𝑥𝑥 of items sold. Find her gross pay if
she sells 24 items.

EX #10: If your PreCalculus book is dropped from a height of 45 feet on the planet Newton, its
height (in feet) after 𝑡𝑡 seconds is approximately 𝐻𝐻 𝑡𝑡 = 45 − 14𝑡𝑡 2. How long does it
take for the book to hit the surface of the planet?

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 Comparing Functions Graphically

EX #11: Use the graphs of functions

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), shown at right,
to answer the following.

A. The domain for each function. B. The value(s) of x such that

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 0

𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 0

C. The value(s) of x such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) D. The value(s) of x such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

E. The value(s) of x such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) F. The value(s) of x such that 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 > 0

G. The value(s) of x such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 < 0 H. The value(s) of x such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 increases

I. The value(s) of x such that 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 is constant J. The value(s) of x such that 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 decreases

K. The value(s) of x such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 > 0 L. The value(s) of x such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 decreases

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Lesson 2-A: Rates of Change
We have seen that the slope of a line can be interpreted as its rate of change. The rate of change
function is defined as the rate at which the output quantity changes with respect to the input
quantity. If the graph of a function is not a straight line, we use the terminology of an average rate
of change between any two points on its graph.

Average Rate of Change

The average rate of change between two input values is the total change of the function values
(output) divided by the change in the input values. Given the value of a function at different
VOCABULARY

points (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2

Average Rate of Change of f on [𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 , 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 ] where 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 = 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 and 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 = 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐

∆𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = 𝑚𝑚 =
∆𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1

EX #1: Find the average rate of change of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 4𝑥𝑥 over the interval [1, 3].

EX #2: The table below is data from the University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Systems that
shows the U.S. Annual Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Generation. MSW is commonly called
“trash” or “garbage” which generally refers to common household, office and retail waste,
but excludes industrial, hazardous, and construction wastes.
1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2016

2017

Total MSW 2018

88.1 104.4 121.1 127.8 151.6 166.3 208.3 217.3 243.5 253.7 251.1 262.1 268.1 268.7 292.4
(million tons)

A. Find the average rate of change in trash between 1985 and 1990.

B. Did the rate of trash ever decline in this 58-year period? When? What was the average rate?

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EX #3: After surgery you are given a pain reliever, the level of the medication will decrease slowly
over time. Let 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) represent the medicine’s concentration in your body. Write an expression
for the rate of change of the medicine’s concentration level over the period from 𝑡𝑡 = 15
minutes to 𝑡𝑡 = 90 minutes.

Distance vs. Time Graphs

EX #4: Let’s explore the distance a car travels over a

two-hour period shown at right.

A. What is the average rate the car travels?

B. How fast is the car going from 𝑡𝑡 = 30 minutes Distance, in miles

to 𝑡𝑡 = 60 minutes?
(Be sure to change minutes into hours.) Time, in minutes

C. When is the car traveling the fastest? How fast?

D. What is the slope of the graph between 𝑡𝑡 = 90 and 𝑡𝑡 = 120 minutes? What does the slope
represent in relation to the context of the problem?

E. What is the speed of the car at 45 minutes?

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Lesson 2-B: Rates of Change
EX #5: Suppose an object is launched upward from a height of 120 feet with an initial velocity of
48 feet per second. The height of the object t seconds after it is launched is given by
ℎ 𝑡𝑡 = −16𝑡𝑡 2 + 48𝑡𝑡 + 120.
A. Find the average velocity in the first two seconds after the object is thrown.

B. Find the average velocity from 𝑡𝑡 = 2 to 𝑡𝑡 = 4.

EX #6: For each of the following functions, describe the average rate of change over the given interval
as positive or negative. Try to do this without substitution values.
A. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 on [2, 3] B. 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑥𝑥 on [0.01, 1]

1 𝑥𝑥
C. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2
on [−1, 0] D. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 5 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 on [1, 4]

EX #7: Let 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡) be the altitude of a rocket t seconds after launch. Write an expression for the average
velocity of the rocket from time 𝑡𝑡 = 5 to 𝑡𝑡 = 5 + ℎ in terms of 𝑅𝑅(𝑡𝑡).

EX #8: Given 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 find the average rate of change of the function
on the following intervals:
A. [−1, 1] B. [1, 3]

C. Describe the relationship between the rate of change and the

behavior of the function.

D. How would you describe the rate of change at 𝑥𝑥 = 1?

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EX #9: A remote control car travels a distance 𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡 = 10𝑡𝑡 2 feet in the first t seconds after it starts.

A. Calculate the average velocity of the car on the intervals shown in the table below:

Interval 1.99, 2 [1.999, 2] [1.999, 2.001] [2,2.001] [2,2.01] [2, 2.1]

Average
Velocity

B. Based on your calculations, can you approximate the exact velocity of the car at 2 seconds
after it starts?

EX #10: The traffic flow at a particular intersection is modeled by the function F defined by
𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡 = 96 + 5 sin 2 for 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 30 minutes.

A. What is the average rate of change of the traffic flow over the time interval 3 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 8 ?
Indicate the units of measure. What does this rate tell you about the flow of traffic during
this time?

B. Is it possible to find the rate of change at a specific time? Why or why not?

C. Let’s explore the rates of change at two points over small intervals. Estimate the rate of
change of traffic flow at 𝑡𝑡 = 8 by finding the average rates from three different intervals;
𝑡𝑡 = 8 to 8.1 , 𝑡𝑡 = 8 to 8.01 , and 𝑡𝑡 = 8 to 8.001.

D. Explain the meaning of your findings in part [C] in relation to the traffic flow.

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Lesson 3-A: Rates of Change Linear & Quadratic Functions
In the previous lesson, you looked at rates of change from multiple representations, including graphs,
equations, tables, and verbal descriptions. In this lesson, we want to consider rates of change in linear
and quadratic functions.

The Average Rate of Change and the Secant Line

A secant line is a line joining two points on a function. Finding the slope of the secant line
through two points 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑄𝑄 𝑏𝑏, 𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 will give you the average rate of change over
the interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]. You have known how to do this since your first algebra class, we just have
VOCABULARY

new notation.

Average Rate of Change of f on [a, b]

∆𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑦𝑦
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
∆𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎
∆𝑥𝑥

EX #1: Consider the graph at right. It passes through the points

(0, −3) and 4, 3 .
3
A. Explain how you know its equation is 𝑦𝑦 = 2 𝑥𝑥 − 3.

B. What do you notice about the average rate of change for a

linear function?

C. How is the average rate of change related to the equation itself?

D. Use the grid at right to sketch a graph of the function that

represents the average rates of change of the linear function.
[Hint: consider your answer to part B].

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EX #2: Given the quadratic function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 5, (graph at right).
A. Use the table of values to find the average rates of change on
consecutive equal-length intervals of x-values. Record your
results in the table.

𝒙𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝒚𝒚 5 0 −3 −4 −3 0 5

Interval [0, 1] [1, 2] [2, 3] [3, 4] [4, 5] [5, 6]

Average Rate
of Change

B. Using the results from the table of average rates of change above, do you notice a pattern
in these rates of change? What can you say about the rate of change at 𝑥𝑥 = 3 ? Explain.

Three Essential Facts

1. Over any length input-value interval, the average rate of change for a linear function is
__________________________________.
2. Given consecutive equal-length input-value intervals, the average rate of change of a quadratic
function can be given by a ______________________________ function.
3. The average rate of change over the closed interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] is the slope of the ____________________ line.

Average Rate of Change and Concavity

EX #3: In a quadratic function, we can determine the curvature or concavity of the graph by
considering the average rate of change over equal-length x-intervals. Sketch secant lines on
the graphs shown below:

Concave Up Concave Down

Slope is increasing Slope is decreasing

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 Graphing the Average Rate of Change of a Quadratic Function

EX #4: Using the function from EX #2, let’s consider what the graph of the average rate of change for
this quadratic function would look like.

A. The parabola is concave up because the average rate of change on the equal-length intervals
is _________________________. By a factor of __________. Let’s call this the “slope” of a new function.

B. We also observed that the quadratic function changes from decreasing to increasing at the
vertex, where 𝑥𝑥 = ____________, so the rate is ___________________________ here. We say the slope is
____________________. You can use the ordered pair as (x-value, rate of change) for a point on the
graph.
C. Using your results from parts A and B, write an equation
for a linear equation to represent the average rate of change
of the quadratic function. Graph the equation in the grid
provided.

EX #5: Let’s generalize the procedure for finding the average rate of
change (velocity) to any function over any interval.
A. Let 𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2, find average rate of change from
𝑡𝑡 = 2 to 𝑡𝑡 = 4.

B. Let 𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2, find average rate of change from

𝑡𝑡 = 2 to 𝑡𝑡 = 2 + ℎ.

C. Write a general formula for the average rate of change (difference quotient) for any two points
𝑎𝑎, 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑎𝑎 + ℎ, 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 + ℎ .

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Lesson 3-B: Rates of Change Linear & Quadratic Functions

In general terms, we can say that a function increases over an open interval of its domain if its graph
rises from left to right on the interval. Likewise, a function decreases over an open interval of its
domain if its graph falls from left to right on the interval. Finally, a function is constant over an
open interval of its domain if its graph is horizontal on the interval.
It is important to note that the intervals refer to the x-values where the y-values either increase,
decrease, or remain constant.

Definition of Increase, Decrease and Constant

Suppose that a function 𝑓𝑓 is defined over an open interval, 𝐼𝐼 and 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 are in 𝐼𝐼.
KEY CONCEPT

 f is increasing on interval 𝐼𝐼 if, for any two points in the interval, a positive change in
𝑥𝑥 results in a positive change in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2 .
 f is decreasing on an interval 𝐼𝐼 if, for any two points in the interval, a positive change in
𝑥𝑥 results in a negative change in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 > 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2 .
 f is constant on an interval 𝐼𝐼 if, for any two points in the interval, a positive change in
𝑥𝑥 results in a zero change in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). For every 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2 .

We read a graph in mathematics from left to right,

the same way we read a book.

EX #6: Consider the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 shown at right,

trace each interval where the function behavior is

A. Increasing, using a GREEN pencil

Identify the interval(s) ___________________________________

B. Decreasing, using a RED pencil

Identify the interval(s) ___________________________________

C. Constant, using a YELLOW pencil

Identify the interval(s) ___________________________________

D. State the Domain of the function ______________________________

E. State the Range of the function ________________________________

F. What thoughts do you have about the intervals stated above? Did you use brackets
(closed/included points) or parentheses (open/non-included points)? Why or why not?

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 Finding the Equation of a Secant Line

EX #7: Given 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 1, shown at right

A. Find the average rate of change of 𝑔𝑔 from −1 to 3.

B. Find an equation of the secant line containing the points

−1, 𝑔𝑔 −1 and 3, 𝑔𝑔 3 .

C. Sketch the secant line on the graph at right.

EX #8: The average rate of change of ℎ(𝑥𝑥) over the interval from 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 4 is 18. Find the missing
value in the table.

𝒙𝒙 0 1 2 3 4

𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙) 2 6 18 34 ?

EX #9: Suppose the demand for a product can be expressed as 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 = 0.2𝑥𝑥 2 + 1.15𝑥𝑥 + 5.4 where
x is given in units of a thousand.
A. Find the average rate of change of demand when the number of items demanded increases
from 2 thousand to 4 thousand.

B. Find the average rate of change of demand when the number of items demanded increases
from 1 thousand to 5 thousand.

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EX #10: The graph below gives Nikola Technology’s revenue 𝑅𝑅 𝑝𝑝 , for Bluetooth headphones. The
x-axis represents the price of the headphones. Label the x-axis “price, in dollars.” Label the
y-axis “revenue, in millions of dollars.” Label the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑝𝑝 .

A. At what price(s) will the tech company

make no money on the headphones?
Explain why.

B. Two employees are discussing the best

selling price for the headphones. One
thinks $45 per set is best and the other
believes they should sell for more than
$50. Use the graph to analyze this
discussion. Is either employee on the
right path?

C. The company goal is to have maximum revenue. What would be the best price for each set of
headphones? Explain how you know.

D. Between 𝑝𝑝 = 0 and 𝑝𝑝 = 55, how much does revenue change, on average, when the price of the
headphones increases by $1? Explain.

E. Could there be any factor(s) when the company might alter or adjust the price of the
headphone set?

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Lesson 4-A: Polynomial Functions and Rates of Change
In this lesson we will identify some key characteristics of polynomial functions related to rates of
change. We can identify intervals over which the function is changing in specific ways. In the previous
lesson you explored the behavior of increasing, decreasing and constant functions.

Formal Definition of a Polynomial Function

A polynomial is defined as a monomial or the sum of monomials. A polynomial function in

the variable x, is said to be in standard form when the terms are arranged by degree in
descending numerical order. A polynomial function P(x), where n is a nonnegative integer
and 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , … , 𝑎𝑎0 are real numbers. 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎0 .
VOCABULARY

The polynomial has degree 𝒏𝒏, the leading coefficient is 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 . A constant is also a polynomial
function of degree zero.

Turning point - a point where the graph of a function changes direction from upwards to
downwards, or from downwards to upwards.

The direction of the graph of a function as you move to the left and to the right, away from the
origin is commonly called the end behavior.

Maxima and Minima

For any function f , if there exists an interval 𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐 that
contains b so that, for all 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑏𝑏, in the interval:

 Then f has a local maximum at b when 𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 > 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ,

and 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏) is called a ____________________________________
maximum of f .

 Then f has a local minimum at b when 𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 < 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ,

and 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏) is called a ___________________________________
minimum of f .

EX #1: Local maxima and minima are called local extrema of

the function. The singular form is “extremum.” The
term local can also be replaced by the term relative.

A. On the graph at right, shade the interval(s) of increase

in green, and the interval(s) of decrease in red.
B. State the interval(s) of increase and decrease.

C. Label the local extrema as a maximum or minimum.

© 2022 Jean Adams 18

 EX #2: Using a graphing utility, determine the relative maximum or relative minimum of the function
below. State the intervals where the function is increasing or decreasing. What is the
connection between the relative extrema and the intervals?
𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = −2𝑥𝑥 5 + 10𝑥𝑥 2 + 16𝑥𝑥

Sketch:
Relative Max:

Relative Min:

Increases on:

Decreases on:

Connection:

EX #3: Between every two distinct real zeroes of a nonconstant

polynomial function, there must be at least one x-value
that corresponds to a local maximum or local minimum.

Given: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 0.15𝑥𝑥 4 − 0.15𝑥𝑥 3 − 1.8𝑥𝑥 2

A. Determine the real zeros of the function

B. State the value of x where the local maximum

or local minimum occurs.

C. Identify each local extreme value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).

Absolute Maximum and Absolute Minimum Values

We should note the difference between locating extrema on a graph

in a region around an open interval and locating the absolute or
global extrema on the graph for the entire domain.

The y-coordinate (output) at the highest and lowest points are

called the absolute maximum and absolute minimum,
respectively.

In the graph, at right, the absolute maximum is 𝑓𝑓 1 = ________

and the absolute minimum is 𝑓𝑓 −3 = __________.

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 Defining Relative and Absolute Extrema of a Function

y-values on the graph of a function where the function changes

Relative or Local Extrema from increasing to decreasing and vice versa.

the highest or lowest y-values on the graph of a function or

Absolute or Global Extrema on a specified domain of a function.

EX #4: In the graphs below, label and identify the extrema for each function.

A. B.

C. D.

Even Degree vs. Odd Degree Polynomial Functions

Polynomial functions of an even degree will have either a

KEY CONCEPT
global (absolute) maximum or a global (absolute) minimum.

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 EX #5: Using a graphing utility, determine the absolute or relative extrema of each function shown
below. Round your answer to the nearest tenth when necessary.

EVEN FUNCTIONS

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 4 − 3𝑥𝑥 3 + 4𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥

ODD FUNCTIONS

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 2𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = −0.5𝑥𝑥 3 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 1

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Lesson 4-B: Polynomial Functions and Rates of Change

Looking ahead to Calculus, let’s explore concavity. Our goal is to understand the terminology. Later
we will have rules for finding these intervals.

Concavity and Points of Inflection

A function f is _______________________________ on an open interval

if the graph looks like a “U” or part of a smile. Shade the graph
at right in green for this behavior.

A function f is _________________________________ on an
open interval if the graph looks like an upside-down “U” or part
of a frown. Shade the graph at right in blue for this behavior.

A function f has a ___________________________________________ at c on an open interval if the graph

changes concavity. Draw an estimate for this point, 𝑐𝑐 in red.

EX #6: Can you determine how many points of inflection occur in the graph shown below?
A. Label the approximate location of each point on the graph.
B. Shade the concave up and concave down intervals in different colors.

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 Finding Points of Inflection

A point of inflection can occur at one of three different places.

1. At a zero with multiplicity three.
2. Estimate a possible point of inflection between two consecutive extreme values. (At the
midpoint between the relative max/relative min values.)
3. Estimate a possible point of inflection between a zero, multiplicity three, and the closest
relative extreme value.

EX #7: Given the graphs below, find the point(s) of inflection by one of the three methods stated.
Label and identify the coordinates of all points of inflection. State the method you use.
A.

B.

C.

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 Putting It All Together

EX #8: For the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), shown at right, identify

the characteristics.

A. Domain B. Range C. Type of function, degree

D. Zeros and their multiplicity E. Interval(s) where 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 F. Interval(s) where 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

increases decreases

G. Relative maximum H. Relative minimum J. Absolute maximum

K. Absolute minimum L. Points of Inflection:

M. Interval(s) where 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is concave up. N. Interval(s) where 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is concave down.

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Lesson 5-A: Polynomial Functions and Complex Zeros

We know how to find the principal square root for any non-negative real number. In earlier courses,
we have explored how to find the square root of a negative number. When the value of the radicand
is negative, the root is said to be an imaginary number. The imaginary number 𝑖𝑖 is defined as the
square root of negative 1. −1 = 𝑖𝑖. Recall that you can write the square root of any negative
number as a multiple of 𝑖𝑖. Consider the process of evaluating the square root of −9.
−9 = 9 � −1
= 9 � −1
= 3 𝑖𝑖
= 3𝑖𝑖

Imaginary and Complex Numbers

A complex number is a number of the form ____________________ where

 ___________ is the real part of the complex number

 _____________ is the imaginary part of the complex number

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra guarantees that any polynomial function of 𝑥𝑥, with real
number coefficients can be factored completely over the set of complex numbers.

Every complex polynomial function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 of degree 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1 can be factored into 𝑛𝑛 linear factors
(not necessarily distinct) of the form
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑟𝑟1 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑟𝑟2 � ⋯ � 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛
where 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , 𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 , ⋯ , 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛 are complex numbers.
This means every complex polynomial function of degree 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1 has exactly 𝑛𝑛 complex zeros,
some of these zeros may be repeated.

EX #1: Factor completely, using complex numbers 𝑥𝑥 3 − 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 13𝑥𝑥

© 2022 Jean Adams 25Math.com

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 EX #2: Factor completely using complex numbers: 4𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 25𝑦𝑦

Conjugate Root Theorem

If 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) is a polynomial with rational coefficients, then the irrational roots of 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 = 0 occur in

conjugate pairs. That is, when 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 is a root, then __________________________ is also a root.

Also, if 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 is a zero of a function, then __________________________ is also a zero.

Corollary: A polynomial function 𝑓𝑓 of __________________ degree with real coefficients has
at least one real zero.

EX #3: A polynomial function 𝑓𝑓 of degree 5 whose coefficients are real numbers has the zeros
of 𝑥𝑥 = 2, 3𝑖𝑖, and 1 + 𝑖𝑖. Find the remaining zeros of the function.

EX #4: (A) Find a polynomial function 𝑓𝑓 of degree 4 whose coefficients are real numbers
and that has the zeros 2, 2, −3 + 𝑖𝑖 . Assume 𝑎𝑎 = 1 for the leading coefficient.
(B) Graph the function to verify your result.
(C) Analyze the characteristics of the function.

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 Factoring a Polynomial with Complex Zeros

EX #5: Find all the zeros of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 5 − 3𝑥𝑥 4 − 5𝑥𝑥 3 + 5𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 8 and factor 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 over the set
of complex numbers.

EX #6: The complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑖𝑖 is a zero of the polynomial. Find the remaining zeros of
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and factor over complex numbers: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 4 − 𝑥𝑥 3 − 7𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 60

Factoring Over Real Numbers

EX #7: Write 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 as a product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors,
each with real coefficients. That is, factor over the real numbers.

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Lesson 5-B: Polynomial Functions and Complex Zeros
Symmetry

The terms even and odd describe the symmetry that exists for the graph of a function.

Even Odd

A function f is even if and only if, when A function f is odd if and only if, when
the point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is on the graph of 𝑓𝑓, then the point the point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is on the graph of 𝑓𝑓, then the
(−𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is also on the graph. point (−𝑥𝑥, −𝑦𝑦) is also on the graph.

𝑓𝑓 −𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓 −𝑥𝑥 = −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

EX #8: Determine whether each graph is even, odd or neither.

A. B. C.

EX #9: Algebraically determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd or neither.

A. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 12 B. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 5 − 4𝑥𝑥 3 C. 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 4 − 6𝑥𝑥 2

EX #10: Determine the symmetry, if any, that the graph of the equation will exhibit. y = 9𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 3

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 Using Differences to Determine Degree

EX #11: Use the table below to determine the degree of the polynomial.

𝒙𝒙 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝒚𝒚 −30 −14 −12 −12 −2 30 96

Sketching a Graph with Repeated Zeros

EX #12: Write a polynomial function of minimum degree whose zeros include the following, with
𝑎𝑎 > 0:
A. 𝑥𝑥 = −3, (multiplicity 2); 𝑥𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥𝑥 = 4 (multiplicity 1)

B. Complete the table to help determine the behavior of the function.

𝒙𝒙 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 4 5

𝒚𝒚

C. Sketch the graph of the polynomial function.

D. On what interval(s) is 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 > 0

E. On what interval(s) is 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 < 0

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 Real Zeros and Polynomial Inequalities

If 𝑎𝑎 is a real root of a polynomial function 𝑝𝑝, then the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 has an x-intercept at the
point (𝑎𝑎, 0). Consequently, real zeros of a polynomial can be endpoints for intervals satisfying
polynomial inequalities. You can solve inequalities involving polynomials using both algebraic
and graphic techniques. Let’s explore some common connections between inequalities and the
positive and negative sign of the expression.
To solve 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 > 0 is to find the values of 𝑥𝑥 that make 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) positive.
To solve 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 < 0 is to find the values of 𝑥𝑥 that make 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) negative.

Using Sign Charts

EX #13: Let 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 − 4)2 . Determine the real number values of 𝑥𝑥 that cause 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 to be:

A. Zero B. Positive C. Negative

_______________ _________________ _________________

Show work here:

EX #14: Solve the following polynomial inequality, 𝑥𝑥 3 − 4𝑥𝑥 ≤ 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 in the way indicated:
Factor: Critical Values:

Analytically Graphically

Sign Chart:

Solutions: Solutions:

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Lesson 6: Polynomial Functions and End Behavior

By knowing the degree of a polynomial function, it is possible to predict the end behavior. By using
the leading term of the polynomial function, we can determine the behavior at the extremes.
Since the power of the leading term is the highest degree, that term will grow at a rate which is
significantly faster than any of the remaining terms as 𝑥𝑥 gets very large or very small. This means the
end behavior of the polynomial will correspond with the end behavior of the term of the highest
degree.

Leading Coefficient Test Using Limits

Power functions eventually rise or fall without bound as x moves toward infinity (left or right).
This behavior can be determined by

1. _________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________

Coefficient sign: _______________ Coefficient sign: _______________

Coefficient sign: _______________ Coefficient sign: _______________

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 End-Behavior of Polynomial Functions

Consider the domain and range for each “degree” family.

 As 𝑥𝑥 → ∞ and 𝑥𝑥 → −∞ , what do you notice about 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) or the y - value of the graphs?

 How does the value of the leading coefficient “a” affect the value as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞ and 𝑥𝑥 → −∞ ?

End-Behavior, Turning Points and Real Zeros

EX #1: Use a calculator, sketch a graph of the function and determine its end behavior.

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 1 B. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 4 − 3𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥

𝑛𝑛 is __________ 𝑛𝑛 is __________

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 is _________ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 is _________

as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → ________ as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → ________

as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → __________ as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → __________

Turning points: ____________ Turning points: ____________

1. The graph of f, has at most, (𝒏𝒏 − 𝟏𝟏) turning points, (points at which the graph changes
from increasing to decreasing or vice versa.)
2. The function f has, at most, 𝒏𝒏 real zeros.

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 Even and Odd Multiplicity

If a polynomial function has a factor that is repeated, these duplicate “roots” are labeled as a
_________________________________________.

If f has a real zero c of odd multiplicity, then the graph of f will ______________________________ the
x-axis at _____________.

If f has a real zero c of even multiplicity, then the graph of f will _______________________________
the x-axis at _____________.

Zeros of Odd and Even Multiplicity

EX#2: Use a calculator to sketch:

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑥𝑥 + 2)3 (𝑥𝑥 − 1)2 . In the graph,
at right, label the zeros and describe the
behavior of the roots.

Intermediate Value Theorem

In, easy to understand, language . . . This theorem states that if you can find two y-values where the
signs change, then a zero of the function will fall between those two x-values of the function.

EX #5: Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to explain why the function 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 6
must have a root (x-intercept) on the closed interval [1, 2].

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 Putting it All Together

EX #6: For the given polynomial 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 0.5(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 − 3)3

(a) List each real zero and its multiplicity

(b) State whether is crosses or touches the x-axis at that zero

(c) State the maximum number of turning points

(d) State the intervals where the function is concave up or concave down
(Note: You may approximate the points of inflection)

EX #7: Describe the end behavior of the polynomial function. Analyze the given function by stating
the domain, range. What can you conclude about the polynomial represented by the graph
shown based on its intercepts and turning points?

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Lesson 7-A: Rational Functions and Their Properties
Polynomial functions are seen as functions with integer powers that are non-negative. In the next
few lessons, we turn our attention to explore functions with variables in the denominator. The
definition of a rational number is a ratio of integers. Similarly, ratios of polynomial functions
are known as rational functions. The domain for polynomial functions is all real numbers, but the
domain of a rational function will be restricted from any values of x that cause division by zero.

Rational Functions

Let 𝑁𝑁 𝑥𝑥 (numerator) and 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) (denominator) be polynomial functions, where 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0.

Then, a Rational Function is:

Finding Domain

𝑥𝑥+3
EX #1: Find the domain for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2−8𝑥𝑥+12.

Reading Arrow Notation

Throughout this course we will use arrow notation to show that 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is approaching a
particular value. The table below is a summary of proper notation and how it is read.

Symbol How to Read and Interpret

𝑥𝑥 → 𝑎𝑎− 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎 from the left (𝑥𝑥 < 𝑎𝑎 but close to 𝑎𝑎)

𝑥𝑥 → 𝑎𝑎+ 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎 from the right (𝑥𝑥 > a but close to 𝑎𝑎)

𝑥𝑥 → ∞ 𝑥𝑥 approaches infinity (𝑥𝑥 increases without bound)

𝑥𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥𝑥 approaches negative infinity (𝑥𝑥 decreases without bound)

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → 𝑎𝑎 The output ( y−𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 of the function) is approaching 𝑎𝑎

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → ∞ The output approaches infinity (the output increases without bound)

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → −∞ The output approaches negative infinity (the output decreases without bound)

© 2022 Jean Adams 35Math.com

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Topic 1.7: Rational Functions and End Behavior

Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes

Vertical Asymptotes: ________________________

The graph behavior will approach the vertical
line and either increase or decrease without
bound. That is,

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = or lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎− 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎+

Horizontal Asymptotes: _________________________

The graph behavior will approach the
horizontal line as x
tends to ______________ or _____________________.

Note: It is possible to cross a horizontal

That is, asymptote. The graph does not need
to have same behavior on both sides.
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = or lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞

Finding Horizontal Asymptotes

Case: Example:

(1) degree of numerator < degree of denominator

The line ________________ is the horizontal asymptote.

(2) degree of numerator = degree of denominator

The ________________________ of the leading coefficients

is the horizontal asymptote.

That is, 𝑦𝑦 =

(3) degree of numerator > degree of denominator

The graph has ____________ horizontal asymptote.

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EX #2: Find the horizontal asymptotes for the given functions and provide a reason.

1 3𝑥𝑥−3 3𝑥𝑥 2 +3𝑥𝑥−18

A) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 2+3𝑥𝑥−15 B) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥+3 C) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥−5

Slant (Oblique) Asymptotes

A slant (oblique) asymptote occurs when the degree of the numerator is one higher than the
degree of the denominator. The slant asymptote is the quotient polynomial found by using
synthetic or long division.

𝑥𝑥 2 −6𝑥𝑥+7
EX #3: Determine the slant asymptote of the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥+5
.

Finding Holes, Vertical Asymptotes and x-intercepts

Topic 1.8: Rational Functions and Zeros

Topic 1.9: Rational Functions and Vertical Asymptotes
Topic 1.10: Rational Functions and Holes

𝑁𝑁 𝑥𝑥
If 𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥)
is a rational function and if 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥) and 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) have no common factors, then the rational
function 𝑅𝑅 is said to be in lowest terms. We find x-intercepts by setting the numerator equal to zero.
While both holes and vertical asymptotes are found when setting the denominator equal to zero.

Here are some steps to keep in mind when analyzing rational functions.

1.) Simplify the rational function by ______________________both the numerator and denominator.

2.) Find the __________________ of both numerator and denominator.

3.) If a zero is common to the denominator and numerator, you have a ______________________ .

4.) If a zero is unique to the denominator, you have a ___________________________________________ .

5.) If a zero is unique to the numerator, you have an _____________________________________ .

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EX #4: Find the holes, vertical asymptote(s) and x-intercepts of the following rational function.

𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
3𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥

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Lesson 7-B: Rational Functions and Their Properties
EX #5: Use the equation for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 and the graph of the function to analyze completely.

3𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 − 3
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 9

Factor and Simplify

Coordinates
of Hole

Domain

Range

Vertical Asymptote

Horizontal Asymptote

As 𝑥𝑥 → −∞ , 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → _________ As 𝑥𝑥 → ∞ , 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → _________

As 𝑥𝑥 → −3−, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 →________ As 𝑥𝑥 → −3+, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → _______

As 𝑥𝑥 → 3− , 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 →________ As 𝑥𝑥 → 3+, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 →________

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EX #6: Given the function 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) , use a calculator to complete the table.
𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥 − 12
𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 8

𝑥𝑥 −500 −100 −2.001 −2 −1.999 0 3.999 4 4.001 100 500

𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

A. As 𝑥𝑥 → −500, 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) → ___________ and as 𝑥𝑥 → 500, 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) →_________. What can you conclude
about the end behavior of the graph of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) as the x-values grow very large or very small?

B. As 𝑥𝑥 → −2− , 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) → ___________ and as 𝑥𝑥 → −2+ , 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) →_________. What can you conclude
about the behavior of the graph of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 → −2?

C. As 𝑥𝑥 → 4− , 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) → ___________ and as 𝑥𝑥 → 4+ , 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) →_________. What can you conclude

about the behavior of the graph of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 → 4?

D. What do you know about the 𝑔𝑔(0)? Explain.

E. Find the real zeros of the function by simplifying the expression.

F. Using the table and your results from part (E), state the interval(s) where 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 > 0
and where 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 < 0

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 Analyzing a Rational Function with a Hole

Topic 1.11: Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Expressions

The factored form of a polynomial or rational function readily provides information about real
zeros, it can also reveal information about x-intercepts, asymptotes, holes, domain, and range.
We can use the simple process below:

1. Factor the numerator and denominator of R. Find the domain.

2. Write R in lowest terms.
3. Find the asymptote(s) and hole(s)
4. Find the intercepts
5. Determine the end-behavior of the function R.

EX #7: Analyze the graph of the rational function.

2𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 3
𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 9

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Lesson 8-A: Rational Functions and Graphs

Topic 1.11: Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Expressions

In this lesson, we want to fine-tune our techniques for analyzing the graph of a rational function.
Let’s revisit the procedure we developed in our last lesson and expand on those steps below.

Analyzing the Graph of a Rational Function

Step 1: Find 𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥)/𝐷𝐷 𝑥𝑥 in lowest terms, by factoring.

Step 2: Find the domain of the function.
Step 3: Determine the intercepts, if any, of the graph. The x- intercept is any number(s) in the
domain where 𝑁𝑁 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and the y-intercept is 𝑅𝑅(0).
Step 4: Find any real zeros of the denominator 𝐷𝐷 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to determine the vertical asymptotes.
Step 5: Locate any horizontal or oblique asymptotes using the techniques from the last lesson.
Step 6: Test for any symmetry by replacing 𝑥𝑥 by −𝑥𝑥 in 𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 . Recall 𝑅𝑅 −𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅(𝑥𝑥) will display
y-axis symmetry and 𝑅𝑅 −𝑥𝑥 = −𝑅𝑅(𝑥𝑥) will display origin symmetry.
Step 7: Determine where the graph lies above or below the x-axis by using the zeros from Step 3
and Step 4 to divide the x-axis into intervals.
Step 8: Graph the asymptotes, if any, found in Step 5. Plot the points found in steps 3 and 4.
Use all the information gathered to connect the points and the graph of 𝑅𝑅.

EX #1: Use the procedure above to analyze the function and graph.

𝑥𝑥 2 +7𝑥𝑥 + 12
𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥 − 6

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 Slant (Oblique) Asymptotes

EX #2: Analyze and graph.

𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑥𝑥 + 4

Interval

Test Point
𝒙𝒙

Value of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

Sign of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

Above/Below
x-axis

Analyzing Rational Functions

EX #3: Analyze and graph.

2𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 − 5
𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 4

Interval

Test Point
𝒙𝒙

Value of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

Sign of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

Above/Below
x-axis

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Lesson 8-B: Rational Functions and Graphs
Rational Functions with a Hole

EX #4: Analyze and graph.

2𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 2
ℎ 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2

Interval

Test Point
𝒙𝒙

Value of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

Sign of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

Above/Below
x-axis

Constructing a Function from its Graph

EX #5: Find a rational function that could have the graph shown below. Describe how you know.

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 The Binomial Theorem

When writing out the binomial expression 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 , where 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer, the pattern
known as Pascal’s Triangle appears, as well as other interesting facts to be discovered. In order to
expand the binomial expression, we need to know how to find the binomial coefficient.
𝑛𝑛
Definition of a Binomial Coefficient 𝑟𝑟

𝑛𝑛
The expression 𝑟𝑟
(read “n above r” ) is called a binomial coefficient is defined by

𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛!
=
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟! 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 !
For nonnegative integers n and r, with 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 𝑟𝑟.
The symbol nCr is often used in place of 𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟 notation.

EX #6: Evaluate each of the following.

6 9 3
A. 2 B. 4
C. 3

Pascal’s Triangle

Pascal’s Combinations
Binomial Expansion
Triangle (Binomial Coefficients)
0
1 0C0 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 =1
1
1 1 1C0 1C1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦
2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2
1 2 1 2C0 2C1 2C2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦
3 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦 3
1 3 3 1 3C0 3C1 3C2 3C3 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦

BINOMIAL THEOREM

For any whole number n,

(x=
+ y)
n
  n C0 x y + n C1 x n −1 y1 + n C2 x n − 2 y 2 + ... + n Cn −1 x1 y n −1 + n Cn x 0 y n
n n

EX #7: Expand 𝑥𝑥 − 2 3

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Lesson 8-C: Rational Functions and Graphs
Topic 1.12: Transformations of Functions
We can use the transformation rules for functions as a rapid method to graph and sketch rational
functions. Let’s recall the general rules before practicing.

Transformations of Functions

𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘 Shift 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 up 𝑘𝑘 units

𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑘𝑘 Shift 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 down 𝑘𝑘 units

𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ) Shift 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ℎ units to the right

𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) Shift 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ℎ units to the left

Vertical dilation of the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 by a factor of 𝑎𝑎 . If 𝑎𝑎 < 0,

𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
the graph of 𝑓𝑓 involves a reflection over the x-axis.

1
𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏 � 𝑥𝑥) Horizontal dilation of the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 by a factor of . If 𝑏𝑏 < 0,
𝑏𝑏
the graph of 𝑓𝑓 involves a reflection over the y-axis.

EX #8: State the asymptotes and sketch the transformation. Label key points.
1 2
A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = +3
𝑥𝑥 + 2 𝑥𝑥 + 1

C. −1 D. 1
ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = +2 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 = −3
𝑥𝑥 − 3 2𝑥𝑥 − 4

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 Topic 1.8: Rational Functions and Zeros

Solving Polynomial and Rational Inequalities

EX #9: Solve the inequality 𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0 by using the graph of 𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 shown below.

𝑥𝑥 − 2
𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 9

EX #10: Solve each inequality algebraically.

A. 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 − 4 ≤ 0

𝑥𝑥+1
B. 𝑥𝑥−3
≤2

𝑥𝑥−3
C. 𝑥𝑥+1
>0

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Lesson 9-A: Function Models and Applications

Topic 1.13: Function Model Selection and Assumption Articulation

Topic 1.14: Function Model Construction and Application
This lesson will help us to construct linear, polynomial or piecewise-defined function models and
applications given a real-world scenario.

Finding Trend Lines

EX #1: An antique dealer visited an auction house and recorded an estimated selling price of six
different antique chests. Then, he checked the actual selling price after the auction ended.
The data points (estimate, actual) show the results, where each number is in thousands of
dollars.
A. Draw a scatter plot and trend line.
B. Write the equation of the line.

estimate 12.5 8 10.5 5 9 7

actual 11 9.5 12 3.9 10 6.5

Creating Linear Regression Models

Let’s use a graphing utility to draw a scatter plot then create a line of best fit to analyze the data
in the table below. (Note: Instructions for TI-84 or TI-Nspire included.)

EX #2: Write the linear regression model for the price of oranges in dollars per box.

Fresh Market Price of Florida Oranges in Dollars/Box

Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Price per Box $8.40 $15.99 $10.75 $8.80 $12.75 $12.91 $13.12
SOURCE: http://www.nass.usda.gov/Data_and_Statistics/Quick_Stats/

A. Use your linear function to estimate the price for a box of oranges in 2014 and 2015.

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 TI-84 Scatter Plot and Line of Best Fit Instructions

CLEAR ALL ENTRIES IN Y= BEFORE YOU BEGIN.

1. Make a scatter plot of the data points.

Use L1 for the X-data and L2 for the
Y-data. Type values into the lists.
NOTE: Let 1 = 2006

2. Activate the scatter plot.

Press 2nd STATPLOT and choose #1 PLOT 1. You will
see the screen at the right. Be sure the plot is ON,
the scatter plot icon is highlighted, and that the list
of the X data values are next to Xlist, and the list
of the Y data values are next to Ylist.
Choose any of the three marks.

3. View the scatter plot.

Press ZOOM and #9 ZoomStat. Hitting TRACE and

the right arrow repeatedly, you can advance
along the data points.

4. Calculator determines the line of best fit.

Include the parameters L1, L2, Y1.

(Y1 comes from VARS → Y-VARS, #Function, Y1)

5. Calculate the equation

Y= ______________________________________

6. Graph the line of best fit. Simply hit GRAPH.

7. Calculate future prices.

In Window adjust the Xmax to 11. To get a predicted

value within the window, hit TRACE, up arrow, and
type the desired value.

What is the expected price per box

for 2014?

2015?

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 TI-NSPIRE Scatter Plot and Line of Best Fit Instructions

CLEAR ALL ENTRIES IN Y= BEFORE YOU BEGIN.

1. Make a spreadsheet of the data set.

In a NEW DOCUMENT, Add List & Spreadsheet
CTRL > I > 4
Use A for the X-data (Year)
and B for the Y-data (Price).
Type values into the lists.
NOTE: Let 1 = 2006

2. Create a scatter plot of the data points.

Add Data & Statistics

CTRL > I > 5

3. View and align the scatter plot.

Mouse over x-axis and click year. Mouse over y-axis and click price.

4. Calculator determines the line of best fit.

Menu > 4 (Analyze) > 6 (Regression) > 1 (y=mx+b)

5. Graph the equation and adjust window

to predict future prices.

CTRL > I > 2 Y= _______________________________

What is the expected price per box for 2014?

2015?

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 Quadratic Models

EX #3: The table below shows the height, in inches, of a transmission fluid that is being drained from
a large storage tank.

Time, seconds 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Height, inches 122 104 86 68 50 38 27

A. Model the data with a quadratic function.

B. Use the model to estimate the height of the transmission fluid in the tank at 35 seconds.

C. How long will it take to drain the storage tank?

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Lesson 9-B: Function Models and Applications
Comparing Models

EX #4: There are times when we need to use a polynomial model of degree three or greater. Consider
the table given below. Use your calculator to find a linear model, a quadratic model, and a cubic
model.

A. Linear model: ____________________________________________________ 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚

0 10.2
B. Quadratic model: ________________________________________________
5 2.9
C. Cubic model: _____________________________________________________
10 8.2
D. Which model appears to best fit the data? Explain.
15 16.1

20 17.9

E. Use your best fit model to predict the value of y when 𝑥𝑥 = 25.

Writing an Equation of a Parabola

EX #5: A parabola contains the points (−1,3), (2, −3), and (3,3). Find the equation of this parabola
in standard form.
PROCEDURE:
STEP 1: Create a system of equations by substituting the given points.
STEP 2: Solve the system to find a, b, and c.
STEP 3: Write the equation in standard form.

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Lesson 9-C: Function Models and Applications

Writing Functions from Formulas

EX #6: The perimeter of a rectangular garden is 84 feet. Express its area 𝐴𝐴 as a function of the
width 𝑤𝑤 of a side.

1
EX #7: The volume of a right circular cone is 𝑉𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 ℎ . If the height is twice the radius.
A. Express the volume V as a function of the radius r.

B. Find the volume of a paper Sno-Cone cup whose radius is 2 inches.

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 Finding a Model and Solving

EX #8: Grain is leaking through a hole in a storage bin at a constant rate of 6 cubic inches per
minute. The grain forms a cone-shaped pile on the ground below. As it grows, the height of
the cone always remains equal to its radius. If the cone is two-feet-tall now, how tall will it
be in one hour?

Variation Problem

EX #9: Hooke’s Law for springs states that the distance a spring is stretched (or compressed) varies
directly as the force on the spring. A force of 275 Newtons stretches a spring 0.2 meter.
A. How far will a force of 620 Newtons stretch the spring?

B. What force is required to stretch the spring 0.1 meter?

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Name ___________________________________________

Unit 2:
Exponential &
Logarithmic
Functions Notes
Lesson 1-A: Change in Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences

When you think of a “sequence of events” you likely would consider what happened first, second, and
so on. In mathematics, the word sequence is also used in the same way, some list of numbers has a
first element, a second element, a third element, and so on. One famous example, known as the
Fibonacci sequence is found throughout nature: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, . . . Can you discover the
rule for the next term?

DEFINITION OF A SEQUENCE

An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers. The function
values are the terms of the sequence.
𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , 𝑎𝑎4 , . . . , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , . . .
If the domain of the function consists of the first n positive integers only, the sequence
is a finite sequence.

 Nth term – the general term. The letter k is sometimes used instead of n.
 Finite Sequence has a certain number of terms.
 Term of a Sequence – each number in a sequence.

Generating a Sequence Using an Explicit Formula

EX #1: A sequence has an explicit formula an = 12n + 3. Find term a12

EX #2: Write the first four terms of each sequence.

A. 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 3𝑛𝑛 − 4 B. 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 5 + −1 𝑛𝑛

EX #3: A sequence is given by an = 4+ (n − 1)5

A. Find the first three terms. B. Find the 11th term.

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 Arithmetic Sequences

Arithmetic sequences have the same differences between terms (add):

d = a2 − a1, a3 − a2 , . . .

d = common difference between consecutive terms

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + 𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑘𝑘

EXPLICIT For 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1,

or where 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 is the kth term

GENERAL FORM: 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑎𝑎0

𝑎𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑑𝑑

Analyzing Arithmetic Sequences

EX#4: Is the sequence an arithmetic sequence? If so, write a general rule. 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, . . .

EX #5: Find the 46th term of the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . .

Nth term of an Arithmetic Sequence

EX #6: Find the ninth term of the arithmetic sequence whose first term is 8 and has a common
difference of −5.

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 Finding General Terms

EX #7: The numbers in the sequences below follow a general pattern. Can you write the general
rule?

A. 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, . . . B. 4, −1, −6, −11, −16, . . .

Using Explicit Formulas

EX #8: The number of seats in the first 16 rows of an arena form an arithmetic sequence. If there
are 20 seats in Row 1, 23 seats in Row 2, how many seats are in Row 16?

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Lesson 1-B: Change in Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences

Geometric Sequences

A geometric sequence is any sequence with a constant ratio between consecutive terms. With a
starting value “a” and common ratio “r” is in the form 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 3 , . . . 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 .
EX. 𝟒𝟒, 𝟖𝟖, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑, 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔, . . . 𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏

General Form and Common Ratios

The nth term (general term) of a geometric sequence with first term 𝑎𝑎1 and common ratio 𝑟𝑟 is
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 −1
Geometric sequences have common ratios between consecutive terms.
𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎3 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
Common ratio: 𝑟𝑟 = = =
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1

Each term in a geometric sequence can be obtained recursively from its

previous term by multiplying by r:

Formula:

General Form: 𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛 = 𝑔𝑔0 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛

𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛 = 𝑔𝑔𝑘𝑘 � 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−𝑘𝑘

Kth Term Formula:
for 𝑔𝑔𝑘𝑘 is the kth term

Identifying Geometric Sequences

EX #9: Determine whether each sequence is geometric. If so, find the common ratio, r.

A. 3, 6, 12, 24, . . . B. 3, −9, 27, −81, . . .

C. 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, . . . D. 48, −12, 3, . . .

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 Finding Terms of a Geometric Sequence

EX #10: Find the indicated terms of the geometric sequences.

A. Find 𝑎𝑎6 and 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 for the geometric sequence B. Determine r and 𝑎𝑎1 for the geometric sequence
1
3, −15, 75, . . . with 𝑎𝑎4 = −8 and 𝑎𝑎11 =
16

EX #11: When a radioactive substance decays, the amount remaining will form a geometric sequence
when measured over constant intervals of time. The table shows the amount of an unknown
substance, initially and after 2 hours. Find the amounts left after 1 hour, 3 hours, and 4
hours.
Hours Lapsed 0 1 2 3 4

Grams of
1320 384
radioactive substance

Applications

EX #12: You are offered a starting salary of $37,500 for the first year with an annual increase of
5% per year. This means your salary will be 1.05 times what it was in the first year.
What would you expect to earn in your fifth year on the job?

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EX #13: A Christmas tree farm has 10,000 trees on its property in 2022. Each year after 10% of the
trees are harvested and 700 new saplings are planted.
A. Write a general formula 𝑡𝑡𝑛𝑛 that gives the current number of trees on the farm in the year n,
where 𝑛𝑛 = 0 corresponds to 2022.

B. Use the formula from part (a) to find the number of trees for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2,3,4. Interpret these
values in the context of the situation.

EX #14: A ball is dropped from a height of 30 feet. Each time it hits the ground, the ball bounces up
to 0.8 of the previous height.
A. Complete the table below to model the data in the scenario.

𝒏𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

height 30

B. How high will the ball bounce up to after it strikes the ground for the nth time?

C. How many times will the ball need to strike the ground before its bounce is less than 1 foot?

D. What is the total distance the ball travels in the first 10 bounces? NOTE: Be sure to consider
the behavior of a bouncing ball.

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Lesson 2-A: Change in Linear and Exponential Functions

Let’s look at the relationships between linear functions and arithmetic sequences. We know that a
linear function of the form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 describes a continuous function whose domain and range is all
real numbers. The y-intercept is the point (0, 𝑏𝑏) and the rate of change of the function is the value of 𝑚𝑚
which represents the slope of the line over its domain. Arithmetic sequences can be represented by
linear functions. However, sequences and their corresponding functions may have different domains.

Generating a Linear Function from an Arithmetic Sequence

EX #1: Use the graph of the sequence shown at right to

A. Complete the table below.

𝒏𝒏 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 −5

B. Find the difference d and write an explicit rule, 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 .

C. Use the information from part (B) to write a linear function that corresponds to the nth term
expression.

EX #2: Given the arithmetic sequence where 𝑎𝑎1 = 17 and 𝑎𝑎8 = −39, state the domain and range
of the sequence.

𝒏𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 17 −39

EX #3: Write a linear function whose domain is all real numbers that will contain the domain
of the sequence in EX #2. Show your steps for writing the function.

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 Arithmetic Sequences and Function Notation

The explicit formula denotes the nth term of the sequence where n tells the term’s location. It defines
the sequence as a formula in terms of n. It may be written in either subscript notation 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 or by using
function notation 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛).

EX#4: Given the sequence {32, 27, 22, 17, 12, 7, . . . } Find an explicit formula in both subscript
notation and function notation.
Term Subscript Function
Term
Number Notation Notation

1 32 𝑎𝑎1 𝑓𝑓(1)

Subscript Notation:
5

6
Function Notation:
𝑛𝑛 ⋮

EX #5: Given the explicit formula for the sequence 𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 = 9 − 3(𝑛𝑛 − 4)

A. Write the first 10 terms of the sequence.

B. Find the 200th term of the sequence and support with work.

C. Write the slope-intercept form of the formula.

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 Using Explicit Formulas

EX #6: Elizabeth waters her vegetable garden using water she collects in a 55-gallon rain barrel.
On May 3, the barrel was full of water, and on May 8 the barrel contained 47 gallons of
water.
A. Write the first six terms of the sequence.

B. Write an explicit rule using both subscript notation and function notation.

C. Explain when the rain barrel will be empty, assume there is no rain in the next 10-day
period.

EX #7: Allan is assigned a book to read for his biology class. Counting today, Monday, as the first
day, he finds that he must read through page 385 by day 12, and through page 665 by
day 20.
A. Write a rule for the nth term of the arithmetic sequence that represents the number
of pages that he will have read after n days. 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + 𝑑𝑑(𝑛𝑛 − 𝑘𝑘)

B. What is the common difference? What does it mean in terms of Allan’s assignment?

C. Based on your formula, how many pages does Allan need to read today, Monday? Explain
how you know.

D. Using your function rule, how many pages will Allan have read by Friday’s class. Explain.

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Lesson 2-B: Change in Linear and Exponential Functions

We have seen that when the output values of a function change at a constant rate, the function is
linear. Now let’s look at what happens when the output values change proportionally. When your
sequence is geometric, the rate of change will increase (or decreases) as the value of n increases.

Generating an Exponential Function from a Geometric Sequence

EX #8: Use the graph of the sequence shown at right to

A. Complete the table below.

𝒏𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 64 32 4

B. Find the common ratio r and write an explicit rule, 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 .

C. Use the information from part (B) to write an exponential function that corresponds to the nth
term expression.

EX #9: Given the geometric sequence where 𝑎𝑎1 = 144 and 𝑎𝑎3 = 36, state the domain and range
of the sequence.

𝒏𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9
𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏 144 36
2

EX #10: Write an exponential function whose domain is all real numbers that will contain the
domain of the sequence in EX #9. Show your steps for writing the function.

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 Geometric Sequences and Function Notation

The explicit formula for the nth term of the geometric sequence, 𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛 = 𝑔𝑔0 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 can be modeled
by the exponential function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 . Similarly, the kth term formula, 𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛 = 𝑔𝑔𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛−𝑘𝑘 will
graphically correspond to 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦1 𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥−𝑥𝑥1) based on a known ratio r, and a point 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 .

EX#11: Given the sequence {3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, . . . } Find an explicit formula in both subscript
notation and function notation.
Term Subscript Function
Term
Number Notation Notation

1 3 𝑎𝑎1 𝑓𝑓(1)

Subscript Notation:
5

6
Function Notation:
𝑛𝑛 ⋮

1 𝑛𝑛−1
EX #12: Given the explicit formula for the sequence 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 = 6 2

A. Write the first 6 terms of the sequence.

B. Find the 𝑎𝑎0 term of the sequence and support with work.

C. Write the exponential form of the formula .

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EX #13: Tim released a helium-filled balloon that rose 200 feet in the first minute. In each
succeeding minute, the balloon rises only 50% as far as it rose in the previous minute.
A. Write a general formula 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 that gives the height of the balloon for time in the air.

B. Use the formula from part (a) to find the height the balloon reaches after 8 minutes.

𝒏𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

height 200

EX #14: Big Tech Electronics advertises a monthly payment plan for the purchase of the
best-selling tablet. Buyers pay $50 at the end of the first month, $55 at the end of the
second month, $60.50 at the end of the third month, and so on for one year.
A. What will the payments be at the end of the 4th, 6th, and 10th months?

B. How much will a customer pay for the tablet with this payment plan?

C. Write a general formula for the scenario as a geometric sequence and as an

exponential function.

D. What does the ratio represent in context to the scenario?

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Lesson 3: Exponential Functions

While exploring linear growth, we observed a constant rate of change. For example, in the equation
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 3, the slope tells us the output will increase by 2 each time the input increases by 1. In
this lesson, we will explore what it means to grow exponentially. We will look at real world scenarios
that have a percent change per unit of time rather than a constant (linear) change.

Definition of an Exponential Function

An exponential function in x is a function that can be written in the form

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥
where b is a positive real number (𝑏𝑏 > 0), 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1, and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 is a real number.
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers. The base b is the growth factor, and the
constant a is the initial value of f (𝑓𝑓 0 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏0 = 𝑎𝑎).

Characteristics of Exponential Functions

 If 𝑎𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏𝑏 > 1 the exponential function will demonstrate exponential growth.
 If 𝑎𝑎 > 0 and 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1, the exponential function will demonstrate exponential decay.

Graphing an Exponential Function

EX #1: Graph 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 𝒙𝒙 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙

𝒚𝒚

Domain:

Range:

As 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) →

As 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) →

Asymptote(s):

Intercept(s):

Concavity:

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EX #2: Which of the following are exponential functions? Explain why or why not.

Identifying Exponential Functions

Initial
Function Base Why?
Value

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥

B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 4𝑥𝑥 −3

C. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 5(𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 )

D. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3 � 4𝑒𝑒

EX #3: Compute the exact value without a calculator.

1
A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 6(3)𝑥𝑥+1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2 B. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −5(8)𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3

EX #4: Find an equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) that describes the function characteristics. 𝒙𝒙 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)
1. The value of g at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 is 3.
0 3
2. The output value of g doubles at every 1-unit increase in the input value.
1

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 Finding an Exponential Function from its Table of Values

EX #5: Determine the formulas for the functions from values given in the table below. For each
function, compute the average rate of change of y with respect to x and the ratio of consecutive
outputs.

A. B.
𝒙𝒙 −2 −1 0 1 2 𝒙𝒙 −2 −1 0 1 2
3 3 5 5
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 3 6 12 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 20 10 5
4 2 2 4

Exponential Growth and Decay

EX #6: For any exponential function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 and any real number 𝑥𝑥, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 𝑏𝑏 � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 .

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3 2 𝑥𝑥

If 𝑎𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏𝑏 > 1, the function 𝑓𝑓 is increasing and

the base 𝑏𝑏 is its ___________________________ factor.

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞

Domain: Range: Asymptote:

1 𝑥𝑥
B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 5 2

If 𝑎𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏𝑏 < 1, the function 𝑓𝑓 is decreasing and

the base 𝑏𝑏 is its ___________________________ factor.

lim 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞

Domain: Range: Asymptote:

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 Compare and Contrast

EX #7: Big Tech Industries has 25 locations and is expanding by 10 new locations each year. The
company growth can be represented by the function 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥 = 25 + 10𝑥𝑥. Central Computing, Inc.
has 25 locations, and they expand by increasing their total locations by 40% each year. The
growth can be represented by the function 𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥 = 25 1 + 0.4 𝑥𝑥 .
A. Complete the table to show the growth of each company for the first 5 years.

Year, x Big Tech Industries Central Computing, Inc.

𝑥𝑥 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥 = 25 + 10𝑥𝑥 𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥 = 25 1 + 0.4 𝑥𝑥

B. Graph each function on the grid provided to

compare the growth for each company.

C. State the domain and range for 𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥) and 𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥).

D. When do both companies have the same number

of locations?

E. What is the maximum number of locations for

each company in 5 years?

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Lesson 4-A: Exponential Function Manipulation

Properties of exponents are used to simplify exponential expressions. Let’s recall those properties
here and explore how they are related to graphs of exponential functions.

Properties of Exponents

If a, b, m and n are real numbers with 𝑎𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏𝑏 > 0, then

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 � 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 � 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚+𝑛𝑛

1 1 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘 =
𝑘𝑘
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏−𝑛𝑛 = =
𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛

EX #1: Evaluate each number to three decimal places.

A. 5 2.3 B. 3 7 C. 6−1.5

Characteristics of Exponential Functions of the Form f (x) =b x

1. The domain of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 consists of all real numbers. The range of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 consists of all
positive real numbers.
2. The graphs of all exponential functions of the form 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 pass through the point (0, 1)
because 𝑓𝑓 0 = 𝑏𝑏0 = 1 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0 . The y-intercept is 1.
3. If 𝑏𝑏 > 1, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is an increasing function, continuous and concave up.
4. If 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is a decreasing function, continuous and concave up.
5. The graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 approaches, but does not cross, the x-axis.
The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
6. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is one-to-one and has an inverse that is a function.

1 𝑥𝑥
EX #2: Graph 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 2
on the grid at right.

A. What can you conclude about the relationships between

1 𝑥𝑥
the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = 2

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 Transformations of Exponential Functions

Equation Transformation Examples

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 4 4 units up
Vertical translation
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑘𝑘 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 −5 5 units down

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − ℎ 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥−3 3 units right

Horizontal translation
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + ℎ 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥+6 6 units left

𝑦𝑦 = 3 2𝑥𝑥
Vertical Stretch Stretch by 3
𝑎𝑎 � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥 1
Vertical Shrink 𝑦𝑦 = 2 Shrink by
2 2

1
Horizontal stretch 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1 𝑦𝑦 = 2 4 𝑥𝑥 Stretch by 4
1
Horizontal Shrink 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , 𝑎𝑎 > 1 𝑦𝑦 = 23𝑥𝑥 Shrink by 3

−𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = −2𝑥𝑥 Across x-axis

Reflection
𝑓𝑓 −𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = 2−𝑥𝑥 Across y-axis

EX #3: Graph 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 on the grid at right. Then, use the
graph to obtain the graph of 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥+2

𝒙𝒙 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑𝒙𝒙 𝒈𝒈 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑𝒙𝒙+𝟐𝟐

−2

−1

EX #4: Show that the function 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥+2 can be written in the form of ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 using the
transformation properties in the table above. Describe the transformation of the y-intercept
from the parent function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥 for 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) and ℎ 𝑥𝑥 .

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Lesson 4-B: Exponential Function Manipulation

EX #5: Graph 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2−𝑥𝑥 on the grid at right. Then, use the
graph to obtain the graph of 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 2−2𝑥𝑥

𝒙𝒙 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐−𝒙𝒙 𝒈𝒈 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

−2

−1

EX #6: Show that the function 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 2−2𝑥𝑥 can be written in the form of ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 using the
transformation properties in the table shown on the previous page. Describe the
transformation of the y-intercept from the parent function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2−𝑥𝑥 for 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) and ℎ 𝑥𝑥 .

EX #7: Use the grid at right to graph 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −2𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = −2𝑥𝑥 + 3.

A. Label the y-intercept for each function.

B. Describe the transformations for each function

compared to the parent function 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥

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 1 𝑥𝑥
EX #8: Graph 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3
on the grid at right. Then, use the
1 𝑥𝑥−4
graph to obtain the graph of 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 3
+2

A. Find the y-intercept for 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥).

B. Describe the transformation for 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) compared

1 𝑥𝑥
to the parent function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3

EX #9: Graph the function and label the asymptote and

y-intercept.
1 1 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = − 2 2

Describe the transformations from 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥

EX #10: Write an equation for the transformation of the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 4𝑥𝑥 then explain the
transformation for each graph.
A. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 − 3) B. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 5

C. 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(−2𝑥𝑥) D. 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 = −3 � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 1 − 2

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Lesson 5-A: Exponential Function Context and Data Modeling

There are many scenarios in the world that can be modeled by exponential functions. Some
examples include radioactive decay, population growth, interest on savings, bacteria growth, and
many other phenomena that occur in nature.

Real-World Exponential Models for Population

EX #1: Surfside High School was built in 2007 and has a growth rate of 1.8% each year. The initial
student population was 𝐴𝐴0 = 1483 students that year. The variable 𝑡𝑡 = 0 represents 2007
and the rate, 𝑟𝑟 is written as a decimal.
A. Write an exponential model 𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴0 1 + 𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 to represent the scenario.

B. Use your exponential model to find the expected student population in 2024.

Exponential Growth – Doubling Time

The size of a population P, at time t, with the initial size 𝑃𝑃0 and a doubling time of k is given by
𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑃𝑃0 2 𝑡𝑡/𝑘𝑘
Where k and t are measured in the same units of time.

EX #2: A certain fish species was introduced into a tidal basin 10 months ago. The current fish
population is estimated to be 220 and is doubling every 5 months.
A. Find the initial size of the fish population.

B. Estimate the population of the fish one year after they are introduced into the tidal basin.

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 Modeling Radioactive Decay

EX #3: Suppose the half-life of a certain radioactive substance is 40 days and there are 8 grams
present initially. Find the time when there will be 1 g (gram) of the substance remaining.
𝑡𝑡
𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴0 (1 + 𝑟𝑟) 𝑘𝑘

Writing an Exponential Model from a Graph

1
EX #4: The graph shown at right contains the points −5,12 and 6, 2 .

A. Write an exponential function for the graph.

B. What is the y-intercept of the function?

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 Using Regression to Model Decay

EX #5: A chemist has a 100-gram sample of a radioactive substance. The table below shows the
amount of radioactive material at the end of the week for a 6-week period.

Radioactive Substance
A. Use a graphing utility to fit an exponential function to the
Weight data. Write the equation for the data.
Week
(in grams)
0 100.0

1 90.4

2 76.8 B. Using your equation from part (A), what value would
represent half the initial value? How many weeks to reach
3 69.7 the half-life of the radioactive material? Does this
correspond to the table of values?
4 58.2

5 49.7

6 44.2

C. When will there be 10-grams of material left?

D. How much radioactive material will be left after 52 weeks?

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Lesson 5-B: Exponential Function Context and Data Modeling

Using a TI-84 Plus to Find Exponential Functions

Given two points on the curve of an exponential function,

use a TI-84 Plus calculator to find the equation

1. Press [STAT] > [EDIT]

2. Clear any existing entries in columns L1 and L2.
3. In L1, enter the x-coordinates given.
4. In L2, enter the corresponding y-coordinates.
5. Press [STAT] > [CALC], scroll down to 0: ExpReg (Exponential Regression), and press [ENTER]
6. The screen displays a list of items Xlist: L1 Ylist: L2 FreqList: Store RegEQ: Calculate. Arrow down
to the Store RegEQ: line and Pres [VARS] > [Y-VARS] > 1: Function > 1: Y1.
7. Press [ENTER] and Calculate will be flashing. Press [ENTER].
8. The screen displays the values of a and b in the exponential equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 � 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 .
9. The graph will also be displayed in the GRAPH window.
10. You may need to adjust your viewing window to display the full graph.

EX #6: Use a graphing calculator to find the exponential equation that includes the points
3,18.2 and (7, 94.7).

A. Find the equation using the steps above.

B. Sketch the graph in the grid at right.

C. Label the y-intercept.

D. Find the value of x where 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 50.

The Natural Base e

The number e is a convenient choice for many exponential applications.

This irrational number is used as the base in the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , where
𝑒𝑒 = 2.718281828 … The graph of the natural exponential function, shown
at right, has the basic characteristics as the graph of the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 .
It is important to note that in the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , e is the constant
And x is the variable.

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 Approximating the Number e

The number e is defined as the number that the expression below approaches as 𝑛𝑛 → ∞. I
n calculus, this number is expressed using limit notation.
𝑛𝑛
1
lim 1 + = 𝑒𝑒
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛

EX #7: Exploring the number e.

A. Complete the table to see that the values B. Graph the functions to verify
𝑥𝑥
approach 𝑒𝑒 ≈ 2.718281828 1
𝑦𝑦1 = 1 +
𝑥𝑥
𝟏𝟏
𝒏𝒏 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑒𝑒
𝒏𝒏 𝟏𝟏 +
𝒏𝒏

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

Exponential Growth and Decay Models

𝐴𝐴0 is the original (initial) amount, t = time and k is a constant representing a rate.

𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 If 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, the function models the amount, or size of a growing entity.
or
𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 If 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, the function models the amount, or size of a decaying entity.

EX #8: The atmospheric pressure, p on a commercial airline decreases as the plane height increases.
The pressure is measure in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is related to the height h in
kilometers above sea level. This relationship can be modeled by the function
𝑝𝑝 ℎ = 760𝑒𝑒 −0.145ℎ .

A. What is the atmospheric pressure at a height of 4.5 kilometers (about 3 miles)?

B. Find the pressure when the airline reaches a height of 10 kilometers (about 6.2 miles).

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Let’s look at exponential decay and how carbon dating is used to determine the age of artifacts and
fossils up to 80,000 years old. The method is based on finding the percentage of carbon-14 remaining
in an object. Carbon-14 is known to decay exponentially with a half-life of 5715 years. That means the
half-life of a substance is the time required for half of the given sample to disintegrate.

Half-Life
If 𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴0 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 with 𝑘𝑘 < 0, then the half-life of A is
ln 2
Half-life = 𝑘𝑘

EX #9: The half-life of a certain radioactive substance is 24 years. A sample has 5.8 grams present
initially.
A. Write a model to express the amount of the substance remaining as a function of time t.

B. When will there be less than 1 gram remaining?

Compound Interest Formulas

Compound interest is interest computed on an original investment plus any accumulated interest.
If an initial sum of money, called the principal, P, is invested at an annual percentage rate r, in
decimal form, compounded once each year, we know the accumulated value 𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 , can be found using
the formula 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃 1 + 𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 . Some banking institutions compound at different time intervals, such as
monthly, quarterly semi-annually, and continuously.
After t years, the balance 𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡), in an account with principal P and annual interest rate r (in decimal
form) is given by the following formulas.

𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
1. For 𝑛𝑛 compoundings per year: 𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑃𝑃 1 + 𝑛𝑛

2. For continuous compounding: 𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

EX #10: Suppose you win a writer’s competition at the start of 9th graph that deposited $5000 in an
account that pays 6.25% annual interest, compounded continuously. How much will be in
the account when you enter college, four years later?

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Lesson 6-A: Competing Function Model Validation

In this lesson we will explore how to construct linear, quadratic and exponential models based on a
data set. We want to focus on whether our model can be justified as appropriate for a data set by
using the graph of the residuals of a regression.

Revisiting Linear Regression Models

EX #1: Darrin injured his hamstring in a football game. His sports trainer sent him to physical
therapy to build up his leg strength by using a regulated weight machine. The table and
graph show the number of repetitions he has been able to do on each day he was in PT.
The best-fitting linear function 𝑦𝑦� = 2.05𝑥𝑥 + 4.95 (read as “y hat”) is also shown. We can
use this line to find residuals.

𝒙𝒙 (days) 1 3 5 7 9
𝒚𝒚 (repetitions) 7 10 18 17 24

A. Use the line of best fit to find residuals.

Sketch a vertical line at 𝑥𝑥 = 5 and 𝑦𝑦 = 18.
Draw a red line to show the length of the
residual, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦� .

A residual is the difference between the

observed y-value and the predicted y-value. It
is the vertical distance from the actual plotted
point to the point on the regression line. This is
known as an error in the model.

B. Complete the table below to calculate the 𝑦𝑦� values, the residuals, and the squares of
the residuals.
𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 �
𝒚𝒚 − 𝒚𝒚 �
𝒚𝒚 − 𝒚𝒚 𝟐𝟐
�
𝒚𝒚
(days) (repetitions) (residuals) (squares of residuals)
1 7

3 10

5 18

7 17

9 24

Sums

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 Vocabulary and Definitions

Given a data point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦), the

deviation of a data point is 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦,
� the Residual
(remains after Data point
directed distance of its y-value from 𝑦𝑦,
�
regression)
where 𝑦𝑦� is the average of the y-values.
𝑦𝑦
The residual of a data point from the line 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦� 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦�
𝑦𝑦� = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 is 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦.
� This is the vertical 𝑦𝑦� Deviation
directed distance of its y-value from the (before
regression line. Residuals help to determine regression)
𝑦𝑦�
if a curve is appropriate for the data set.

The difference between the predicted

𝑥𝑥
and actual values is the error in the model.

Regression “Line of Best Fit” = Least-Squares Regression Line

Using Technology for Graphing Residual Plots

EX #2: Use the data at right to create a residual plot.

𝒙𝒙 1 2 3 4 5
𝒚𝒚 2 1.2 3.6 3.2 4
1. Press [STAT] > [EDIT]
2. Clear any existing entries in columns L1 and L2
3. In L1, enter the x-coordinates.
4. In L2, enter the corresponding y-coordinates.
5. Press [2nd]>[Y=], to go to the STAT PLOT menu, Choose Plot 1, hit ENTER
6. Turn the plot ON by hitting ENTER
7. Arrow down to TYPE: choose the first option (scatter plot)
8. Make Xlist: L1
9. Make Ylist: [2nd] > [STAT] > 9:RESID
10. Press Graph to view the residual plot

If you need to see the calculated residual values:

Go to the top of L3, Press[2nd]>[STAT]>9:RESID

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 Residual Plots

A residual plot is a scatter plot that shows the residuals on the vertical axis and the independent
variable on the horizontal axis. We will use residual plots to help us decide whether the model
chosen is an appropriate model. Notice the residual plot (below) for our example where 𝑦𝑦� = 2.05𝑥𝑥 +
4.95 that the residuals are randomly placed above and below the x-axis.
You will see either random residual plots, appropriate for linear regressions, or patterned residual
plots for non-linear regressions.

Random U-Shaped Pattern Inverted U-Shaped Pattern

Linear Model Non-Linear Model Non-Linear Model

How to Interpret a Residual Plot

EX #3: Let’s look at a data plot with the least squares regression line and analyze the associated
residual plot.
A. Use a red pencil to draw line segments from the data
points to the line of best fit in the graph at right.
𝑦𝑦� = 0.83𝑥𝑥 + 0.4 These residual line segments fall
above and below the regression line. What does
this tell you about the values of residuals?

B. How do we know if our predicted line overestimates

or underestimates our data? Use the residual plot of
the data set to complete the statements.

The predicted line will __________________________________

data when a residual value is positive.

The predicted line will __________________________________

Data when a residual value is negative.

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EX #4: Suppose that these data have been measured for two related variables 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦.

A. Enter the data in two lists on your grapher. Data Regression

Show by linear regression that the best- Residual
Points Points
fitting linear function is 𝑦𝑦� = 1.52𝑥𝑥 + 2.35. Points
(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) �)
(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚

B. Record the correlation coefficient, 𝑟𝑟. (4,9)

(7,14)
C. Complete the table by finding the regression
points 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦� . (10, 18)

D. Find the residual points using L3 to complete (13, 25)

the final column. (Round to 3 decimal places.)
(16, 23)
E. Make a residual plot of the data on your
graphing calculator. How well does the (19, 28)
linear function fit the data?
Explain how you know. (22, 34)

(25, 41)

(28, 45)

(31, 52)

EX #5: The table below gives the wavelength x (in meters) and the wave speed y (in meters per
second) of deep ocean waves.

Wavelength (meters) 3 5 7 8 10
Wave Speed (m/s) 5.8 16.2 31 40.4 65.7

A. Explain why a quadratic function would be expected to fit the data well.

B. Find a quadratic regression equation.

C. Record the correlation coefficient, 𝑟𝑟.

D. Find the residual plot for the data. Based on the residual plot, could the quadratic function
be used to make predictions of deep ocean wavelengths to the nearest meter if this accuracy
were necessary? Explain why or why not.

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EX #6: The total number of views for a popular podcast is increasing. The table shows the estimates
of the total views each month since January 2010.

Month
1 6 14 25 27 31 33 38 42
(Jan ’10 =1)
Total Views
0.2 0.55 1.1 2.9 3.8 8.2 9.3 10.6 15.7
(in millions)

A. Use a graphing calculator to find a quadratic, exponential, and power regression model.

Quadratic Model: __________________________________________________________________________

Exponential Model: ________________________________________________________________________

Power Model: ______________________________________________________________________________

B. Use the residual plot for each regression model. Do the residuals follow a definite pattern,
or are they randomly scattered? Explain.

C. Based on your findings, which model best fits the data? Explain why.

D. Using the model chosen, what is the expected number of views in 5 years?

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Lesson 6-B: Competing Function Model Validation
We want to observe both the residual plot and the endpoint behavior when choosing an appropriate
model.
 If the residual plot follows a regular pattern, then there is a behavior that is not accounted for
by the kind of function chosen.
 If the residual plot has no identifiable pattern, then the regression equation most likely will
model all but random fluctuations in the data.

EX #7: Your biology teacher has bacterial cultures for a class of 24 students. Each student is
measuring the number of bacteria, y in his or her culture at intervals of time, x hours during
the day. The results are shown in the table and the scatter plot below.

A. Find a power function regression model and 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚 𝒙𝒙 𝒚𝒚

the correlation coefficient. (hours) (bacteria) (hours) (bacteria)
0.5 200 3.8 1412
0.7 196 3.9 1425
1.2 342 4.1 1568
B. Find an exponential regression model and
the correlation coefficient. 1.5 395 4.1 1741
1.7 476 4.3 2115
1.9 482 4.5 2210
C. Discuss the right endpoint behavior and the 2.0 607 4.6 1987
left endpoint behavior in relation to the
regression equations. Which model would 2.3 760 4.6 2124
better represent the data set? Why? 2.7 843 5.0 1875
3.1 861 5.0 2886
3.5 1335 5.1 2305
3.7 1385 5.5 2627

D. Using the exponential model, find the number of

bacteria in the initial sample. Make a prediction
for the number of bacteria present at 24 hours.

E. When will the number of bacteria reach 10,000?

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 EX #8: While driving down a dirt road you punctured the tire of your truck. The table below shows
the pressure, y, measured in pounds per square inch (psi) if air in the tire at any given time, x,
measured in seconds after the tire was punctured.

𝑥𝑥 (sec) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

𝑦𝑦 (psi) 28 22 17 14 10 8 7 5 4 4

A. Find an exponential function in the form of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 that best fits the data. What is the
correlation coefficient?

B. Plot the equation and scatter plot on the same screen. Does the exponential function
fit the data points? Explain.

C. Using the model, what was the pressure of the tire before it was punctures?

D. The residual graph is shown at right. Does this match your calculation?
What does it tell you about the validity of your regression function?

EX #9: A set of data has an upward trend, shown in the plot below. It is not clear whether the best
fitting function is linear or exponential. Use the residual plots to determine which regression
function would best model the data set. Explain why.

Linear Function Exponential Function

Data Plot
Residuals Residuals

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 Cubic Regression

EX #10: A textbook publisher prints textbooks x (in thousands of units) at a cost (in thousands of
dollars). The following data set represents the weekly cost C.

Number of
A. Find the average rate of change in cost from 10,000 to Cost, C
books, x
13,000 textbooks.
5 135.2

10 153

B. Find the average rate of change in cost from 18,000 to 13 167.5

20,000 textbooks.
17 172.6

18 182.5

20 187.7
C. Find a cubic regression model for the data set.
23 180.8

25 193.8

28 230.5
D. What is the correlation coefficient? What does this tell you?

E. Does the residual graph indicate this is an effective model? Explain.

F. What is the cost to the publisher if no books are printed?

G. Use your cubic regression model to predict the cost to print 24,000 textbooks per week.

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 Evaluating a Model for Improved Performance

Data analysis might have different business implications. There are instances where a
business might want to overestimate in order to provide a service or product or
underestimate in order to keep costs in line.

EX #11: The demand for motorized scooters in a large city center is shown in the table below. For
the 30 days in the study, each day’s scooter demand is given in the calendar below. For
example, on day 1, there was a demand of 35 scooters.

S M T W T F S
65°/35 69°/42 67°/37 65°/34 73°/52 75°/83

68°/41 72°/47 71°/38 75°/48 72°/32 68°/55 67°/23

84°/137 79°/42 80°/35 78°/34 79°/36 85°/164 88°/77

75°/38 74°/44 67°/39 54°/18 57°/26 62°/67 58°/28

55°/23 56°/18 64°/32

A. Find the best regression equation model and 𝑟𝑟-value for the data set. Explain your reasoning.

B. The city wants to remove the outliers in the data for scooter demand on any given day,
what 5 outliers would you remove? Use the residual values to justify your choices.

Data Point

Residual Error

Remove these outliers and recalculate the regression equation. Did this improve your
r-value?

C. What other type of analysis could the city explore to better understand the demand for
scooters?

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Lesson 7-A: Composition of Functions

You have created new functions by using algebraic operations in previous courses. Suppose you
want to calculate the cost to air condition your Florida home on a particular summer day. The cost
for the cool air will depend on the average daily temperature, and the temperature will depend on
the day of the year. Do you see how the two relationships are connected? The cost depends on the
temperature and the temperature depends on the day of the year.

This process of combining functions so that the output of one function becomes the input of another
is known as the composition of functions. The composition of the function 𝑓𝑓 with the function 𝑔𝑔 is
defined as 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 . The domain of 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 is the set of all 𝑥𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔𝑔 such
that 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓𝑓.

In the above function, the output of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is used as the input of 𝑓𝑓.

Reading and Notation

It is important to understand the notation conventions for composition functions.

Let’s begin with the open circle symbol ∘ which is known as the composition operation. Be sure to
note this symbol does not represent the product of 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓. 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥).
When reading the notation from left to right in the statement 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ,
think “f composed with g at x” equals “f of g of x.”
In general, 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ) and 𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 are different functions.

Composite Functions and the Commutative Property

EX #1: Using the functions below, find 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 . Can you determine whether the
composition of the functions is commutative? 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 4 − 𝑥𝑥

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 Composition of Functions

1
EX #2: Let 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥, 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 2
and ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 . Find a rule for each of the following.
State the domain of each function.

A. 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 B. 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥

C. 𝑓𝑓 ∘ ℎ (𝑥𝑥) D. (ℎ ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥)

EX #3: Use the graphs of 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 to evaluate the functions.

A: (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(3) B: 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 1

C: 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 4 � 𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 1 D:
𝑓𝑓(−1)
𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 3

E: (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(4) F: (𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(2)

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 Decomposing Functions

When you “decompose” a composite function you are finding the components of the composition.
Look for an “inner” function and an “outer” function.
EX #4: For each function h, find functions f and g such that ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 .

Function Inside Outside

A. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 3 2

1
B. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 5

C. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 2

D. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 2 − 4 𝑥𝑥 − 2 + 5

EX #5: Let ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 , write ℎ as a composition of functions in two different ways.

Interpreting Composite Functions

EX #6: Jim plants wheat on his farm in Kansas. The function 𝑊𝑊 𝑎𝑎 gives the amount of wheat, 𝑊𝑊, in
bushels, that he expects to harvest if he plants wheat on 𝑎𝑎 acres of land. When the wheat is
harvested, Jim can calculate the amount of money, 𝑀𝑀, in dollars, that he will earn from selling
w bushels of wheat with the function 𝑀𝑀(𝑤𝑤)

A. Explain the meaning of 𝑊𝑊 5 = 275

B. Explain the meaning of 𝑀𝑀 65 = 550

C. Explain the meaning of 𝑀𝑀 𝑊𝑊 4 = 2100

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Lesson 7-B: Composition of Functions

EX #7: The table of values for three functions, 𝑓𝑓, 𝑔𝑔, and ℎ are given below. Find the values for each
composite function operation below.

𝒙𝒙 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) −4 −1 0 2 4 5 8
𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 0 −1 −2 1 0 −3 2
𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙) 1 0.5 1.5 3 2 0 −1

A. 2 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔(2) + 3𝑔𝑔 ℎ 0 B. ℎ 𝑔𝑔 −2 � 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 2

C. If 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥 − 4 , for what value(s) of x is 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 0 ?

EX #8: Describe the transformations of the composition of the functions, given

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 ; 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 1 and ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥
A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 B. 𝑓𝑓 ℎ 𝑥𝑥 C. 𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥

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EX #9: Use the graph shown below right.

A. Complete the table of values for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

B. Find the values for ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 .

𝒙𝒙 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙)

−4

−3

−2

−1

C. Graph the points 𝑥𝑥, ℎ 𝑥𝑥 on the blank grid.

EX #10: For each of the following, find 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔, 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓, and the domain of 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔. Use a graphing utility
to graph each composition function. Determine whether 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓.

3
A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 1 , 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1 1
B. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3 𝑥𝑥 − 3 , 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 9

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 Applications
4
EX #11: The volume V, in cubic meters, of a weather balloon is given by 𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟 = 3 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 3 .
1
If the radius r, is increasing at a rate of 𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 = 2 𝑡𝑡 3 , 𝑡𝑡 > 0, seconds, find the volume
V , as a function of time t.

EX #12: The number N of bacteria in a container of leftover food stored in a refrigerator,

where T is the temperature of the food in degrees Celsius can be modeled by
𝑁𝑁 𝑇𝑇 = 60𝑇𝑇 2 − 140𝑇𝑇 + 76. When the container is removed from the refrigerator
the temperature is 𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡 = 5𝑡𝑡 + 3 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 3 , where t is the time in hours.

A. Find the composite 𝑁𝑁 𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡 and explain its meaning in context of the scenario.

B. Find the number of bacteria present in the food after the container has been sitting out
of refrigeration for 2 hours.

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Lesson 8-A: Inverse Functions
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. A function is a relation in which, for each distinct x-value, there
is exactly one corresponding y-value. If a function 𝑓𝑓 is a set of ordered pairs (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦), then the inverse
of 𝑓𝑓 is the set of ordered pairs 𝑦𝑦, 𝑥𝑥 . When the inverse of a function 𝑓𝑓 is itself a function, then 𝑓𝑓 is
said to be a one-to-one function.

One-to-One Functions

A function f is a one-to-one function if, for elements 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 in the domain of 𝑓𝑓,
𝒂𝒂 ≠ 𝒃𝒃 implies 𝒇𝒇(𝒂𝒂) ≠ 𝒇𝒇(𝒃𝒃).
That is, different values of the domain correspond to different values of the range.

EX #1: Justify each mapping with an observation.

Domain Range Domain Range Domain Range

1 4 1 4 1 4
2 5 2 5
3 6 3 6 3 6

One-to-One Function: Not a one-to-one function: Not a function:

If the graph of a function 𝑓𝑓 is known, you can use the horizontal-line test to determine
whether 𝑓𝑓 is one-to one.

Horizontal Line Test

If every horizontal line intersects the graph of a function 𝑓𝑓 in at most

one point, then 𝑓𝑓 is one-to-one.

Properties of Inverse Functions

 Graphs of inverse functions are reflections in the

line ___________________.
 Given a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), the notation for the inverse
function is ___________________.
 The domain of a function is equal to the _____________________
of the inverse function.
 The range of a function is equal to the ______________________
of the inverse function.

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 Graphing the Inverse Function

EX #2: For each of the graphs below, draw the line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 .

 Sketch the inverse of the function on the same grid.

 Is the function one-to-one?

A. B.

Definition of the Inverse of a Function

Let 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 be two functions such that

𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 for every x in the domain of g

and
𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 for every x in the domain of f.
The function 𝑔𝑔 is the inverse of the function 𝒇𝒇 and is denoted as 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥) (read “f-inverse of x”).
Therefore, 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 . The domain of 𝑓𝑓 is equal to the range of 𝑓𝑓 −1 , and
vice versa.

EX #3: Show that each function is the inverse of the other.

𝑥𝑥 − 3
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 4

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 Finding the Equation of the Inverse of y = f(x)

Given a formula for a function f , find an inverse by:

Determine that an inverse exists, that is, check that f is one-to-one.
(Ask yourself, “Is it necessary to restrict the domain to get a one-to-one version of f ?”).

Step 1: Interchange x and y in the formula .

Step 2: Solve for y to get the formula for the inverse 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑥𝑥 .
State any restrictions on the domain of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥)
Step 3: Replace y by 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥) in the new equation.

Graphing and Algebraic Practice

EX #4: For each of the following functions:

A. Sketch the function and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥,
B. Find the inverse,
C. Sketch the inverse, and
D. Verify that they are inverses, algebraically.

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 3 − 2 ; 𝑥𝑥 ≥ −3

3
B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 2 − 1

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Lesson 8-B: Inverse Functions

Function Notation

EX #5: Let 𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚 be the cost in dollars of m ounces of mangoes. What do the following statements
tell you? Be sure to use units!

A. 𝐶𝐶 12 = 0.75 B. 𝐶𝐶 8 = 0.5

C. 𝐶𝐶 −1 3 = 48 D. 𝐶𝐶 −1 0.75 = 12

Understanding Function Notation

EX #6: Suppose 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) is the average daily quantity of water (in gallons) required by a palm
tree of height 𝑥𝑥 feet.

A. What does the expression 𝑝𝑝(25) represent?

B. What does the expression 𝑝𝑝−1 25 represent?

C. What does the equation 𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣) = 50 tell you about 𝑣𝑣? Rewrite this equation in terms of 𝑝𝑝−1 .

D. Palm trees are on average 𝑧𝑧 feet high and a tree of average height requires 𝑘𝑘 gallons of
water. Represent this fact in terms of 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑝𝑝−1 .

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 E. Using the definitions of z and k from part D, what do the following expressions represent?

i. 𝑝𝑝(2𝑧𝑧) ii. 2𝑝𝑝(𝑧𝑧)

iii. 𝑝𝑝(𝑧𝑧 + 10) iv. 𝑝𝑝(𝑧𝑧) + 10

v. 𝑝𝑝−1 (2𝑘𝑘) vi. 𝑝𝑝 −1 (𝑘𝑘 + 10)

vii. 𝑝𝑝 −1 (𝑘𝑘) + 10 viii. 𝑝𝑝 −1 (𝑘𝑘) − 2

Tables and Inverses

EX #7: 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 are defined by the given tables. Use the tables to evaluate the following.

A. 𝑓𝑓 −1 (−4) B. 𝑔𝑔−1 (6)

𝑥𝑥 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 𝒙𝒙 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)
−1 2 −1 −6
0 −1 1 −3
3 −3 4 −1
C. 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑔𝑔 1 D. 𝑔𝑔−1 𝑓𝑓 0
5 −4 8 6

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 Finding the Inverse of a Rational Function
2𝑥𝑥+3
EX #8: The following rational function is one-to-one. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 + 2

A. Find its inverse.

B. Find the domain and range of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).

If a function is not one-to-one, then its inverse is not a function. However, if an appropriate
restriction on the domain is made, then we can find an inverse that is also a function.

EX #9: Find the inverse of 𝑦𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 if 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0. Graph 𝑓𝑓 and its inverse, 𝑓𝑓 −1

EX #10: Suppose 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) are one-to-one functions. If 𝑓𝑓 3 = 5 and 𝑔𝑔 5 = −2, can you
determine whether 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 are inverses of each other? Explain why or why not.

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Lesson 9: Logarithmic Expressions

We know the logarithmic expression log 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 is equal to, or represents, the value that the base 𝑏𝑏 must
be exponentially raised to in order to obtain the value of 𝑛𝑛. That is, log 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝 if and only if 𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛,
where 𝑛𝑛 and 𝑝𝑝 are constants, 𝑏𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1. Recall that when the base of a logarithmic expression
is not specified, it is understood as the common logarithm with a base of 10.

Basic Properties of Logarithms

(Note: These are also valid for base 10 and base e)
For 𝒃𝒃 > 𝟎𝟎, 𝒃𝒃 ≠ 𝟏𝟏, 𝒙𝒙 > 𝟎𝟎, and any real number 𝒚𝒚

log 𝑏𝑏 1 = 0 log 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 = 1 log 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏 log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥

ln 1 = 0 ln 𝑒𝑒 = 1 ln 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 ln 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥

Evaluating Logarithmic and Exponential Expressions

EX #1: Give a reason for the following logarithmic expressions

A. log 2 8 = 3 because …

1
B. log3 3 = because …
2

1
C. log5 = −2 because …
25

D. log 10 = 1 because …

E. 6log6 11 = 11 because …

Converting from Exponential Form to Logarithmic Form

EX #2: Write the exponential form as a logarithmic equation.

A. 43 = 64 B. 93 = 729

−5 1 1
C. 2 = 32 D. 64 2 = 8

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 Converting from Logarithmic Form to Exponential Form

EX #3: Write the logarithmic equation as an exponential equation.

A. log 5 125 = 3 1
B. log 625 5 = 4

C. log1/2 64 = −6 D. log 2
1
= −5
32

Common Logarithms, Base 10

Logarithms with base 10 are called common logarithms. The subscript 10 is often dropped, so a
logarithm statement with no specified base is understood to be base 10.

EX #4: Evaluate the following logarithms and exponential expressions.

A. log 100 B. log 10

1
C. log 1000 D. 10log6 6

EX #5: Evaluate these common logarithms with a calculator.

A. log 34.5 B. log 0.43 C. log(−3)

D. Using your answer to example 3c, can you make a general statement about logarithmic
functions?

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 Evaluating Logarithmic Expressions

EX #6: Evaluate each logarithmic expression, if possible, without using a calculator.

A. log 2 32 B. log 49 7

C. log1/64 4 D. log 5 −25

EX #7: Use your calculator to evaluate each logarithmic expression, to four decimal places.

A. log3 15 B. log 4 58

C. log0.35 8.4 D. log 5 125

2

Orders of Magnitude and Logarithmic Models

Use the Order of Magnitude to compare any like quantities.

1. Using a calculator, compute log(3 � 10), log(3 � 102 ), . . . , log(3 � 1010 )

2. What is the pattern in the integer parts of these numbers?

3. What is the pattern of their decimal parts?

4. How many orders of magnitude greater is 3 � 1010 than 3 � 10?

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 Richter Scale

The intensity levels I of two earthquakes measured on a seismograph can be compared by the
𝐼𝐼
formula log 1 = 𝑀𝑀1 − 𝑀𝑀2 where 𝑀𝑀 is the magnitude given by the Richter Scale.
𝐼𝐼2

Comparing Earthquake Intensities

EX #8: How many times more severe was the 2001 earthquake in Gujarat, India (M1 = 7.9) than the
1999 earthquake in Athens, Greece (M2= 5.9) ?

Comparing Chemical Acidity with the pH Scale

pH Scale Model 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = − log 𝐻𝐻 + is a scale that measures how acidic or basic a substance ranks.
The scale ranges from 0 to 14, where 7 represents neutral and each whole pH value below 7 is ten
times more acidic than the next higher value.

EX #9: Balsamic vinegar has a pH of 2.4, and a box of baking soda has a pH of 8.4
A. What are their hydrogen-ion concentrations?

B. How many times greater is the hydrogen-ion concentration of the vinegar than the baking
soda? (orders of magnitude)

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Lesson 10-A: Inverses of Exponential Functions

The general form of a logarithmic function is 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 , with base b, where 𝑏𝑏 > 0, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1,
and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0. Let’s explore the graphical relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions.

Logarithmic Functions are Inverses of Exponential Functions

EX #1: Using the exponential function 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 we can see the inverse relationship by switching the
x and y values. If 𝑎𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 > 0, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1, then 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 if and only if 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥.

Graph: 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥

𝒙𝒙 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙 𝒙𝒙 𝒇𝒇−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 = log 𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙

−2

−1

EX #2: Graph 𝑦𝑦 = log 2 𝑥𝑥. Analyze the function where 𝑏𝑏 > 1.

Domain:

Range:

As 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) →

As 𝑥𝑥 → 0, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) →

Asymptote(s):

Intercept(s):

Concavity:

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EX #3: Graph 𝑦𝑦 = log 1 𝑥𝑥. Analyze the function where 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1.
2

Domain:

Range:

As 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) →

As 𝑥𝑥 → 0∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) →

Asymptote(s):

Intercept(s):

Concavity:

Since every logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function, we can think of every
input value of an exponential function as the output value of a logarithmic function. Consider your
savings account that you want to know the year when your initial investment will double. Consider
the following scenario.

EX #4: Suppose you invest $2500 in an account that pays an annual interest rate of 6%,
compounded continuously. We know the balance in the account after t years can
be found by the model 𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 2500𝑒𝑒 0.06𝑡𝑡 .
A. Use the table of value for 𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡) to graph a logarithmic model that will display the
account balance as the input with the year as the output.

B. Estimate how many years before your $2500 initial investment will double.

𝒕𝒕 𝑨𝑨(𝒕𝒕) 𝑨𝑨 𝒕𝒕 , 𝒕𝒕

12

15

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 Natural Logarithms, Base 𝒆𝒆
Notation: The logarithmic function 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒆𝒆 𝒙𝒙 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒙𝒙

EX #5: Parent Function: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥. Find the inverse function, 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑥𝑥 algebraically for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 :

Graph: Analysis:

Graphing a Logarithmic Function and Its Inverse

EX #6: Given 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2 log2 (𝑥𝑥 + 1)

A. Graph 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
B. Find 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥) algebraically
C. Graph 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥)
D. Analyze

Domain:

Range:

As 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) →

As 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) →

Asymptote(s):

Intercept(s):

Concavity:

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Lesson 10-B: Inverses of Exponential Functions
The logarithm, base b, of a positive number x is defined as log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦, if and only if 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥.
You can read log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 as “log base b of x.” In other words, the logarithm “y” is the exponent to which
b must be raised to get x. A logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function. A
logarithm that uses base 10 is known as the common log. A logarithm that uses base 𝑒𝑒 is known as the
natural log. You can write log10 𝑥𝑥 as log 𝑥𝑥 and log𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 as ln 𝑥𝑥 . A logarithmic scale is any scale
that uses the logarithm of a quantity instead of the quantity itself.
We will now look toward graphing logarithmic functions and transformations.

Characteristics of Logarithmic Functions

Parent Function

Stretch

Compression (Shrink)

Reflection in x-axis

Translations

All transformations combined

Transforming Logarithmic Graphs

EX #7: Describe how to transform the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = log 𝑥𝑥 into the graph of the given
function.

A. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 3 + log 𝑥𝑥

B. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −2 ln(𝑥𝑥 − 3)

C. 𝑦𝑦 = log 3(2 − 𝑥𝑥)

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 Transforming Logarithmic Graphs

EX #8: Describe how to transform the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑥𝑥 into the graph of the given
function. Describe the end behavior using limit notation.

A. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)

Domain: Left-end behavior:

Range:

Asymptote:
Right-end behavior:
Intercept(s):

Concavity:

B. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + log 𝑥𝑥

Domain: Left-end behavior:

Range:

Asymptote:
Right-end behavior:
Intercept(s):

Concavity:

C. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln(3 − 𝑥𝑥)

Domain: Left-end behavior:

Range:

Asymptote:
Right-end behavior:
Intercept(s):

Concavity:

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EX #9: An exponential function of the form 𝐺𝐺 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥−ℎ + 𝑘𝑘 is shown in the table below.
Use the table to answer the following questions.

𝒙𝒙 −4 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝑮𝑮(𝒙𝒙) 1.008 1.125 1.5 2 3 5 9 17 33

A. Describe the end behavior of the function. B. What is the value of 𝑘𝑘 ? Give a reason.

C. Output values change proportionately as input D. Use the point 4,3 , 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑘𝑘 to find the value
values increase in equal-length intervals. Use of ℎ. Then, write the equation for the function
this fact to determine the base for the function 𝐺𝐺 𝑥𝑥 .
𝐺𝐺 𝑥𝑥 .

E. State the domain and range of 𝐺𝐺(𝑥𝑥) F. Find the equation for 𝐺𝐺 −1 (𝑥𝑥).

G. Graph 𝐺𝐺 𝑥𝑥 and 𝐺𝐺 −1 𝑥𝑥 on the grid.

𝒙𝒙

𝑮𝑮−𝟏𝟏 (𝒙𝒙)

H. State the domain and range of 𝐺𝐺 −1 (𝑥𝑥)

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Lesson 11: Logarithmic Functions
In this lesson, our goal is to summarize the key characteristics or logarithmic functions before
moving into properties of logarithms, solving logarithmic and exponential equations, and modeling
with real-world applications.

Domain of a Logarithmic Function

We have shown that the logarithmic function 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is the inverse of the exponential function
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 . That is, if 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 , then 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑥𝑥 = log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 . From our last lesson on inverses of exponential
functions, for a function 𝑓𝑓 and its inverse 𝑓𝑓 −1 , we have shown that
Domain of 𝑓𝑓 −1 = Range of 𝑓𝑓 and Range of 𝑓𝑓 −1 = Domain of 𝑓𝑓
Let’s summarize those findings here.

Properties of the Graph of a Logarithmic Function

The graph of a logarithmic function in the form 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥

 The x-intercept is (1,0). There is no y-intercept.
 The y-axis 𝑥𝑥 = 0 is a vertical asymptote of the graph.
 If 𝑏𝑏 > 1, the function is increasing. If 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1, the function is decreasing.
1
 The graph of 𝑓𝑓 contains the points 1,0 , 𝑏𝑏, 1 , and 𝑏𝑏
, −1 .

 The graph is smooth and continuous. It has no sharp corners or gaps.

Finding the Domain of a Logarithmic Function

EX #1: Find the domain of each logarithmic function.

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = log2 (𝑥𝑥 + 5)

1−𝑥𝑥
B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = log 3 1+𝑥𝑥

C. ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = log 1 𝑥𝑥 − 2
2

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 General Behaviors of Logarithmic Functions

EX #2: The graph of a logarithmic function is given. Match each graph (A – D) to one of the following
functions:

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = log 2(𝑥𝑥) 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = log 2(−𝑥𝑥) ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = − log2 (𝑥𝑥) 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 = log 1(−𝑥𝑥)

2

A. B. C. D.

Based on your findings, which graph above would also be correct for 𝑦𝑦 = log 1 (𝑥𝑥) ?
2

Analyze a Logarithmic Function

EX #3: Sketch the graph of the parent function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = log2 𝑥𝑥

A. Complete the table below.

𝒙𝒙 1 2 4 8

𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

B. How is the graph of 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = − log 2 𝑥𝑥 translated from 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)?

C. Make a table of values for 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥). Graph 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) on 𝒙𝒙

the grid above.
𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙)

D. Analyze both 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) including domain, range, increasing, decreasing, concavity,
intercepts, and asymptotes.

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 End Behaviors

EX #4: Given the function, determine the asymptotes and the end behaviors, use limit notation.
A. 𝑦𝑦 = log (𝑥𝑥 − 1) B. 𝑦𝑦 = log (2 − 𝑥𝑥)

C. 𝑦𝑦 = 2 + log (𝑥𝑥 + 4) D. 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑥𝑥 − 3

EX #5: Use the table of values below to determine whether the function is increasing or decreasing,
and the concavity of the function. Make a sketch. Can you determine the domain of the
function?
A.
𝒙𝒙 1.01 2 6 26 500

𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) −2.86 0 1 2 3.86

B.
𝒙𝒙 −1.9 −1 1 7 500

𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 2.10 0 −1 −2 −5.66

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 Application

EX #6: A principal 𝑃𝑃, invested at 6.25% is compounded continuously and increases to an amount
ln(𝐾𝐾)
𝐾𝐾 times the original principal after 𝑡𝑡 years, where 𝑡𝑡 = 0.0625

A. Complete the table and determine how long it takes before your investment doubles.

𝑲𝑲 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝟒𝟒 𝟔𝟔 𝟖𝟖 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

𝒕𝒕

B. Use a graphing utility to graph the function.

C. Suppose you had $1000 to invest, your function for the amount in the account at any time 𝑡𝑡
would be 𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 1000𝑒𝑒 0.0625𝑡𝑡 . Use this function to verify your answer in part [A.]

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Lesson 12-A: Logarithmic Function Manipulation

Properties of Logarithms

For any positive numbers 𝑀𝑀, 𝑁𝑁, and 𝑏𝑏 where 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1, and 𝑝𝑝 any real number
the following properties apply:

Logarithm Base b Natural Logarithm

Product Property log 𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = log𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀 + log 𝑏𝑏 𝑁𝑁 ln 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = ln 𝑀𝑀 + ln 𝑁𝑁

𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀
Quotient Property log 𝑏𝑏 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀 − log𝑏𝑏 𝑁𝑁 ln = ln 𝑀𝑀 − ln 𝑁𝑁
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁

Power Property log 𝑏𝑏 𝑁𝑁 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 � log𝑏𝑏 𝑁𝑁 ln(𝑁𝑁)𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 � ln 𝑁𝑁

Expanding Logarithmic Expressions

EX #1: Expand the following logarithms using the properties.

A. log(8𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 4 ) B. ln
𝑥𝑥 2 +5
𝑥𝑥

Condensing Logarithmic Expressions

EX #2: Condense the following logarithms using the properties.

A. ln 𝑥𝑥 5 − 2 ln(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) B. 3 ln 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 + 2 ln(𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 2 )

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 Evaluating Logarithms by Changing the Base

Change of Base Formula

For positive real numbers 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, and 𝑥𝑥; with 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1

Base a Base 10 Base e

log𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 log 𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥𝑥
log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 =
log𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 log 𝑏𝑏 ln 𝑏𝑏

EX #3: Evaluate the logarithms by changing the base.

A. log3 13 B. log6 10 C. log 1 2

2

Vertical Translations with Product Property

When graphing logarithmic functions in the form of 𝑦𝑦 = log𝑏𝑏 (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾), we can show that the product
property 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝐾𝐾 + log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is equivalent to a vertical translation of the parent function where
𝐴𝐴 = log𝑏𝑏 𝐾𝐾. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 + log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥. Let’s explore this idea.

EX #4: Given 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = log2 (4𝑥𝑥)

A. Use the product property to show this is a

vertical translation of the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = log2 𝑥𝑥.

B. Graph both 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) on the grid at right.

C. Describe the change in the output values over equal-length input-value intervals.

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Lesson 12-B: Logarithmic Function Manipulation

Vertical Translations with Product Property

When graphing logarithmic functions in the form of 𝑦𝑦 = log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑘 , we can show that the power
property 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑘𝑘 � log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is equivalent to a vertical dilation of the parent function where
𝐴𝐴 = log𝑏𝑏 𝐾𝐾. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 + log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥. Let’s explore this idea.

EX #5: Given 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = log2 𝑥𝑥 2 for 𝑥𝑥 > 0

A. Use the power property to show this is a

vertical dilation of the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = log2 𝑥𝑥.

B. Graph both 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) on the grid at right.

C. Describe the change in the output values over equal-length input-value intervals.

Vertical Dilations with Change of Base

EX #6: Given 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = log2 (𝑥𝑥 − 1)

ln 𝑥𝑥
A. Use the change of base property log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑏𝑏
where 𝑎𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 1 to show this is a
vertical dilation of the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = log2 𝑥𝑥.

B. Graph both 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) on the grid at right.

C. Describe the change in the output values over equal-length input-value intervals.

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 Natural Log Function

You know that a logarithmic function with the natural base 𝑒𝑒 is defined as 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 ; that is,
log 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥.

EX #7: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −2 ln(𝑥𝑥 + 1)

A. Find the domain of 𝑓𝑓

B. Graph 𝑓𝑓

C. State the range and asymptotes.

D. State any intercepts.

E. Function behavior and concavity.

F. Use limits to state end behavior.

EX #8: 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ln 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 for 𝑥𝑥 < 3

A. Find the domain of 𝑔𝑔

B. Graph 𝑔𝑔

C. State the range and asymptotes.

D. State any intercepts.

E. Function behavior and concavity.

F. Use limits to state end behavior.

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Lesson 13-A: Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities

Let’s consider the following equations: 2𝑥𝑥 = 64 and log (3𝑥𝑥) = log (𝑥𝑥 − 8) .
We can use the one-to-one properties below to solve equations algebraically.
But how do we handle the more difficult equations and inequalities?

One-to One Properties

Some logarithmic equations can be solved by changing the exponential form and vice versa.

For any Exponential Function For any Logarithmic Function

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥
If 𝑏𝑏𝑢𝑢 = 𝑏𝑏𝑣𝑣 , then If log 𝑏𝑏 𝑢𝑢 = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑣𝑣 , then
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣

EX #1-A: EX #1-B:
1
2𝑥𝑥−5 = 64 log (𝑥𝑥) = 2 log (2)
2

An equation in the form of y = bcx , where

Exponential Equation
the exponent includes a variable.

An equation that includes a logarithm

Logarithmic equation
involving a variable.

Solving Exponential Equations Algebraically

𝑥𝑥⁄
EX #2: Solve. 24
1 3
=6 EX #3: Solve. 2 log 3 𝑥𝑥 = 3 log 3 4
2

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 Applying the Definition of Logarithm Property

We can use the definition of a logarithm to rewrite exponential equations in order to solve.
When solving logarithmic equations, be sure to determine the domain of the variable first to
avoid extraneous solutions.

EX #4: log2 4𝑥𝑥 = 5 EX #5: log 𝑥𝑥 + log 𝑥𝑥 + 15 = 2

Solving an Exponential Equation with a Different Base

EX #6: Solve. 8𝑥𝑥−3 = 26 EX #7: Solve. 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜋𝜋 1+𝑥𝑥

Solving with a Graph or Table

EX #8: SOLVE BY GRAPHING: 23𝑥𝑥 = 9

1. Graph equations 𝑌𝑌1 = 23𝑥𝑥 and 𝑌𝑌2 = 9
2. Adjust window settings
Xmin = −4 ; Xmax = 4; Ymin = −4 ; Ymax = 15
3. Find intersection.

TO SOLVE BY TABLE:
Adjust TABLE SETUP
1. Table Start = 1
2. Δ𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 0.01

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Lesson 13-B: Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities

Quadratic-Type Exponential Equations

Solve: Support your answer graphically.

EX #9: 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 4 = 0 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 −𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥

EX #10: 2
=8

Quadratic-Type Logarithmic Equations

EX #11: Solve: ln 3x − 2 + ln(x − 1) = 2 ln 𝑥𝑥 EX #12: Solve: log3 𝑥𝑥 + log3 𝑥𝑥 − 8 = 2

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 Applications

EX #13: You have deposited $1000 in an account that pays 6.5% interest, compounded continuously.
You can find the balance in your account using the formula 𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡 = 1000𝑒𝑒 0.065𝑡𝑡 .

A. Use this formula to find the time requires for the balance in your account to double.

B. Find 𝐴𝐴−1 𝑡𝑡 . Explain the meaning of this inverse function in context.

C. Graph 𝐴𝐴−1 (𝑡𝑡) with scale on the x-axis from [0, 3000] and the y-axis from [0, 20].

D. Find 𝐴𝐴−1 1500 . Explain the meaning in context to the scenario.

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 Approximating Solutions

Equations that involve combinations of exponential or logarithmic functions and/or algebraic

functions can be difficult to solve by algebraic methods. Let’s take advantage of technology with
these examples.

EX #14: Complete the table to find the interval containing the solution of the equation.
Then use a graphing utility to graph both sides of the equation to estimate the
solution. Round answers to three decimal places.

A. 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 = 60
𝒙𝒙 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2

𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

B. 2 log3 0.5𝑥𝑥 = 3
𝒙𝒙 8 9 10 11 12

2 log3 0.5𝑥𝑥

EX #15: Solve algebraically and check your results on a graphing utility.

3𝑥𝑥 − 3−𝑥𝑥
=5
2

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Lesson 13-C: Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities

Let’s look at inequalities involving exponential and logarithmic expressions in this last section.

Properties of Exponential Inequalities

1. If 𝑏𝑏 > 1, then the exponential function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is increasing for all 𝑥𝑥.

This means that 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 if and only if 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑦𝑦.
2. If 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1, then the exponential function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is decreasing for all 𝑥𝑥.
This means that 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 if and only if 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑦𝑦.

EX #16: Find the solution set of the inequality. Check for extraneous solutions and verify
your answer with a graphing utility.

A. 5𝑥𝑥 > 125𝑥𝑥+6

1 2𝑥𝑥+9 1 𝑥𝑥−3
B. 3
≤ 27

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 Property of Logarithmic Inequalities

1. If 𝑏𝑏 > 1 and 𝑥𝑥 > 0, and log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑦𝑦 , then 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 .

Also, if log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑦𝑦 , then 0 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦
2. If 𝑏𝑏 > 1 and 𝑥𝑥 > 0, and log𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑦𝑦 , then 0 > 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 .

EX #17: Find the solution set of the inequality. Check for extraneous solutions and verify
your answer with a graphing utility.

A. log 2 9 > 2 log 2 𝑥𝑥

B. log2 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 ≤ 3

C. log 1 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 ≥ log 1 𝑥𝑥 + 5

2 2

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Lesson 14-A: Logarithmic Function Context and Data Modeling
Exponential and logarithmic functions are used to model many real-world phenomena such as
the magnitude of earthquakes, pH level of chemicals, noise levels, radioactivity and more. In this
lesson we explore many practical applications using logarithmic modeling in context to real-world
data collection.

Vocabulary

Richter Scale Model measures the magnitude 𝑅𝑅(𝑥𝑥) of an

earthquake. All earthquakes are compared to a zero-level earthquake
whose seismographic reading measures 0.001 millimeter at a 𝑥𝑥
𝑅𝑅(𝑥𝑥) = log
distance of 100 kilometers from the epicenter. An earthquake whose 𝑥𝑥0
seismographic reading measures x millimeters has magnitude 𝑅𝑅(𝑥𝑥)
where 𝑥𝑥0 = 10−3

pH Scale Model is a scale that measures how acidic or basic

a substance ranks. The scale ranges from 0 to 14, where 7
represents neutral and each whole pH value below 7 is ten times 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = − log 𝐻𝐻+
more acidic than the next higher value. [H+] is the concentration of
hydrogen ions measured in moles per liter (M)

Newton’s Law of Cooling – The temperature T of an object at time t,

where Tm = temperature of the surrounding medium, 𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 + 𝑇𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
and 𝑇𝑇0 = initial temperature of the object.

EX #1: A satellite is launched from a spacecraft and will reach a stable orbit 300 km above Earth if it
reaches a velocity of 7.7 km/s. Suppose a rocket has a mass ratio (R) of 26, an exhaust velocity
2.85 km/s , and a firing time of 120 seconds. Use the formula for a rocket’s maximum velocity
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = −0.0098𝑡𝑡 + 𝑐𝑐 ln(𝑅𝑅) to determine whether the satellite will achieve a stable orbit
above the Earth.

Earthquake Intensities

EX #2: The amount of energy E in ergs, that an earthquake releases is related to its Richter scale
magnitude M by the equation log 𝐸𝐸 = 11.8 + 1.5𝑀𝑀. On Feb 5, 2023, an earthquake measuring
7.8 on the Richter scale struck southern and central Turkey. How much energy did the
earthquake release?

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 Comparing Chemical Acidity

EX #3: Balsamic vinegar has a pH of 2.4, and a box of baking soda has a pH of 8.4
A. What are their hydrogen-ion concentrations?

B. How many times greater is the hydrogen-ion concentration of the vinegar than the baking soda?

C. By how many orders of magnitude do the concentrations differ?

Sound Intensity Levels

Logarithms are used to model sound levels. The sound intensity is a measure of the energy carried
by the sound wave. This loudness 𝐿𝐿 is measured in decibels 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. You can use the formula
𝐼𝐼
𝐿𝐿 = 10 � log 𝐼𝐼0
where 𝐿𝐿 is the loudness in decibels, 𝐼𝐼 is the intensity of the sound in watts per square meter (W/m2).
𝐼𝐼0 is the lowest-intensity sound that the average human ear can detect, 10−12 .
𝑊𝑊
EX #4: What is the decibel level of a normal conversation with intensity 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 ?

EX #5: The human threshold for pain is 120 dB. A jet engine records 150 dB of loudness. How
many time as intense is the noise of the jet engine as the noise that causes pain?

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 Carbon Dating Fossils

EX #6: An archaeologist carbon-dates a fossilized bone that is thought to be around 4500 years old.
The archaeologist determines that the sample contains 60% of the original amount of
carbon-14. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. Is the estimated age of the fossilized
bone correct? Explain.

Applying Newton’s Law of Cooling

EX #7: A batch of brownies are taken out of a 375o oven and cools to 150o after 20 minutes in a room
at 70o. Use Newton’s Law of Cooling to determine how long it will take the brownies to cool
to 90oF.

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Lesson 14-B: Logarithmic Function Context and Data Modeling

We have been able to fit linear and quadratic models, as well as exponential models from data. Let’s
continue to use technology to explore some real-life relationships between two variables that behave
in logarithmic patterns.

Fitting a Model to Data

EX #8: Determine the equation of the logarithmic regression function for the data.

𝒙𝒙 2 3 4 5 6 7

𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 0 2.9 4.5 4.8 5.6 6.0

A. Determine the equation of the logarithmic regression function.

B. Use the function to predict 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) when 𝑥𝑥 = 10. Round to nearest tenth.

C. What is the residual for the data value (4,4.5) ?

EX #9: The table below represents the speed of a coxed four, a rowing boat used in the sport of
competitive rowing.
Time (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Speed (m/s) 1.5 3.5 4.5 4.7 5.4 6.3 6.7

A. Determine the equation of the logarithmic regression function.

B. Find a linear regression model for the data.

C. Determine which model fits the data better. Explain why.

D. Use the best model to find when 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 8. Explain the meaning in context.

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 EX #10: A university study on sleep related to caffeinated drinks is shown in the table below.
Participants were given 250 mg of caffeine in his or her bloodstream. The caffeine level
was measured at various times.
A. Determine the equation for a logarithmic Level of Caffeine Time, t after
regression function for the data representing in Bloodstream Ingesting
time as a function of caffeine levels. (in mg) (in hours)
238 1
217 1.5
164 4
85 8.5
38 12
195 3
64 13.5
25 18
138 5
77 10

B. Find the time it takes for an average person to metabolize 50% of the caffeine in their
bloodstream. Round your answer to the nearest tenth of an hour.

C. Avery drank an energy drink containing 250 mg of caffeine at 9:00 am. How much caffeine
will be in his bloodstream 10 hours later? Round your answer to the nearest milligram.

D. The study found the majority of participants were able to sleep when their caffeine levels
fell below 70 mg. Find the time, to the nearest hour for the body to metabolize the caffeine
to reach 70 mg in the bloodstream.

E. Using the regression equation, find the x-intercept to the nearest tenth. Explain the meaning
of the x-intercept in context to the sleep study.

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EX #11: The wind speed s (in miles per hour) near the center of a tornado is related to the distance
d (in miles) that the tornado travels by the equation 𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑 = 93 log 𝑑𝑑 + 65.
A tornado whose wind speed was 220 miles per hour struck a town in Nebraska. How far
did the tornado travel?

EX #12: Mr. Craig gave his students a poster of math properties. They studied the image for 90
seconds. Beginning 1 day later, a quiz was given each day to test their memory of the
poster. The table below represents the average score for each day.

A. Use logarithmic regression to model the data.

Days Score (%)

1 74.5
2 72.1
3 69.7
B. Then use your model to predict the average test 4 64.3
score after 14 days.
5 62.8
6 61.4
7 60.5

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Lesson 15-A: Semi-Log Plots

Semi-log plots are a useful tool for visualizing data that covers a wide range of values. A semi-log plot
is a graph that combines a logarithmic scale for one axis with a linear scale for the other axis. It is used
to plot data that covers a wide range of values, where a linear plot would make it difficult to see the
details. The semi-log plot will create a graph that reveals the details of the data while still showing
the overall trend. In this lesson, we will learn how to create and interpret semi-log plots.

Linearization of a Bacteria Population

EX #1: The table at right shows the bacteria population (in thousands) in a culture at a
time t, in hours.
A. Make a scatter plot of the data. What does the shape
of the plot suggest about a regression model to fit Time Bacteria
ln(𝒚𝒚)
the data set? (hours) (thousands)
B. To linearize the data, find (𝑥𝑥, ln 𝑦𝑦) and complete the 0 6.24
table at right. 1 15.98
2 42.54
C. Graph the linearized data, and find a linear regression
equation, where 𝑦𝑦� = ln(𝑦𝑦). (see image below) 3 114.65
4 310.67

D. Use the regression model for the linearized data to

find a model for the original data set.

E. Use the equation that models the original data to predict the number of bacteria present
after 12 hours.

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 Digging Deeper into Semi-log Plots

EX #2: The table at right shows the amount of revenue R (in billions Year Revenue, R
of dollars) collected by the IRS for selected years from 1970
to 2015. 1970 192.8
A. Consider how the revenue by year seems to change for 1975 279.1
each 5-year period. Is the change by a constant difference
1980 517.1
or a constant ratio? Explain.
1985 734.0
1990 1030.0
1995 1350.0
B. Find an exponential regression model for the data.
2000 2030.0
Graph is shown below.
2005 2150.0
2010 2160.0
C. Interpret the meaning of 250.864 in the regression equation. 2015 3250.0

D. Interpret the meaning of 1.06273 in the regression equation.

E. Use the exponential model to predict the Tax Revenue for the year 2025.

F. The data modeled by an exponential function can be linearized by finding (𝑥𝑥, ln 𝑦𝑦).
Complete the table below, round your answer to the nearest tenth.

Years since 1970 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

ln 𝑦𝑦 Revenue

G. Graph the linearized data from the table above and find a linear regression equation, where
𝑦𝑦� = ln 𝑦𝑦.

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 H. The linear regression equation for the line shown in the
image at right is 𝑦𝑦� = 0.060848𝑥𝑥 + 5.53091 . How are the
numbers in the transformed linear model related to the
numbers of the original exponential regression?

Interpret the meaning of 0.060848 in the linear

regression equation.

Interpret the meaning of 5.53091 in the linear regression equation.

Use the linear model to predict the Tax Revenue per year for the year 2025.

Replace 𝑦𝑦� with ln 𝑦𝑦 and solve for 𝑦𝑦. Will this new equation give the same prediction for 2025?

Semi-log Plots with Base 10

EX #3: Will this method work with log base 10? The following table shows the population of a city
over time. Create a semi-log plot of this data and interpret the plot using 𝑦𝑦� = log(𝑦𝑦)
A. Find a linearization of the data where 𝑦𝑦� = log 𝑦𝑦
Population
Year log(𝒚𝒚)
(millions)
B. Explain the meaning of the slope and y-intercept of 𝑦𝑦� 2000 2
2005 2.5
2010 3
2015 3.5
2020 4
C. What is the predicted population for the city in 2035?

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Lesson 15-B: Semi-log Plots

We have been analyzing data in scatter plots to determine a model that best fits the context in real-
world scenarios. Linear regression models are easily spotted. But when scatter plots have curved
behavior, it becomes necessary to choose between exponential, logarithmic and power regression.
This lesson is focused on re-expressing the (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) data pairs for a function 𝑓𝑓 that displays exponential
growth or decay. We have seen that plotting the behavior as (𝑥𝑥, log 𝑦𝑦) or (𝑥𝑥, ln 𝑦𝑦) this will linearize
the data and the result is known as a semi-log plot.

Regression Models Related by Logarithmic Re-expression

In this course, we will only concentrate on constructing the linearization of exponential data.
However, it will help us to consider the other types of re-expression that will produce linearization
of data sets.

Exponential Data Natural Log Data Power Data

𝑦𝑦 = 1.5502 1.75765 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = 2.069 + 1.85179 ln(𝑥𝑥) 𝑦𝑦 = 1.7911𝑥𝑥1.64719

Linear Regression Linear Regression Linear Regression
𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 → (𝒙𝒙, 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒚𝒚) 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 → (𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒙𝒙 , 𝒚𝒚) 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 → (𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒙𝒙 , 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒚𝒚)
𝑦𝑦� = 0.564𝑥𝑥 + 0.438 𝑦𝑦� = 1.85179𝑥𝑥 + 2.069 𝑦𝑦� = 1.6472𝑥𝑥 + 0.5828

EX #4: Justify the linear regression model algebraically for exponential data.
Show that 𝑦𝑦� = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 can be written as 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 , where 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚 .

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 Selecting a Regression Model

EX #5: Consider the data in the tables below. Determine whether the data can best be modeled
by a linear, logarithmic, exponential, or power regression equation. Explain your choice.
Support your answer with tables and graphs.

A. 𝒙𝒙 1 2 3 4 B. 𝒙𝒙 1 2 3 4

𝒚𝒚 5 8 11 14 𝒚𝒚 6 12 24 48

C. 𝒙𝒙 1 2 3 4 D. 𝒙𝒙 1 2 3 4

𝒚𝒚 4 5.4 6.2 6.8 𝒚𝒚 13 6.5 3.25 1.625

EX #6: Given the function 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑒𝑒 0.5𝑡𝑡 , 𝑡𝑡 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟑𝟑𝒆𝒆𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 (𝒚𝒚)

A. Find the natural log of y and plot the data (𝑡𝑡, ln 𝑦𝑦) on the 0 3
grid provided.
2 8.2
B. Find a linear regression model 𝑦𝑦� = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 for the graph.
4 22.2

10 445

20 66079

C. Use your calculator to find the linear

regression model to verify your equation.

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 Baseball Superstars

EX #7: Create a semi-log plot of this data and interpret the plot using 𝑦𝑦� = log(𝑦𝑦)

A. For 1980 use 𝑡𝑡 = 0 , find an exponential Salary, 𝒚𝒚

Player Year
regression model for the data. ($ millions)

N. Ryan 1980 1

B. Find a linearization of the data where 𝑦𝑦� = log 𝑦𝑦 G. Foster 1982 2.04

K. Puckett 1990 3

J. Canseco 1990 4.7

C. Explain the meaning of the slope R. Clemens 1991 5.3

and y-intercept of 𝑦𝑦�
K. Griffey, Jr. 1996 8.5

A. Belle 1997 11

P. Martinez 1998 12.5

M. Piazza 1999 12.5

M. Vaughn 1999 13.3

D. What is the predicted superstar salary for a K. Brown 1999 15

player in 2010?
C. Delgado 2001 17

A. Rodriguez 2001 22

M. Ramirez 2004 22.5

A. Rodriguez 2005 25.2

E. Replace 𝑦𝑦� with log 𝑦𝑦 and solve for 𝑦𝑦. Will this new equation give the same prediction for 2010?

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Name ___________________________________________

Unit 3:
Trigonometric &
Polar Functions
Notes
Lesson 1-A: Periodic Phenomena

A periodic function is any function that repeats its values on regular intervals or “periods.” Think
about your breathing , your heartbeat, or the waves in the ocean. These phenomena repeat the same
activity as a steady pattern. The most famous periodic functions are the trigonometric functions. We
will see sine, cosine, and tangent in our second lesson. Other examples of periodic functions in nature
include light waves, sound waves and phases of the moon.

Verbal Vocabulary Visual Vocabulary

Periodic function – any function that repeats Use the graph below to label and identify the
a pattern of y-values at regular intervals. vocabulary terms.

Cycle – one complete pattern of the

y-values for a periodic function.

Period – the horizontal length of one cycle

for a periodic or repeating function.

Amplitude – half the difference between the

maximum and minimum values of the
function.

Identifying Cycles and Periods

EX #1: For each function, identify one cycle in two different ways. Then determine the period of
the function.
A. B.

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 Identifying Periodic Functions

EX #2: Determine whether each function is or is not periodic. If it is, find the period.
A. B.

Finding Amplitude of a Periodic Function

EX #3: Find the amplitude of each function.

A. B.

Real-World Connections

EX #4: Sound waves are produced by periodic changes in air pressure. Sketch the graph of a sound
wave with a period of 0.004 second and an amplitude of 2.

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 Graphing Periodic Functions

EX#5: Consider how the pedals on a bicycle rotate as the bike is being ridden. The height of a
bicycle pedal varies periodically as a function of time.
A. Complete the table below.

Time (sec.) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Height (in.) 18 15 12 9 6

B. Identify the period of the function.

C. Identify the amplitude of the function.

D. Graph the function for the first 5 seconds.

Putting It All Together

EX #6: Answer each of the following:

A. A periodic function goes through 5 complete cycles in 4 minutes. What is the period of the
function?

B. The period of a periodic function is 8 seconds. How many cycles does it go through in 30 seconds?

C. The amplitude of a periodic function is 2.5 and its minimum value is 0. What is the function’s
maximum value?

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Lesson 1-B: Periodic Phenomena

Definition of a Periodic Function

The function 𝑓𝑓 is a periodic function of 𝑥𝑥 if and only if there is a number 𝑘𝑘 for which
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) for all values of 𝑥𝑥 in the domain.
If 𝑘𝑘 is the smallest such number, then 𝑘𝑘 is called the period of the function.

EX #7: Consider the periodic function shown below.

A. What is the period, 𝑘𝑘 of the function?

B. Complete the function behavior on

the grid at right.

C. Show that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is valid

for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, . . . for any minimum
value on the graph.

EX #8: In Austin, Texas, the average high temperature for each month is shown in the table.

Average High Temperatures

Temp Temp
Month Month
(℉) (℉)
Jan. 63 July 98
Feb. 67 Aug. 100
Mar. 75 Sept. 93
April 81 Oct. 83
May 87 Nov. 72
June 94 Dec. 64

A. Sketch a graph of the function representing the scenario in the table.

B. Describe the period of the function.

C. Find the amplitude of the behavior.

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 Characteristics of Periodic Functions

Periodic functions take on characteristics of other functions, such as intervals of increase and
decrease, concavities, and various rates of change. However, with periodic functions, all
characteristics found in one period of the function will be in every period of the function.

EX #9: Identify the following characteristics.

A. period

B. amplitude

C. maximum and minimum values

D. intervals of concave up

E. intervals of concave down

EX #10: Identify the following characteristics.

A. period

B. amplitude

C. maximum and minimum values

D. intervals of increase

E. intervals of decrease

F. Find average rates of change on the intervals [2, 3] ,[3, 6] 6, 7 and [7, 10] .

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EX #11: A storm siren makes 2.5 rotations per minute and the sound waves have a radius of 1 mile.
Mr. Tyler’s house is 1 mile away from the siren. The distance of the sound wave from his
house varies periodically as a function of time.

A. What is the period of the function?

B. Let the x-axis represent the time from 𝑡𝑡 = 0

to 𝑡𝑡 = 60. Let the y-axis represent the distance
d the sound wave is from Mr.. Tyler’s house at
any time t.

EX #12: A Ferris Wheel at the Orlando Eye attraction is 120 meters in diameter. The height of a
compartment h is a function of time t. It takes about 30 minutes to make one complete
revolution. Let the height of the car where you enter the ride represent the height at time 0.

A. Find the amplitude.

B. Sketch a graph of the function.

C. At what time does the Ferris wheel reach a maximum?

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Lesson 2-A: Sine, Cosine, and Tangent

What do engineers, artists, airline pilots, carpenters and golfers have in common? They all work with
angles, like we all do from time to time. There are times we can estimate an angle, like a golfer on his
tee shot. But a carpenter or engineer must measure angles precisely in order to be successful. chapter
begins the journey into trigonometry with an introduction into angles and their measures. In this
lesson, we will examine properties of angles and their measures.

Verbal Vocabulary Visual Vocabulary

Use the graph below to label and identify the

Standard position – an angle whose vertex is at vocabulary terms.
the origin (0, 0) of a coordinate system and one-
ray is on the positive x-axis.

Initial side – any angle in standard position the

ray or side of the angle along the x-axis.

Terminal side − any angle in standard position

the ray or side of the angle that is not along the
x-axis.

Coterminal angles – two angles in standard

position that have the same terminal side.

Unit circle – the circle whose radius is 1 unit

and its center is at the origin of the coordinate
plane, points on the circle are related to periodic
functions.

Coterminal Angles

Two angles in standard position that have the same terminal side are called coterminal angles.
We can find an angle that is coterminal to a given angle by adding or subtracting one revolution.
So, any given angle has many coterminal angles. For example, 𝛽𝛽 = 36° is coterminal to all of the
following: 396°, 756°, −324°, −684°

EX #1: Draw 𝜃𝜃 = 220° and label 𝜃𝜃 ′ as the angle that is coterminal. y

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 Measuring Angles in Standard Position

EX #2: Find the measure of the angles below.

A. Counter-clockwise rotation B. Clockwise rotation

C. One full rotation = 360°, how many degrees in

One-quarter of a rotation? ________________ One-half of a rotation? __________________

Three-quarters of a rotation? _______________

Reference Angles and Methods to Measure Angles

y
Reference Angles
Given an angle in standard position, its reference angle is
x
the acute angle formed by the terminal side of the given
angle and the x-axis. The angle at left is 210°, the reference
angle is ___________.

EX #3: Draw each angle and state the reference angle.

A. 150° y B. 315° y

x x

C. −120° y D. 140° y

x x

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 Radians and Central Angles

Verbal Vocabulary Visual Vocabulary

Central Angle – an angle whose vertex is at the Use the graph below to label and identify
center of a circle. the vocabulary terms.

Intercepted arc – the portion of a circle whose

endpoints are on the sides of a central angle of
the circle and whose remaining points lie in the
interior of the angle.

Radian – one radian is the measure of a central

angle of a circle that intercepts an arc equal in
length to a radius of the circle. You can use a
proportion to convert an angle measure from
one unit of measure to the other.

Circumference − 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

2𝜋𝜋 radians = 360°
π radians = 180°

Converting Between Units of Angle Measure

To convert degrees to radians, To convert radians to degrees,

multiply by: multiply by:

EX#4: Find the measure of the angles below.

A. Find the radian measure of a 60° angle.

B. Convert 85° to radians.

C. Converts 2.5 radians to degrees.

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 Common Radian Measures
Sketch each radian measure on the coordinate plane below.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
− radians radians 𝜋𝜋 radians
4 2
y y y

x x x

EX #5: Complete each of the following using radian measure.

A. How many radians is each angle of an equilateral triangle?

B. The minute hand of a clock travels how many radians in 15 minutes?

C. The minute hand of a clock travels how many radians in 10 minutes?

D. The minute hand of a clock travels how many radians in 5 minutes?

E. What is the measure of 𝜃𝜃 in radians, F. What is the measure of 𝜃𝜃 in radians?

if 𝑥𝑥 = 45° ?
y
𝜃𝜃
x 5x
𝜃𝜃
x
x

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Lesson 2-B: Sine, Cosine, and Tangent

Now that you have a working vocabulary for circular functions, let’s explore the meanings of sine,
cosine and tangent in relation to a point P that lies on a circle with radius r whose center is at the
origin of the coordinate plane.

By picking a point 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 on the terminal side of an

𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦
angle 𝜃𝜃 in Quadrant I in an xy-coordinate system; and Hypotenuse
draw a perpendicular from the point to the horizontal (radius)
axis, a right triangle is formed.
r
The right triangle definition of these trigonometric Vertical leg y
(Opposite 𝜃𝜃)
functions for acute angle 𝜃𝜃 is

opposite leg adjacent leg

sin 𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃
hypotenuse hypotenuse
Horizontal leg x
opposite leg (Adjacent to 𝜃𝜃)
tan 𝜃𝜃 =
adjacent leg

Relating Right Triangle Form to Coordinate Form

𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦

1
Let (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) be a point 𝑟𝑟 units from the origin on the terminal
𝜃𝜃
side of a rotating ray. If 𝜃𝜃 is the angle in standard position to
the ray, then the following ratios will hold.

Right Triangle Form Coordinate Form

opposite leg
sin 𝜃𝜃 = sin 𝜃𝜃 =
hypotenuse

adjacent leg
cos 𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃 =
hypotenuse

opposite leg
tan 𝜃𝜃 = tan 𝜃𝜃 =
adjacent leg

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 The Unit Circle

The unit circle that we will develop is the most useful tool in trigonometry. It provides an easy way
to know and recall trigonometric values of the most popular angles. To be successful in this class,
then later in calculus and beyond, you must understand it and memorize it!

A Geometry Connection
First, let’s remember the important ratio relationships for two famous triangles.

30°-60°-90° Triangle
30°

The lengths of the legs of the triangle correspond to the angles

30°: 60°: 90° as, 𝑥𝑥: 𝑥𝑥 3 : 2𝑥𝑥 respectively. In the figure at right, 60°

Name the lengths of the sides if the hypotenuse is 1.

45°
45°-45°-90° Triangle
The length of the legs of the triangle correspond to the angles 45°
45°: 45°: 90° as 𝑥𝑥: 𝑥𝑥: 𝑥𝑥 2 , respectively. In the figure at right,

Name the lengths of the sides if the hypotenuse is 1.

Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Ratios

EX #6: Find values for sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle 𝜃𝜃 = 30°, given the coordinates on the
unit circle.

3 1
1 𝑃𝑃 ,
2 2
𝜃𝜃

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 Angles on a Unit Circle

EX #7: Find values for sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle 𝜃𝜃 = 45°, given the coordinates on the
unit circle.

2 2
𝑃𝑃 ,
2 2
1

𝜃𝜃

EX #8: Find values for sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle 𝜃𝜃 = 60°, given the coordinates on the
unit circle.

1 3
𝑃𝑃 ,
1 2 2

𝜃𝜃

EX #9: Find values for sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle 𝜃𝜃 = 90°, consider that no triangle is
formed since the terminal side of angle 𝜃𝜃 is on the y-axis.

Defining Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Functions on a Unit Circle

Given a point 𝑃𝑃 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) on the unit circle, corresponding to an angle 𝜃𝜃, in standard position:

1. The sine of 𝜃𝜃 is equal to the _____________________________________________ of point P

2. The cosine of 𝜃𝜃 is equal to the ___________________________________________ of point P

3. The tangent of 𝜃𝜃 is equal to the __________________________________________________, if it exists.

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 Finding Exact Values of the Trigonometric Functions

EX #10: Summarize the exact values for 30°, 45°, and 60° angles (rationalize denominators).

𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃
sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃
Degrees Radians

𝜋𝜋
30°
6

𝜋𝜋
45°
4

𝜋𝜋
60°
3

Quadrantal Angles

A quadrantal angle is an angle whose terminal side lies along one of the coordinate axes.

EX #11: Evaluate the six trig functions at the four quadrant angles.

𝜃𝜃 degrees 0° 90° 180° 270°

𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
radians 0 𝜋𝜋
2 2

sin 𝜃𝜃

cos 𝜃𝜃

tan 𝜃𝜃

Summary of Key Concepts

By using examples 6-11, we have developed the first quadrant coordinates of the 16-point unit
circle. Our last task will be to create the full unit circle on the following page. Be aware of the
direction that you move in each quadrant so that your values for (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) are accurate. Are you ready
for the challenge?

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 The 16-Point Unit Circle

EX #12: Complete the 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 coordinates for all angles.

, , ,
𝜋𝜋
, 2𝜋𝜋 2
𝜋𝜋 ,
3 3
3𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
4 4
, 5𝜋𝜋
,
𝜋𝜋
6 6

0
, 𝜋𝜋 ,
2𝜋𝜋

11𝜋𝜋
7𝜋𝜋
, 6
6
,
7𝜋𝜋
5𝜋𝜋 4
4
, 4𝜋𝜋
3𝜋𝜋
5𝜋𝜋 ,
3 3
2

, ,
,

. . . Where Trigonometric Functions are Positive . . .

Function Quadrant I Quadrant II Quadrant III Quadrant IV

Sine/Cosecant

Cosine/Secant

Tangent/ Cotangent

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Lesson 3-A: Sine and Cosine Function Values

In our last lesson, we explored angles on a unit circle and the related trigonometric functions of
sine, cosine, and tangent. In this lesson we will look at the geometry of isosceles right and
equilateral triangles again. But, in this case we want to explore an approach to finding exact values
of trigonometric functions when the point on the terminal side of an angle is beyond the unit circle
with radius 1.

Finding Exact Trigonometric Values Using Geometry

EX #1: The terminal side of angle 𝜃𝜃 contains the point (−5,3). Find exact values of the
sine and cosine functions of 𝜃𝜃. Use radicals, if necessary, but no decimals.

(−5, 3)
𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃 ′

Using One Trig Ratio to Find Others

5
EX #2: Let 𝜃𝜃 be an acute angle such that sin 𝜃𝜃 = 6 .
Evaluate the cosine and tangent values of 𝜃𝜃.

4
EX #3: If 𝜃𝜃 terminates in Quadrant III and tan 𝜃𝜃 = 7 , find the
exact values (no decimals) for sine and cosine of 𝜃𝜃.

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 More Geometry Connections

You can use the proportions of the sides in the 30° − 60° − 90° triangle and the 45° − 45° − 90°
triangle to find exact function values for angles whose reference angle is a multiple of 30° or 45°.

45°
30° 2
2
3 1

60° 45°
1 1

The shorter leg is half the hypotenuse The legs are equal in an
of an equilateral triangle. isosceles triangle.

NOTE: The angles 30°, 45° and 60° will occur frequently in our course. We will use radian
measures of 𝜋𝜋/6, 𝜋𝜋/4, and 𝜋𝜋/3 to construct the triangles.

Sine, Cosine, and Tangents of Special Angles

EX #4: Complete the table below.

Sine, Cosine, and Tangent of Special Angles

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
sin 30° = sin = cos 30° = cos = tan 30° = tan =
6 6 6

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
sin 45° = sin = cos 45° = cos = tan 45° = tan =
4 4 4

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
sin 60° = sin = cos 60° = cos = tan 60° = tan =
3 3 3

What do you notice about complementary angles?

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Lesson 3-B: Sine and Cosine Function Values

Our next task will be to consider reference angles for any angle and determine coordinates of
points on a circle centered at the origin. In this lesson, we want to consider angles that do not lie in
quadrant I in order to determine exact function values for sine and cosine.

Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

Let θ be an angle in standard position with (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) a point on the terminal side of 𝜃𝜃 and

𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 ≠ 0

EX #5: Use the figure at right, to name the basic y

trigonometric functions in terms of x, y, P (x, y)
and r, where r is the radius of a circle.
y
r
sin 𝜃𝜃 =
θ
x
x
cos 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2

tan 𝜃𝜃 =

Finding Coordinates of Points

4𝜋𝜋
EX #6: Given an angle of measure 𝜃𝜃 = 3 in standard position and a circle with radius 𝑟𝑟 = 5
centered at the origin, find the coordinates of point 𝑃𝑃 = (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) of the angle where the
terminal ray intersects the circle.

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 Finding Exact Values by Reference Angles

EX #7: If 𝜃𝜃 terminates in Quadrant II and cos 𝜃𝜃 = −1/3 ,

find the value of sin 𝜃𝜃.
𝜃𝜃

EX #8: Find all values of 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 < 2𝜋𝜋 where cos 𝜃𝜃 = 0 .

4
EX #9: If tan 𝜃𝜃 = 3 and cos 𝜃𝜃 < 0 find sin 𝜃𝜃 and cos 𝜃𝜃 and the
coordinates where the terminal side of the angle
intersects the circle.

Real-World Application

EX #10: A machine shop needs to drill through a steel plate at point 𝑃𝑃. Calculate
the actual measurement for the placement of the hole then use your
calculator to approximate the location of the hole to be drilled.

𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦
14
25°

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Lesson 4-A: Sine and Cosine Function Graphs

The sine and cosine functions relate real number values to the x- and y-coordinates of a point on the
unit circle. What would this look like if we created a graph relating the angle and the function value?
Let’s begin with that relationship in order to visualize the unit circle in a two-dimensional graph.

Vocabulary

matches the measure of an angle in standard position with the y-coordinate

Sine function of a point on the unit circle. This point is where the terminal side of the angle
intersects the unit circle.

Sine curve the graph of a sine function

the y-coordinate of the point at which the terminal side of the angle intersects
Sine of θ the unit circle.

The Graph of y = sin x

EX #1: Since the period of the sine function is 2𝜋𝜋, we will graph the function on the interval [0, 2𝜋𝜋].

A. Make a table of values 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 on 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 from the unit circle.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 11𝜋𝜋

𝑥𝑥 0 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6

𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥

B. State the intervals of 𝑥𝑥 where the y-values are increasing.

C. State the intervals of 𝑥𝑥 where the y-values are decreasing.

D. State the maximum point(s) and the minimum point(s).

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To sketch the graphs of the basic sine and cosine curves by hand, it helps to know the five key points in
one period of the parent function. Key points are named: the intercepts, the maximum points, and the
minimum points. These points will be divided up into quarter intervals. Let’s begin with the graph of
the sine function.

The Graph of y = sin x

EX #2: Use the table of values from example 1 to label the five key points for the parent function.

Key Properties of Sine Functions

𝒚𝒚 = 𝑨𝑨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩) , with a ≠ 0, b > 0, 𝒙𝒙 in radians

Domain:
Range:

Amplitude:
Period:
Key Points:

Graphing Variations of y = sin x

EX #3: Use the five key points of the parent function to graph 𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin(𝑥𝑥)

Value of 𝒙𝒙: Value of 𝒚𝒚:

𝜋𝜋
2

𝜋𝜋

3𝜋𝜋
2

2𝜋𝜋

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 Graphing Variations of y = sin x

EX #4: Use the five key points of the parent function to graph 𝑦𝑦 = −3 sin 2𝑥𝑥 .

Value of 𝒙𝒙: Value of 𝒚𝒚:

𝜋𝜋
4
𝜋𝜋
2
3𝜋𝜋
4

𝜋𝜋

EX #5: Graph 𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑥𝑥 + 2

Value of 𝒙𝒙: Value of 𝒚𝒚:

𝜋𝜋
2

𝜋𝜋

3𝜋𝜋
2

2𝜋𝜋

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Lesson 4-B: Sine and Cosine Function Graphs

You should now have a good understanding of the process for finding the five key points of the sine
function. This same concept will work for the cosine curve, let’s establish this parent function using
the same approach.

Vocabulary

matches the measure of an angle in standard position with the

Cosine function x-coordinate of a point on the unit circle. This point is where the
terminal side of the angle intersects the unit circle.

Cosine curve the graph of a cosine function

the x-coordinate of the point at which the terminal side of the angle
Cosine of θ intersects the unit circle.

The Graph of y = cos x

EX #6: Since the period of the cosine function is 2𝜋𝜋, we will graph the function on the interval [0, 2𝜋𝜋].

A. Make a table of values 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 on 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 from the unit circle.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 11𝜋𝜋

𝑥𝑥 0 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6

𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥

B. State the intervals of 𝑥𝑥 where the y-values are increasing.

C. State the intervals of 𝑥𝑥 where the y-values are decreasing.

D. State the maximum point(s) and the minimum point(s).

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The five key points on the parent function of the cosine curve will have a different pattern but the
same naming conventions: the intercepts, the maximum points, and the minimum points. The points
will be again be divided up into quarter intervals. Let’s look at the graph of the cosine function.

The Graph of y = cos x

EX #7: Use the table of values from example 6 to label the five key points for the parent function.

Key Properties of Cosine Functions

𝒚𝒚 = 𝑨𝑨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩) , with a ≠ 0, b > 0, 𝒙𝒙 in radians

Domain:
Range:

Amplitude:
Period:
Key Points:

Graphing Variations of y = cos x

EX #8: Use the five key points of the parent function to graph 𝑦𝑦 = 1.5 cos 𝑥𝑥

Value of 𝒙𝒙: Value of 𝒚𝒚:

𝜋𝜋
2

𝜋𝜋

3𝜋𝜋
2

2𝜋𝜋

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 Graphing Variations of y = cos x

1
EX #9: Use the five key points of the parent function to graph 𝑦𝑦 = −2 cos 2
𝑥𝑥 .

Value of 𝒙𝒙: Value of 𝒚𝒚:

𝜋𝜋
2

𝜋𝜋

3𝜋𝜋
2

2𝜋𝜋

5𝜋𝜋
2

3𝜋𝜋

7𝜋𝜋
2

4𝜋𝜋

EX #10: Graph 𝑦𝑦 = 3 cos 𝑥𝑥 − 2

Value of 𝒙𝒙: Value of 𝒚𝒚:

𝜋𝜋
2

𝜋𝜋

3𝜋𝜋
2

2𝜋𝜋

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Lesson 5-A: Sinusoidal Functions

The graphs of sine and cosine functions are periodic. This means that the function values will repeat
as x increases. We have learned the sine value of a function is equal to the y-value at the corresponding
point (angle) on the unit circle. Also, the cosine value is equal to the x-value at this same point (angle).

Characteristics of Sinusoidal Functions

y = sin(x) y = cos(x)

Graph

Key Points

Domain

Range

Amplitude

Period

Symmetry

Key Concept

By comparing the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 , you can see that either one can be horizontally
translated to obtain the other. The sine and cosine functions are both sinusoidal functions. We will
prove that cos 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑥 + 𝜋𝜋/2 .

Definition of a Sinusoid

A function is a sinusoid if it can be written in the form 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = A sin 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷

where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, and 𝑑𝑑 are constants and neither a nor b is 0.

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 Finding the Period of a Sinusoidal Curve

EX #1: Use the graph to find the period of each function.

A. B.

EX #2: Use the equation to find the period of each function.

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3 cos 5𝑥𝑥 B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = − sin

𝑥𝑥
3

Finding the Amplitude of a Sinusoidal Curve

EX #3: Find the amplitude for the graphs below.

A. B.

EX #4: Use the equation to find the amplitude of each function.

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −4 sin 𝑥𝑥 + 𝜋𝜋 − 1 B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 =
1
cos 3𝑥𝑥
2

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 Phase Shift of Sine to Obtain Cosine

EX #5: Let’s verify the fact that we can obtain the cosine function by a horizontal transformation
𝜋𝜋
of the sine curve. We want to show that cos 𝜃𝜃 = sin 𝜃𝜃 + 2

A. Graph 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝜃𝜃 on −𝜋𝜋, 3𝜋𝜋

𝜋𝜋
B. Use the key points for 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃 + 2 to complete the table below.

C. Graph the function values in the table in red to verify the statement.

Value of 𝒙𝒙: Value of 𝒚𝒚:

0
𝜋𝜋
2

𝜋𝜋

3𝜋𝜋
2
2𝜋𝜋

The Midline of a Sinusoidal Function

The midline of the graph of a sinusoidal function is the average, or arithmetic mean, of the
maximum and minimum values of the function. The midline of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 is 𝑦𝑦 = 0.

EX #6: Use the graph to find the midline of each function. Sketch the equation of the line in red.
A. B.

EX #7: Use the equation to find the midline of each function.

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = −2 cos 𝑥𝑥 − 5 B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 3.5 sin 2𝑥𝑥 + 4

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Lesson 5-B: Sinusoidal Functions

We have seen the terms amplitude, period, midline, concavity, and phase shift in this lesson and others.
We need to make one more connection between the period and frequency of a sinusoid. Then, we
should be able to use this information to analyze key characteristics of sinusoids. The period and
frequency are reciprocals.

Period and Frequency of a Sinusoid

For general equations 𝑦𝑦 = sin(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵) and 𝑦𝑦 = cos(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵)

The period is the length of one full cycle of the periodic curve.
Period 2𝜋𝜋
𝐵𝐵

The frequency is the number of complete cycles the periodic

curve completes in a unit interval.
Frequency
𝐵𝐵
2𝜋𝜋

EX #8: Use the equation to find the period and frequency of each function.

A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 15 cos
1
𝑥𝑥 B. 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = −8 sin 48𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥
4

EX #9: A mass on a spring oscillates back and forth and completes one cycle in
0.25 second. Its maximum displacement is 6 cm. Write an equation that
models this motion if the spring is released from the maximum height.
Find the frequency of the behavior.

0 cm

d cm

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 Concavity, Points of Inflection and Bounds

You have explored concavity and points of inflection in earlier lessons. We know that a point of
inflection occurs where a graph changes concavity. The five key points of a sinusoidal graph can be
named as intercepts, maximum and minimum values. You can also name the critical points as
upper bounds, lower bounds and equilibrium. Let’s look at a practical application to consider.

EX #10: Consider the graphs given below.

A. Find the five key points for one period.
B. Identify where the function is concave up, concave down
C. Identify the interval(s) where the function is increasing or decreasing.
D. Name the point(s) of inflection.

A.

B.

C.

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 Concavity, Points of Inflection and Bounds

EX #11 A buoy oscillates as waves go past. For any given time, it moves a total
of 4.5 feet from its low point to its high point and then returns to a
high point every 15 seconds.

A. If the buoy is at its lowest point at 𝑡𝑡 = 0, write an

equation that models the motion of the buoy.

B. What is the frequency of the motion, explain in context.

C. Use a graphing utility to find the point of inflection where the buoy is at equilibrium.

D. What does equilibrium of the buoy mean in respect to the behavior of the waves?

E. Identify the interval(s) where the buoy is decreasing.

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Lesson 6-A: Sinusoidal Function Transformations

Graphing the basic sine and cosine functions in a rectangular coordinate system should now be a
comfortable task for you to perform. Let’s complete or toolkit by considering more advanced
transformations of the parent functions.

Characteristics of Transformations

y = A sin(Bx − C) + D
𝐴𝐴
𝑦𝑦 = 𝐷𝐷
Key Points: 𝐶𝐶
𝐵𝐵
2𝜋𝜋
A > 0:
𝐵𝐵

A < 0:

y = A cos(Bx − C) + D
𝐴𝐴
𝑦𝑦 = 𝐷𝐷
Key Points: 𝐶𝐶
𝐵𝐵

A > 0: 2𝜋𝜋
𝐵𝐵
A < 0:

Amplitude 𝐴𝐴 changes the height of the graph, a vertical stretch

2𝜋𝜋
Period 𝐵𝐵 the length of one complete cycle

𝐶𝐶
Phase Shift 𝐵𝐵 the “starting point” for the cycle

Midline (Vertical Shift) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐷𝐷 translates the midline of the graph

The “b-value” is the number of cycles in the

b
interval from 0 to 2𝜋𝜋

Bx − C This expression is called the “argument”

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 Graphing by Key Points y = A sin (Bx – C)

The graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 sin(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶) is a horizontal shift of the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 sin(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵) . The starting
𝐶𝐶
point of the cycle is shifted from 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐵𝐵 . We can find an interval containing one cycle by
solving the argument for the period of 2𝜋𝜋. This will give you the starting point and the ending
point of one period.

𝜋𝜋
EX #1: Graph 𝑦𝑦 = 3 sin 3𝑥𝑥 − 2

Graphing by Key Points y = A cos (Bx – C)

𝑥𝑥
EX #2: 𝑦𝑦 = 2 cos 2
+ 𝜋𝜋

Compare and contrast what occurs to the period when B > 1 to when 0 < 𝐵𝐵 < 1.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________

When the argument is (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶) then the phase shift is to the _________________________.

When the argument is (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶) , then the phase shift is to the __________________________.

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 Vertical Shift (Midline)

If you add or subtract a number from the entire equation you can shift a trigonometric graph
“up or down.” This is a shift in the x-axis, which creates a new “midline” for the graph.

EX #3: Graph 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 + 1 EX #4: Graph 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 − 2

Therefore, if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷 or 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷 then, the vertical shift

of the entire graph is equal to D. The midline of the graph is 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑫𝑫.

Summary

EX #5: Given the standard form of a sine or cosine function, complete the summary in the
table below.

Variable Explain the effect of this

Given:
Expression transformation on the parent function

Amplitude

Period

Phase shift

Vertical shift

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Lesson 6-B: Sinusoidal Function Transformations

Consider how you evenly space the five key points. It is possible to summarize this procedure using
two different methods.

Finding an Interval for the First Cycle

EX #6: We can find the endpoints for the first cycle of a trigonometric function in two ways.
Let’s explore.

Method #1 Method #2

Period Begins:

Period Ends:

NOTE: Use the first and last points of one cycle to divide the interval into four equal
segments.

EX #7: Find the amplitude, period and phase shift for 𝑦𝑦 = 2 cos 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝜋𝜋 . Graph the function.

Amplitude:

Period:

Phase Shift:

EX #8: Given the equation, 𝑦𝑦 = −2 sin(3𝑥𝑥 − 6𝜋𝜋), describe the transformations that occur from
the parent graph 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥. Then sketch the graph.

1. _________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________

3. __________________________________________________

4. __________________________________________________

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 More Graphing
𝜋𝜋
EX #9: Determine the amplitude, period, and midline of 𝑦𝑦 = −2 cos 3
𝑥𝑥 + 3.
Then, graph the function from 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 12.

Writing Functions from Characteristics

EX #10: Write the equation for the given function that has the following characteristics.

A. Sine function B. Cosine function

2𝜋𝜋
Amplitude: 3 Period: 3
Amplitude: 5 Period: 4𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Phase Shift: 3
right Vertical shift: none Phase Shift: left Vertical shift: 2 down
4

EX #11: Write a sinusoidal equation with amplitude 2.5, Period 𝜋𝜋, and point (2, 0).

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 Writing Equations Given the Graph

EX #12: Find an equation for each graph. State the amplitude, period, phase shift, midline.
Verify your equation with a graphing utility. State the maximum and minimum points
in one period and the points of inflection.

A.

B.

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Lesson 7-A: Sinusoidal Function Context and Data Modeling

Now we can put together the concepts from the last few lessons to write equations using sine or
cosine functions given a verbal description of periodic behavior. Then we can use the equation as
a mathematical model to make predictions and interpretations related to real-world phenomena.

EX #1: The figure at right shows the depth of water

along a seawall. The depth is 5 feet at low tide
and 11 feet at high tide. On a given day, low tide

Depth (feet)
occurs at 6 a.m. and high tide at noon.

A. If 𝑑𝑑 represents the depth of the water 𝑡𝑡 hours after

midnight, use a cosine function of the form
𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐷𝐷 to model the depth of the water.

Number of Hours after Midnight

B. Use your model to find the interval(s) of time when the tide is rising.

EX #2: The height above the ground of a yo-yo can be modeled by the equation
ℎ(𝑡𝑡) = 1.5 cos 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 2.25, where h represents the height of the yo-yo in feet above
the ground and t represents time in seconds since the yo-yo was first dropped from
its maximum height.

A. When does the yo-yo return to the maximum height for the first time?

B. Find the maximum and minimum heights reached above the ground by the yo-yo.

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 Simple Harmonic Motion

An object that moves on a coordinate axis is in simple harmonic motion if its distance from the
origin, d, at time t is given by either

𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎 cos(𝜔𝜔 � 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎 sin(𝜔𝜔 � 𝑡𝑡)

The motion has amplitude , the maximum displacement of the object from its rest position. The
2𝜋𝜋
period of the motion is, 𝜔𝜔 where 𝜔𝜔 > 0. The period gives the time it takes for the motion to go
𝜔𝜔
through one complete cycle. The motion has frequency 2𝜋𝜋
, which is the number of oscillations
per unit of time.

EX #3: A point on the tip of a tuning fork vibrates in harmonic motion described by the equation
𝑑𝑑 = 12 sin(𝜔𝜔 � 𝑡𝑡). Find 𝜔𝜔 for a tuning fork that has a frequency of 386 vibrations per second.
Answer in π radians

EX #4: A ball on a spring is pulled 6 inches below its rest position and then released. The period
for the motion is 4 seconds. Write the equation for the ball’s simple harmonic motion.

EX #5: A mass oscillating up and down on the bottom of a spring (assuming perfect elasticity and
no friction or air resistance) can be modeled as harmonic motion. If the weight is displaced
a maximum of 4 cm, find the modeling equation if it takes 3 seconds to complete one cycle.
Assume the object starts at rest.

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EX #6: A Ferris wheel is constructed such that a person gets onto the ride at its lowest point, five
feet above the ground and the ride reaches its highest point at 125 feet above the ground.
The amount of time it takes to complete one full rotation is equal to 8 minutes. The vertical
position of the rider can be modeled as a function of time 𝑡𝑡 in minutes since boarding by
the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷.

A. Sketch a graph of the rider’s height

with respect to time, for one cycle.

B. Find the values of 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶 and 𝐷𝐷.

C. Write an equation to model the function.

D. At what time is the rider at 60 feet above the ground?

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Lesson 7-B: Sinusoidal Function Context and Data Modeling

Let’s continue our investigation of real-world applications related to sinusoidal behavior.

EX #7: Alternating current is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and
residences, and it is the form of electrical energy consumers typically use when they
plug televisions, lights, and any electric appliance into a wall socket. The current I, in
amperes, flowing through an alternating current circuit at time t, in
𝜋𝜋
seconds is modeled by 𝐼𝐼 𝑡𝑡 = 220 sin 60𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 6 for 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0.

A. Find the amplitude, period, and phase shift.

B. Graph two periods of the function.

C. Where are the x-intercepts of the function? What do they represent in context to the current.

EX #8: Cheryl opened a bakery and found that her monthly profit followed an up-and-down
pattern during the first year. She discovered that her profit could be modeled by
𝜋𝜋
𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑡 − 7 sin 3 𝑡𝑡 , where 𝑃𝑃 is measured in hundreds of dollars and t was
measured in months after January 1. Use a graphing utility to find the following.

A. When did the bakery first begin to make money? Explain how you know.

B. In what month did her shop make its greatest profit in that first year? What was her profit?

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EX #9: Hurricanes are categorized using the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. The table below
represents the number of major hurricanes in the Atlantic Basin that are rated as major
storms of category 3,4, or 5 for each decade from 1921 to 2020.

A. Use a graphing utility to create a scatter plot of the data for 𝑡𝑡 = 1 to 𝑡𝑡 = 10 for the decades
shown in the table below.

Decade, x Hurricanes Decade, x Hurricanes

1921-1930 5 1971-1980 4

1931-1940 8 1981-1990 5

1941-1950 10 1991-2000 5

1951-1960 8 2001-2010 11

1961-1970 6 2011-2020 9
Source: U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

B. Find a sinusoidal regression function that best models the data.

C. What is the maximum and minimum number of storms based on your model?

D. In what decade will the next maximum number of storms occur based on your model?

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 Finding Sinusoidal Functions from Data

EX #10: The table below shows the average temperature per month for Atlanta, Georgia. Information
was found at the World Climate website (www.worldclimate.com).

Month Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

°𝐹𝐹 51.6 55.9 63.7 72.7 80.1 86.2 88.3 87.4 82.0 72.7 62.6 54.0

A: Plot the data below, and notice that they approximate sinusoidal behavior.

B. Why does it make sense that average monthly temperatures can be modeled by a periodic
function?

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 C. Let’s model this graph with a sine function in the form of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐷𝐷 .
Use the data plot to estimate the amplitude, period, vertical translations.

D. Use these values in the data to find a sinusoidal regression equation of the form
𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷 .

E. Explain the meaning of the points of inflection in context to the data.

F. Explain the meaning of the maximum and minimum values in the regression model as
they relate to the context of the data set.

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Lesson 8-A: The Tangent Function

Recall when given an angle of measure 𝜃𝜃 in standard position and a unit circle centered at the origin,
there is a point P, where the terminal ray intersects the circle. The tangent function, 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = tan 𝜃𝜃 ,
gives the slope of the terminal ray, if it exists. Since the slope of the terminal rays is the ratio of the
change in the y-values to the change in the x-values between any two points on the ray, the tangent
function is also the ratio of the sine function to the cosine function. Notice that the slope values of
the terminal ray repeat every one-half revolution of the circle, the tangent function has a period of 𝜋𝜋.

Vocabulary

matches the measure of an angle in standard position with the

sin 𝜃𝜃
Tangent function ratio of tan θ = cos 𝜃𝜃 where cos 𝜃𝜃 ≠ 0 . This is the slope of the
terminal ray of 𝜃𝜃.

Tangent curve the graph of a tangent function.

the ratio of the change in the y-values to the change in the x-values
Tangent of θ
between any two points on the ray.

The Graph of y = tan x

EX #1: The graph of the tangent function will complete one full cycle in the interval of 0, 𝜋𝜋 so the
𝜋𝜋
period of 𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝜃𝜃 is π. However, there is a vertical asymptote at 𝜃𝜃 = 2 . On what continuous
interval can the entire behavior of the function be shown?

A. Make a table of values 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 on 𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝑥𝑥 from the unit circle.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋

𝑥𝑥 0 𝜋𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6

𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝑥𝑥

B. State the intervals of 𝑥𝑥 where the y-values are increasing.

C. State the intervals of 𝑥𝑥 where the y-values are decreasing.

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 The Graph of y = tan x

EX #2: The graph of the tangent function will complete one full cycle in the interval of 0, 𝜋𝜋 so
𝜋𝜋
the period of 𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝜃𝜃 is π. However, there is a vertical asymptote at 𝜃𝜃 = 2 .

A. On what continuous interval can the

entire behavior of the function be shown?

B. Find the point(s) of inflection.

Characteristics of the Tangent Function

Domain Range

x-intercepts y-intercept

Odd
Asymptotes
Symmetry

Key Points

EX #3: Graph the function, 𝑦𝑦 = − tan 𝑥𝑥 . State the period and show all asymptotes.

A. Describe the behavior of the graph when 𝐴𝐴 < 0 ?

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 Graphing Variations of y = A tan (Bx)

Finding 5 Key Features:

1. Find two consecutive asymptotes by setting

the argument equal to the parent asymptotes.
2. Identify an x-intercept, midway between the
consecutive asymptotes.
3. Find the points on the graph that are ¼ and
¾ of the way between the consecutive
asymptotes. The points will have
y-coordinates of −𝐴𝐴 and 𝐴𝐴.
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 4. Add additional cycles to the left or right as
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶 = − 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶 = needed.
2 2

Key Properties of Tangent Functions

𝒚𝒚 = 𝑨𝑨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩) , with a ≠ 0, b > 0, 𝒙𝒙 in radians

Domain:
Range:

A-value:

Period:
Key Points:

EX #4: Use transformations, graph each function, state period and show all asymptotes.

𝑥𝑥 𝜋𝜋
A. Graph 𝑦𝑦 = − tan B. Graph 𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝑥𝑥
2 4

Period: _________________ Period: _________________

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Lesson 8-B: The Tangent Function

For a tangent function, we don’t have the concept of amplitude since the range of the tangent
function is all real numbers.. The role of 𝐴𝐴 will provide the magnitude of the vertical stretch in the
graph of a tangent function. Think of this as a stretching factor for the 𝐴𝐴-value. Next, let’s take a look
at some vertical and horizontal transformations.

Graphing a Shifted Tangent Function y = A tan (Bx - C) + D

EX #5: Use transformations to graph each function, state period and show all asymptotes.

A. 𝑦𝑦 = 2 tan 𝑥𝑥 − 1 B. 𝑦𝑦 = 3 tan
1
𝑥𝑥
2

EX #6: Use transformations to graph each function, state period and show all asymptotes.

A. 𝑦𝑦 = −2 tan 𝑥𝑥 +
𝜋𝜋 B. 𝑦𝑦 = 3 tan(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝜋𝜋) + 2
2

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 𝑥𝑥
EX #7: For 𝑦𝑦 = 3 tan 4
− 2 find the following:

A. Left Asymptote: Right Asymptote:

B. Period C. Transformations:

D. Interval(s) where function is concave down E. Where are the points of inflection located?

Interval(s) where function is concave up

1
EX #8: For 𝑦𝑦 = −2 tan 𝑥𝑥 + 𝜋𝜋 + 1 find the following:
2

A. Left Asymptote: Right Asymptote:

B. Period C. Transformations:

D. Interval(s) where function is concave down E. Where are the points of inflection located?

Interval(s) where function is concave up

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 Working Backwards

EX #9: Match the given functions [A] – [D] to one of the graphs [1] – [4]. Give a reason.

A. 𝑦𝑦 = 2 tan(3𝑥𝑥) B. 𝑦𝑦 = − tan 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝜋𝜋
C. 𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝑥𝑥 + 2 D. 𝑦𝑦 = −2 tan
𝑥𝑥
+1
2

1. 2.

3. 4.

EX #10: Given the graph of the tangent function at right, find the following:

A. transformations A and D

B. the period

C. phase shift

D. Label the points of inflection

E. Write the equation for the function

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Lesson 9-A: Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Recall in section 2.8 that for a function to have an inverse function, it must be one-to-one. That is,
it must pass the Horizontal Line Test. In the image below (Fig 1), you can see that the sine function
does not pass the test for one-to-one behavior.
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
However, we can restrict the domain (Fig 2) to the interval − 2 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2 which corresponds to the
interval between the minimum and maximum values. Now we have a one-to-one function. The
inverse of the restricted sine function is called the inverse sine function. There are two notations
that are commonly used to denote the inverse sine function:
𝑦𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = arcsin 𝑥𝑥.
The notation 𝑦𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥𝑥 has the same symbol as the inverse function notation 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥)

Definition of Inverse Sine Function

The inverse sine function, denoted by sin−1 (𝑥𝑥) , is the inverse of the restricted sine function
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥, − 2 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2 . Thus, 𝑦𝑦 = sin−1 (𝑥𝑥) means 𝑥𝑥 = sin(𝑦𝑦)

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
where− 2 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 2 and −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1. We read 𝑦𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥𝑥 as “y equals the inverse sine at x.”
Figure 3, below is the graphical representation for the inverse sine function.

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Finding Exact Values of sin-1 x

Exact values of sin−1 𝑥𝑥 can be found by thinking of 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 (𝒙𝒙) as the angle in the restricted interval
𝝅𝝅 𝝅𝝅 1 𝜋𝜋
− 𝟐𝟐 , 𝟐𝟐 whose sine is x. Consider, for example, sin−1 2 = 6
. Since the answer is an angle, we will
use 𝜃𝜃 in our process to find exact values of the inverse:

1. Let 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛−1 (𝑥𝑥).

2. Rewrite as sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑥𝑥 .
𝝅𝝅 𝝅𝝅
3. Use the exact values from EX #1 to find the value of 𝜃𝜃 in − 𝟐𝟐 , 𝟐𝟐 that satisfies sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑥𝑥 .

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 Finding Exact Values of the Inverse Sine Function

EX #1: Remember that 𝜃𝜃 = sin−1 𝑥𝑥 means 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝜃𝜃, where −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1 and – 𝜋𝜋/2 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋/2.
Complete the table of exact values for the restricted domain.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 − − − − 0
2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2

sin 𝜃𝜃

EX #2: Use the information in your table above to find the exact values of the following.

A. sin−1 1 B. sin−1 − 2
1

2 3
C. sin−1 D. sin−1
2 2

Definition of Inverse Cosine Function

The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos −1(𝑥𝑥) , is the inverse of the restricted cosine
function 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 . Thus, 𝑦𝑦 = cos −1 (𝑥𝑥) means 𝑥𝑥 = cos(𝑦𝑦)

where 0 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 and −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1. The function graph (Figure 4), has the domain restricted
(Figure 5) to create the one-to-one inverse cosine function (Figure 6).

Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6

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 Finding Exact Values of the Inverse Cosine Function

EX #3: Remember that 𝜃𝜃 = cos −1 𝑥𝑥 means 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝜃𝜃, where −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋.
Complete the table of exact values for the restricted domain.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋

𝜃𝜃 0 𝜋𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6

cos 𝜃𝜃

EX #4: Use the information in your table above to find the exact values of the following.

A. cos−1 (0) B. cos −1 2

2 1
C. cos −1 D. cos −1 − 2
2

Definition of Inverse Tangent Function

The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan−1 (𝑥𝑥), is the inverse of the restricted tangent
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
function 𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝑥𝑥 , − 2 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2 . Thus, 𝑦𝑦 = tan−1 (𝑥𝑥) means 𝑥𝑥 = tan(𝑦𝑦)

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
where − 2
≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 2 and −∞ ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ ∞. The function graph (Figure 7), has the domain restricted
(Figure 8) to create the one-to-one inverse tangent function (Figure 9).

Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9

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 Finding Exact Values of the Inverse Tangent Function

EX #5: Remember that 𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 𝑥𝑥 means 𝑥𝑥 = tan 𝜃𝜃, where −∞ ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ ∞ and – 𝜋𝜋/2 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋/2.
Complete the table of exact values for the restricted domain.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 − − − − 0
2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2

tan 𝜃𝜃

EX #6: Use the information in your table above to find the exact values of the following.

A. tan−1 (1) B. tan−1 − 3

C. tan−1 (0) D. tan−1

1
3

Using a Calculator to Evaluate Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Calculators will give approximate values of inverse trigonometric functions. You will use the keys
marked SIN-1 COS-1 and TAN-1 above the function keys. These are secondary keys,
be sure to check your calculator manual for how to access these functions. It is also vital that your
calculator be placed in radian mode.

EX #7: Use a calculator to find the value to three decimal places.

1 3
A. sin−1 4
B. cos−1 − 5

C. tan−1 (4.5) D. cos−1 1.5 =

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Lesson 9-B: Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If a function is one-to-one (passes the horizontal line test) then its inverse relation is also a
function. For sine, cosine, and tangent, we have restricted the domains for each function to
discover these properties. Remember our inverse lessons from unit 2, we observed when
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥.
We can apply these properties to the sine, cosine, and tangent and their inverse functions
to the following properties.

Inverse Properties

Property: For Every x in the Interval:

sin sin−1 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 −1, 1

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
sin−1 (sin 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 −2,2

cos cos−1 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 −1, 1

cos−1 (cos 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 0, 𝜋𝜋

tan tan−1 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 All reals

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
tan−1 (tan 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 −2,2

The restrictions on x for inverse properties are a little tricky. Let’s consider some examples
where you need to find a reference angle.

EX #8: Find the exact value, if possible, of the following.

2𝜋𝜋
A. sin−1 sin 3

3𝜋𝜋
B. cos cos−1 4

7𝜋𝜋
C. cos−1 cos 6

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 Evaluating Composite Trigonometric Expressions

1
EX #9: Find the exact value: cos sin−1 − 2

5
EX #10: Find the exact value: sin cos−1 13

EX #11: If 0 < 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1, write sin(cos −1 𝑥𝑥) as an algebraic expression in x.

𝜃𝜃

Application

EX #12: An airplane flies at an altitude of 5 miles toward a

point directly over your house.

A. Write 𝜃𝜃 as a function of 𝑥𝑥. 5 mi.

𝜃𝜃

B. Find 𝜃𝜃 when 𝑥𝑥 = 8 miles. 𝑥𝑥

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Lesson 10-A: Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities

In this lesson, we consider trigonometric equations and inequalities. Equations that contain
trigonometric functions can be used to answer periodic behavior in our world. We can predict the
tides, moon phases, seasons, breathing intervals, and more. A trigonometric equation is an
equation that contains a trigonometric expression with a variable, that are satisfied only by some
values of the variable (or, possibly, have no solutions,). Inverse trigonometric functions are useful
in solving equations and inequalities involving trigonometric functions, but solutions may need to
be modified due to domain restrictions.

Solving Graphically
1 3𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋
EX #1: Consider the equation sin 𝑥𝑥 = 2
on − 2
, 2
shown below. Notice the x-coordinates
1
where the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 intersects the line 𝑦𝑦 = 2
are solutions of the equation on the
given interval.

A. Can you name the five solutions shown?

B. How do we represent all

solutions of the equation?

EX #2: Solve the equation by using the unit circle. Give the general solutions.
2 cos 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0
1
2

𝜋𝜋
3
5𝜋𝜋
3

1
2

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 Finding General Solutions

EX #3: Solve each equation. Give a general formula for all solutions.

2
A. Solve. sin 𝑥𝑥 = − B. Solve. 18 cos 𝑥𝑥 − 7 = 14 cos 𝑥𝑥 − 5
2

Using Technology

EX #4: Use a calculator to solve each equation. Round your answers to two decimal places.

A. Solve. tan 𝑥𝑥 = 5 B. Solve. cos 𝜃𝜃 = 0.6

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Lesson 10-B: Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities

Now we will turn our focus on finding solutions of trigonometric equations for 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 2𝜋𝜋. Let’s
begin with some factoring examples for single trigonometric functions and then move to multiple
angle equations.

Various Techniques

EX #5: Solve by the square root technique on [0, 2𝜋𝜋)

A. 4 sin2 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0 B. 3 tan2 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0

Solve Quadratics by Factoring

EX #6: Solve on [0, 2𝜋𝜋)

A. 2 sin2 𝑥𝑥 − sin 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 0 B. 6 cos2 𝑥𝑥 − cos 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 0

Using Factoring to Separate Functions

EX #7: Solve the equation: sin2 𝑥𝑥 tan 𝑥𝑥 = 2 tan 𝑥𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 2𝜋𝜋

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 As we continue solving more difficult equations, remember that you can use a graphing utility to
check your solutions of these equations. By graphing the left side as 𝑌𝑌1 and the right side as 𝑌𝑌2 , the
solutions are the x-coordinates of the points where the graphs intersect.
Let’s consider equations that include multiple angles. Here is some examples.
𝑥𝑥
tan = 3
sin 2𝑥𝑥 = 1 2

Solving an Equation with a Multiple Angle

EX #8: Solve on 0, 2𝜋𝜋 tan 2𝑥𝑥 = 3

𝑥𝑥 1
EX #9: Solve on [0, 2π). sin =
3 2

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 Lesson 10-C: Trigonometric Equations and Inequalities

Trigonometric Inequalities

Finally, we want to look at solving trigonometric inequalities. You will need to consider using the
inverse trigonometric properties when values for x are not exact.

EX #10: Find an interval that will satisfy the inequality: cos 2𝑥𝑥 > 0

𝜋𝜋
EX #11: Solve sin 𝑥𝑥 − 3 ≥ sin 𝑥𝑥 if [0, 2𝜋𝜋)

1
EX #12: Solve cos 𝑥𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0 given 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋

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 Trigonometric Inequalities

EX #13: Solve the inequality 4 tan 𝑥𝑥 − 1 < 0 for [0, 𝜋𝜋)

Application of a Trigonometric Inequality

EX #14: When breathing, a normal cycle takes place about every 5 seconds. Velocity of air flow, y,
2𝜋𝜋
measured in liters per second, after x seconds is modeled by 𝑦𝑦 = 0.6 sin 5
. Velocity of
air flow is positive when we inhale and negative when we exhale.

2𝜋𝜋
A. For one cycle of breathing, find an interval of time where 0.6 sin 5
𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0.3

B. Explain what this means in context to the scenario.

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 Application of a Trigonometric Inequality

EX #15: The number of hours of daylight on campus at Harvard University is given by

2𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑥𝑥 − 79 + 12
365
A. Find the interval where Harvard University will have no more than 10 hours of daylight
within a year.

B. Find the interval where the campus will have more than 14 hours of daylight within a year.

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Lesson 11-A: The Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions

Let’s revisit the unit circle in order to introduce the remaining three reciprocal trigonometric
functions. We will investigate the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions, their
properties and their graphs. We obtain the graphs of cotangent, cosecant and secant curves by
using the reciprocal identities here:
1 1 1
cot 𝑥𝑥 = csc 𝑥𝑥 = sec 𝑥𝑥 =
tan 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥

Ratios on the Unit Circle

EX #1: In the sketch, at left, 𝜃𝜃 is in standard position and

𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 is a point on the unit circle that corresponds
P (x, y) to 𝜃𝜃. Complete the following in terms of 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 :
(0,1)

𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃 = tan 𝜃𝜃 =

(−1,0) (1,0)

csc 𝜃𝜃 = sec 𝜃𝜃 = cot 𝜃𝜃 =

(0, −1)

Domain and Range of the Trigonometric Functions

The four trigonometric functions, sine, cosine, cosecant and secant, a revolution of one circle, or
cycle of 2𝜋𝜋, will result in the same outputs for these functions. For tangent and cotangent, only a
half revolution, or 𝜋𝜋, will result in the same outputs.

Function Undefined on [𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅) Domain Range

Sine

Cosine

Tangent

Cosecant

Secant

Cotangent

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 Graphing Secant and Cosecant Functions

The cosecant and secant functions are reciprocal functions. We can use this concept as an aid in
graphing. Each reciprocal function behaves as a sort of skeleton for the graph in question.

y = csc x

Reciprocal

Domain

Range

Asymptotes

y = sec x

Reciprocal

Domain

Range

Asymptotes

EX #2: Use transformations, graph each function, its reciprocal, state period, and show all asymptotes.
𝑥𝑥
A. Graph 𝑦𝑦 = 2 csc B. Graph 𝑦𝑦 = −2 sec 3𝑥𝑥
2

Reciprocal: __________________________ Reciprocal: __________________________

Period: __________________ Period: __________________

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 Graphing Cotangent Functions

The Graph of y = cot x

EX #3: The graph of the cotangent function will also complete one full cycle in the interval of
0, 𝜋𝜋 so the period of 𝑦𝑦 = cot 𝜃𝜃 is π. Since vertical asymptotes occur at 𝜃𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋,
will this interval show the complete function behavior?

Y = A cot (Bx — C)

Characteristics of the Cotangent Function

Domain Range

x-intercepts y-intercept

Odd Symmetry Asymptotes

EX #4: Use transformations, graph each function, state period and show all asymptotes.

𝜋𝜋
A. Graph 𝑦𝑦 = cot 2𝑥𝑥 B. Graph 𝑦𝑦 = − cot 𝑥𝑥 + 1
2

Period: ________________________ Period: _______________________

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 Lesson 11-B: The Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions

Here is a challenge for you. Can you use your knowledge of the unit circle and the reciprocal
relationships.

EX #5: Evaluate without a calculator by using the period of the function and values on the unit
circle.

13𝜋𝜋 17𝜋𝜋
A. sec B. csc
3 4

9𝜋𝜋 17𝜋𝜋
C. cot D. sec −
2 6

Trigonometric Identities

Look back at the ratios from Example 1, can you name the reciprocal identities and quotient
identities in terms of a trigonometric function?

Reciprocal Identities Quotient Identities

csc 𝜃𝜃 = tan 𝜃𝜃 =

sec 𝜃𝜃 =

cot 𝜃𝜃 =

cot 𝜃𝜃 =

Finding Exact Values Given a Terminal Point

When given the terminal point of an angle rotated on a coordinate plane, you should create a
right triangle by dropping a perpendicular line back to the x-axis and use the Pythagorean
Theorem to find the hypotenuse.

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 EX #6: Find the exact values of each of the six trigonometric functions of an angle θ if −2, 5
is a point on its terminal side.

Using Fundamental Identities

2 13 3 13
EX #7: Given sin 𝜃𝜃 = and cos 𝜃𝜃 = , find the exact values of the four remaining
13 13
trigonometric functions of 𝜃𝜃 using identities.

Writing Equations from a Graph

EX #8: Given the graphs below, use the suggested functions to write equivalent equations.

A. Write two different equations using B. Write two different equations using
cosecant and secant cotangent and tangent

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 Phase Shift and Standard Form Equations

𝜋𝜋
KEY POINTS METHOD: 𝑦𝑦 = 2 csc 𝑥𝑥 −
2

EX #9: Identify values for A, B, C, and D

Find 𝐶𝐶 to start

2𝜋𝜋
Find for one cycle
𝐵𝐵

2𝜋𝜋
𝐶𝐶 + to stop
𝐵𝐵

Create four subintervals

Graph the reciprocal function

TRANSFORMATIONS METHOD: 𝑦𝑦 = − sec 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝜋𝜋 − 1

𝜋𝜋
Factor out B-value 𝑦𝑦 = − sec 2 𝑥𝑥 − −1
2

Find D for vertical shift

Find C for phase shift

Find B for horizontal transformation

Graph the reciprocal function

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Lesson 12-A: Equivalent Representations of Trigonometric Functions

Mathematical identities are two equated expressions that are equivalent in meaning and may be
substituted for the other without losing the truth of a statement. For instance, 2+5=7 and 3+4 =7
so, we can say that 2+5=3+4. In trigonometric identities, we will work with expressions that can
make a difficult problem easier to work with and remain equivalent.

The Fundamental Identities

Reciprocal Identities . . .
1 1 1
sin 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 = tan 𝑥𝑥 =
csc 𝑥𝑥 sec 𝑥𝑥 cot 𝑥𝑥

1 1 1
csc 𝑥𝑥 = sec 𝑥𝑥 = cot 𝑥𝑥 =
sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 tan 𝑥𝑥

Quotient Identities . . .
sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥
tan 𝑥𝑥 = cot 𝑥𝑥 =
cos 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥

Pythagorean Identities . . .
sin2 𝑥𝑥 + cos2 𝑥𝑥 = 1 1 + tan2 𝑥𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥𝑥 1 + cot 2 𝑥𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥𝑥

Even-Odd Identities . . .
sin −𝑥𝑥 = − sin 𝑥𝑥 cos −𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 tan −𝑥𝑥 = − tan 𝑥𝑥

csc −𝑥𝑥 = − csc 𝑥𝑥 sec −𝑥𝑥 = sec 𝑥𝑥 cot −𝑥𝑥 = − cot 𝑥𝑥

Pythagorean Identities on Unit Circle

EX #1: If you know the basic identity, it’s easy to derive the others.

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 Simplify and Rewrite Expressions to Verify Identities

EX #2: Use a quotient identity to simplify and rewrite.

A. cos 𝛽𝛽 tan 𝛽𝛽 = sin 𝛽𝛽 B. sin 𝑥𝑥 sec 𝑥𝑥 = tan 𝑥𝑥

EX #3: Use the idea of “decomposing” fractions to simplify and rewrite.

sin 𝑥𝑥 − csc 𝑥𝑥 sec 2 𝑥𝑥

A. = sin2 𝑥𝑥 − 1 B. = sec 𝑥𝑥 csc 𝑥𝑥
csc 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥

Changing to Sines and Cosines to Verify

EX #4: Verify the identities by changing to sine and cosine identities.

A. sin2 𝜃𝜃 sec 𝜃𝜃 csc 𝜃𝜃 = tan 𝜃𝜃 B. sin 𝑥𝑥 tan 𝑥𝑥 + cos 𝑥𝑥 = sec 𝑥𝑥

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 Combining Fractional Expressions to Verify Identities

EX #5: Verify the identity using Pythagorean identities.

cos 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥
− = sec 𝑥𝑥
1 − sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥

EX #6: Verify the identity using algebraic techniques to simplify.

cos 𝜃𝜃 1 − sin 𝜃𝜃
=
1 + sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

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 12-B: Equivalent Representations of Trigonometric Functions

In this section we will study two different categories of trigonometric identities. We will use
formulas that involve sum and differences to verify identities and double angle formulas.

Sum and Difference Formulas

Sums Differences

sin 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = sin 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛽𝛽 + cos 𝛼𝛼 sin 𝛽𝛽 sin 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽 = sin 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛽𝛽 − cos 𝛼𝛼 sin 𝛽𝛽

cos 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 = cos 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛽𝛽 − sin 𝛼𝛼 sin 𝛽𝛽 cos 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽 = cos 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛽𝛽 + sin 𝛼𝛼 sin 𝛽𝛽

Double-Angle Formulas

cos 2𝑢𝑢 = cos2 𝑢𝑢 − sin2 𝑢𝑢

sin 2𝑢𝑢 = 2 sin 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢 = 2 cos 2 𝑢𝑢 − 1

= 1 − 2 sin2 𝑢𝑢

Sine and Cosine Formulas

5𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
EX #7: Find the exact value of sin 12 using the fact that 12
= 6
+ 4

7𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
EX #8: Find the exact value of cos 12
using the fact that 12
= 4
+ 3

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 Verify an Identity

𝜋𝜋
EX #9: sin 2
− 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥

Make A Sketch
4
EX #10: Suppose that sin 𝛼𝛼 = for a Quadrant II angle α
5
1
and sin 𝛽𝛽 = for a Quadrant I angle β. Find the
2
exact value of each of the following.

A. cos 𝛼𝛼 B. cos 𝛽𝛽

C. cos 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 D. sin 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽

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 Application of a Sum Formula

EX #11: Write the trigonometric expression as an algebraic expression.

sin(tan−1 1 + cos−1 𝑥𝑥) Let 𝑢𝑢 = tan−1 1 and 𝑣𝑣 = cos−1 𝑥𝑥

2 1
1

𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣

1 𝑥𝑥

Evaluating Functions Involving Double Angles

EX #12: Find the exact values of sin 2𝑢𝑢 and cos 2𝑢𝑢 using the double-angle formulas.
3 3𝜋𝜋
Given cos 𝜃𝜃 = 5
on 2
< 𝜃𝜃 < 2𝜋𝜋

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 12-C: Equivalent Representations of Trigonometric Functions

In this last section, we will solve trigonometric equations using the identities from the lesson.

EX #13: Find the solution(s) of the equation in the interval 0, 2𝜋𝜋 . Verify with a graphing utility.
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
sin 𝑥𝑥 + + sin 𝑥𝑥 − =1
3 3

EX #14: Find the solution(s) of the equation in the interval 0, 2𝜋𝜋 . Verify with a graphing utility.
sin 2𝑥𝑥 + cos 𝑥𝑥 = 0

1
EX #15: Solve sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 = 2 on 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 2𝜋𝜋 using a double angle formula.

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 EX #16: Solve the equation cos 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 sin 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 0 on 0, 2𝜋𝜋 .

EX #17: Solve the equation: sin 𝑥𝑥 − cos 𝑥𝑥 = 1 on 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 2𝜋𝜋

EX #18: Solve the equation: sin 𝑥𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥𝑥 = 1 on 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 2𝜋𝜋

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Lesson 13-A: Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

In this lesson we will define polar coordinates and learn how they are related to rectangular equations.
Students will convert from rectangular to polar and vice versa. Let’s explore how to set up this system.

The Language of Polar Graphs

A polar coordinate system is a system to plot points in a plane

with a point O in the center of a circular grid. P 3, 4
𝜋𝜋

The Pole is the point O, the origin

Polar Axis the horizontal ray from O pole (origin) to the right.
Polar Coordinates of each point in the plane P = (r, θ ) O 3
0
r = Directed distance from O to P.
θ = Directed angle in a counter-clockwise direction
from polar axis to OP

Plotting Points in a Polar System

EX #1: Plot the points with the given polar coordinates.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
A. 𝑃𝑃 2, 4 𝜋𝜋 B. 𝑄𝑄 −1, 3 𝜋𝜋
2
2

0 0
O O 3
3

C. 𝑅𝑅 (3, −30°) D. 𝑆𝑆 −2, −

7𝜋𝜋
6
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
2 2

0 0
O 3 O 3

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 Finding All Polar Coordinates of a Single Point
2𝜋𝜋
EX#2: Plot the point 2, 3 , find three additional polar representations of this point on [−2𝜋𝜋, 2𝜋𝜋]
Formula: 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 or −𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃 + (2𝑛𝑛 + 1)𝜋𝜋
A. 𝜋𝜋
2

0
B. Write the rest of the possibilities: O 3

Relationships between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

1. To change from polar to rectangular coordinates, use the formulas:

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃

2. To change from rectangular to polar coordinates, use the formulas:

𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑟𝑟 2 tan 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑥𝑥
(𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)

EX #3: Find the rectangular coordinates of the points with the given polar coordinates.
5𝜋𝜋
A. 𝑃𝑃 3, 6 B. 𝑄𝑄 2, −
7𝜋𝜋
6

EX #4: Find two polar coordinate pairs for the points with given rectangular coordinates.
A. 𝑃𝑃(1, −1) B. 𝑄𝑄(2, 0)

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 Helpful Tips for Converting from Rectangular to Polar Form

1. Plot the point 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 , noting the quadrant or coordinate axis the point lies on.
2. If either 𝑥𝑥 = 0 or 𝑦𝑦 = 0, use your sketch to find 𝑟𝑟. Otherwise, use 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
3. Find 𝜃𝜃. When the point lies in . . .

Quadrant I or IV: Quadrant II or III:

𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 𝑥𝑥 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋 + tan−1
𝑥𝑥

Convert a Rectangular Equation to Polar Form

EX #5: Express the given equation in polar form.

1 B. 4𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 = 1
A. 𝑦𝑦 = 2
𝑥𝑥 2

Convert a Polar Equation to Rectangular Form

EX #6: Convert each equation to rectangular form and identify the graph. Support your answer
with a polar graphing utility.
A. 𝑟𝑟 = 4 B. 𝜃𝜃 =
2𝜋𝜋
3

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 C. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 D. 𝑟𝑟 = 6 cos 𝜃𝜃

EX #7: Convert 𝑥𝑥 − 3 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 2 2 = 13 to polar form.

y

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Lesson 13-B: Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

This section will show how to represent complex numbers in polar (trigonometric) form. We first
need to learn how to represent complex numbers graphically. Complex numbers 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 have
two components, the real part, 𝑎𝑎; and, the imaginary part, 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏. We will use a complex plane with
two axes in order to graph complex numbers, the real axis and the imaginary axis. To graph the
complex number 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏, we will plot the ordered pair of numbers (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) in this plane.

The Complex Plane

EX #8: Sketch each point on grid at right.

𝑨𝑨 = 3 + 4𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫 = −4 + 0𝑖𝑖

𝑩𝑩 = 0 + 2𝑖𝑖 𝑭𝑭 = −1 − 2𝑖𝑖

𝑪𝑪 = −2 + 3𝑖𝑖 𝑮𝑮 = 3 − 𝑖𝑖

Absolute Value of Complex Numbers

EX #9: OP has magnitude (length) and direction

The modulus (or absolute value) of the complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 is 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2
𝑖𝑖
𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2 z = a + bi

𝑏𝑏
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏
𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎𝑎
if 𝑎𝑎 > 0
ℝ

𝑏𝑏
NOTE: If 𝑎𝑎 < 0, then 𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎𝑎
+ 𝜋𝜋

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 EX #10: Find 𝑧𝑧 and 𝜃𝜃. Then graph. 𝑧𝑧 = −5 + 12𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

EX #11: Find 𝑧𝑧 and 𝜃𝜃. Then graph. 𝑧𝑧 = −7𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖
ℝ

Polar Form of a Complex Number

Rectangular form: 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑖𝑖

Substitute: 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
ℝ

POLAR FORM:

A complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 has the polar form (or trigonometric form)
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟 (cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃)
Where 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 and tan 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑏𝑏/𝑎𝑎. The number r is the modulus of z,
2 2

and 𝜃𝜃 is an argument of z.

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EX #12: Write the complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖𝑖 in polar form.
𝑎𝑎 =
𝑖𝑖
𝑏𝑏 =

𝑟𝑟 =
ℝ
𝜃𝜃 =

EX #13: Write the complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 6 − 𝑖𝑖 2 in polar form.

𝑖𝑖
𝑎𝑎 = ℝ

𝑏𝑏 =

𝑟𝑟 =

𝜃𝜃 =

Trigonometric Form

EX #14: Change polar form to EX #15: Write the complex number in

rectangular form: standard form:
3𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = 5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 3 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
4 4 3 3

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 Product and Quotient of Complex Numbers
Let 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃1 and 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃2

PRODUCT:
multiply moduli and add arguments 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 [cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 ]

QUOTIENT: 𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1

= [cos 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 ]
divide moduli and subtract arguments 𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2

EX #16: Multiply, leave your answer in polar form.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
2 cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin 3 cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin
3 3 4 4

EX #17: Divide, leave your answer in polar form.

9𝜋𝜋 9𝜋𝜋
2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 16 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 16
3𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
6 cos 8 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 8

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 DeMoivre’s Theorem

If 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃) is a complex number and n is a positive integer, then . . .

𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) 𝑛𝑛
𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑛 � 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝑛𝑛 � 𝜃𝜃)

EX #18: Evaluate. Write your answer in standard form 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 4
𝑧𝑧 = 2 cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin
12 12

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Lesson 14-A: Polar Function Graphs

An equation whose variables are polar coordinates is called a polar equation. The graph of a
polar equation consists of all points whose polar coordinates satisfy the equation.

EX #1: Point-Plotting Method.

A. Sketch the graph of 𝑟𝑟 = 4 sin 𝜃𝜃

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 0 𝜋𝜋
6 3 2 3 6

𝑟𝑟

B. Sketch the graph of 𝑟𝑟 = −3 cos 𝜃𝜃

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 0 𝜋𝜋
6 3 2 3 6

𝑟𝑟

C. If a polar equation involves only 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝜃𝜃 or 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝜃𝜃

your graph will be a circle. Can you describe the direction?

D. What are the similarities between the two graphs?

E. What are the differences? How are these related to the equation?

F. Give the ordered pair, (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃) of the point that is farthest away from the pole (origin).
How is this related to the equation?

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 Tests for Symmetry

In order to graph other polar equations, we will often have to plot sample points. Testing for
symmetry will make this much easier. Simply replace 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃 . . .

TEST Verbally SYMMETRY w/r/t

𝑟𝑟, 𝜋𝜋 − 𝜃𝜃
−𝑟𝑟, −𝜃𝜃

𝑟𝑟, −𝜃𝜃
−𝑟𝑟, 𝜋𝜋 − 𝜃𝜃

−𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃
𝑟𝑟, 𝜋𝜋 + 𝜃𝜃

The three tests are sufficient to guarantee symmetry but are not necessary.
That is... If a graph fails symmetry test it doesn't mean it's not symmetric,
but if it passes the test, it must be symmetric.

The Quick Tests:

1. 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 symmetric w/r/t : y-axis 2. 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 symmetric w/r/t: x-axis

Rose Curves

𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 and 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

EX #2: For 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 2: if n is odd there will be ________ petals, if n is even, expect _________ petals.

A. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 cos 3𝜃𝜃 B. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 sin 5𝜃𝜃

Symmetry: Symmetry:

n: n:
petals: petals:

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 Rose Curves

C. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 cos 4𝜃𝜃 D. 𝑟𝑟 = 4 sin 2𝜃𝜃

Symmetry: Symmetry:

n: n:
petals: petals:

Cardioids and Limaçons

𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 ± 𝑏𝑏 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 ± 𝑏𝑏 sin 𝜃𝜃

EX #3: Cardioids and limaçons (lee-muh-sohns) are characterized by equations of this form.
Let’s look for new patterns.

A. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 + 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 B. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 − 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

Symmetry: Symmetry:

ratio: ratio:

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 Cardioid

C. 𝑟𝑟 = 1 − 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 D. 𝑟𝑟 = 1 + 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

Symmetry: Symmetry:

ratio: ratio:

E. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 + 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 F. 𝑟𝑟 = 5 − 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

Symmetry: Symmetry:

ratio: ratio:

G. Can you describe or explain a pattern for cardioid and limaçon curves? Symmetry, intercepts,
similarities, differences?

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 Lesson 13-B: Polar Function Graphs

This section is an extension of three additional skills needed for students who have plans to continue
into Calculus topics. In Precalculus, we will set the foundation for later courses by considering those
needed skills, namely:
1. The domain restrictions for completing one cycle of a polar graph,
2. Finding where the r-values are negative; and,
3. Finding the points of intersection of two polar graphs and any common points.

Domain Restrictions

EX #4: Consider the function 𝑦𝑦 = 1 + 2 sin 𝑥𝑥 shown below.

x y x y
7𝜋𝜋
0
6
𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
6 4
𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋
4 3
𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
3 2
This is the corresponding polar graph
𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
𝑟𝑟 = 1 + 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃. How can the table be
2 3
used to graph the polar curve?
2𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋
3 4
3𝜋𝜋 11𝜋𝜋
4 6
5𝜋𝜋
2𝜋𝜋
6

𝜋𝜋

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EX #5: Determine the domain restrictions for sketching the polar curve through one cycle. Use the
auxiliary graph of the corresponding rectangular function to assist you.

A. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 + 3 cos( 𝜃𝜃) B. 𝑟𝑟 = 4 sin( 5𝜃𝜃)

C. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 cos( 4𝜃𝜃) D. 𝑟𝑟 = 4 cos( 𝜃𝜃)

E. 𝑟𝑟 2 = 16 sin( 2𝜃𝜃) F. 𝑟𝑟 = 1 − 2 sin 𝜃𝜃

Intervals where r-values are Negative

EX #6: Let’s look at the table from EX #1 again. Find the range of positive θ-values on the given
domain for which the r value is negative. Confirm your answer by plotting this part of the
polar graph. What do you notice?
𝑦𝑦 = 1 + 2 sin 𝑥𝑥 r θ

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EX #7: Use the rectangular graph 𝑦𝑦 = 2 cos 𝑥𝑥 − 1 to:

A. Find the range of positive x-values on the given domain for which the y-value is negative.

B. State the domain for one complete cycle to sketch the polar graph.

C. What symmetry, if any, applies to the curve?

D. Sketch the polar curve.

Intersections of Polar Graphs

Points of intersection can be found algebraically. There can also be common points that
are not part of the solution set.

EX #8: Find the points of intersection of the graphs of 𝑟𝑟 = 1 − 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑟𝑟 = 1.

State the solutions and any common points.

EX #9: Find the points of intersection of the graphs of 𝑟𝑟 = 3 sin 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑟𝑟 = 1 + sin( 𝜃𝜃).
State the solutions and any common points.

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Lesson 15-A: Rates of Change in Polar Functions

Just like any other function we have studied, polar functions can be analyzed for key features and
characteristics. In this final lesson, we want to describe intervals of increase, decrease, extrema,
distance from the origin and average rates of change of r with respect to 𝜃𝜃.

Analyzing a Basic Polar Graph

EX #1: Consider the curve 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = 5 sin 𝜃𝜃 on the interval 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋.

A. What is the maximum distance from the pole?

Where does this extrema occur (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃)?

B. For what values of 𝜃𝜃 is 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = 0 ?

C. Describe the behavior as 𝜃𝜃 approaches this

maximum from the left and the right.

D. Consider the value of the radius for the curve. Is there an interval where the radius
is negative? Explain.

E. Summarize your findings using the table below.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 0 < 𝜃𝜃 < < 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜋𝜋
2 2

Is r positive or negative?

Is r increasing or decreasing?

Is distance r from the pole

increasing or decreasing?

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 Analyzing a Polar Graph

EX #2: Consider the curve 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = 4 cos(3𝜃𝜃) on the interval 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋.

A. What shape is this polar curve? Sketch the curve at right.

B. Describe the symmetry of the graph.

C. What is the maximum value of 𝑟𝑟 ? How do you know?

Where do these maximum values occur?

D. What is the minimum value of 𝑟𝑟? At which value(s) of 𝜃𝜃 does the minimum occur?

E. For what values of 𝜃𝜃 is 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = 0 ?

Testing Intervals for Sign of the Radius

Positive or Negative?

EX #3: Test values on each interval of 𝜃𝜃 to determine whether the radius of the curve
𝑟𝑟 = 4 cos 3𝜃𝜃 is positive or negative for each interval.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
0 𝜋𝜋
6 3 2 3 6

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 Intervals of Increase or Decrease

EX #4: Using the information from the previous example, we can further analyze the polar curve.
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = 4 cos(3𝜃𝜃)

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋

𝜃𝜃 0 < 𝜃𝜃 < < 𝜃𝜃 < < 𝜃𝜃 < < 𝜃𝜃 < < 𝜃𝜃 < < 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜋𝜋
6 6 3 3 2 2 3 3 6 6

Is r positive
or negative?

Is r increasing
or decreasing?

Is the distance,
r from the pole
increasing or
decreasing?

Max /Min

A. Complete the table for 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃).

B. Explain how the table can help to identify the angles at which the maximum and minimum
values of 𝑟𝑟 occur.

Distance from the Pole

EX #5: Given a polar function 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 , you can determine the distance between 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) and the
origin by comparing the sign of the r-value and the behavior of the function. Complete the
table.

𝒓𝒓 − 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 is positive 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 is negative

Distance from origin is Distance from origin is

𝒓𝒓 = 𝒇𝒇 𝜽𝜽 is increasing

Distance from origin is Distance from origin is

𝒓𝒓 = 𝒇𝒇 𝜽𝜽 is decreasing

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Lesson 15-B: Rates of Change in Polar Functions

Finally, let’s explore some rates of change of polar functions in this last section of unit 3.

Average Rates of Change

EX #6: Given the polar function 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = −3 + 6 cos 𝜃𝜃.

A. Complete the table of values.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋

𝜽𝜽 0 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
3 2 3 3 2 3

𝒓𝒓

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
B. Find the average rate of change of 𝑓𝑓 between 𝜃𝜃 = 3
and 𝜃𝜃 = 2 .

C. Explain the meaning of the average rate of change in relation to (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃).

D. Find the average rate of change of 𝑓𝑓 between 𝜃𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
E. Is 𝑓𝑓 changing faster between 0 < 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜋𝜋 or between 3
< 𝜃𝜃 < 2
? Justify your answer.

𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
F. Is the distance between 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) and the origin increasing or decreasing on the interval ,
2 3
?
Explain your reasoning.

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 Estimating Values Using Average Rates of Change

EX #7: Given the polar function 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = 4 sin(2𝜃𝜃)

A. Complete the table of values.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋

𝜽𝜽 0 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
4 2 4 4 2 4

𝒓𝒓

3𝜋𝜋
B. Find the average rate of change of 𝑓𝑓 between 𝜃𝜃 = 4
and 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋.

5𝜋𝜋
C. Use this rate of change to estimate the value of r for 𝜃𝜃 = 6
? Verify with a graphing utility.

3𝜋𝜋
D. On the interval 4 , 𝜋𝜋 is the distance between 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) and the origin increasing or decreasing?
Justify your answer.

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 Analyze the Polar Function

EX #8: Given the polar function 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = 3 + 3 sin(𝜃𝜃)

A. Complete the table of values.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 11𝜋𝜋

𝜽𝜽 0 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
4 2 4 6 2 6

𝒓𝒓

B. State the following:

Symmetry:

Type of polar curve:

Values where 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 = 0 :

Sketch the curve.

C. Identify the extrema of the function 𝑓𝑓.

D. Determine the interval(s) of 𝜃𝜃 where 𝑓𝑓 is increasing.

E. Determine the interval(s) of 𝜃𝜃 where 𝑓𝑓 is decreasing.

𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
F. On the interval 2 , 4 is the distance between 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) and the origin increasing or decreasing?
Justify your answer.

𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
G. Use the average rate of change on the interval 2 , 4 to estimate the value of r for 𝜃𝜃 = 3
?
Verify with a graphing utility. Is this an overestimate or an underestimate?

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