CHAPTER 9: Introduction to Columns

Columns: upright members that mainly undergo compressive axial loads in addition
to bending moments.

PΔ effect: When a column is subjected to primary moments (those moments caused

by applied loads, joint rotations, etc.), the axis of the member will deflect laterally,
with the result that additional moments equal to the column load times the lateral
deflection will be applied to the column. These latter moments are called secondary
moments or PΔ moments
Columns can be categorized into three categories:

1) Short compression blocks or pedestals:

If the height of an upright compression member is less than three times its least
lateral dimension it may be considered to be a pedestal. The ACI states that a
pedestal may be designed with unreinforced or plain concrete with a maximum
design compressive stress equal to 0.85 ϕf'c, where ϕ is 0.65. Should the total
applied load to the member be larger than 0.85ϕf'c Ag, it will be necessary either to
enlarge the cross-sectional area of the pedestal or to design it as reinforced
concrete column.

2) Short reinforced concrete columns: -fails due to material initial failure

-A stocky member

-Has small secondary moments.

- ACI columns to be designed as short

columns if the secondary or PΔ effect does
not reduce their strength by more than 5%.

3) Long (slender) columns: —As columns become more slender, bending

deformations will increase, as will the resulting secondary moments. If these moments
are of such magnitude as to significantly reduce the axial load capacities of columns,
those columns are referred to as being long or slender.

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ACI code provisions in columns' Design

1- Minimum and maximum reinforcement ratio

*The minimum and maximum reinforcement ratios (ρ) for a column range between
1% as a lower limit and 8% as an upper limit.

*1% reinforcement ratio gives large cross sections while a ratio of 8% gives sections
that are crowded with bars.

*Under normal circumstances a steel percentage of 1.5% to 3% can be used.

2- Longitudinal reinforcement

*The minimum number of longitudinal bars allowed by ACI code in a rectangular

column is 4, 3 for the triangular and 6 for the circular.

*Longitudinal reinforcement bars spacing:

Minimum spacing: 40 mm or 1.5db
Maximum spacing: 150 mm.

3- Lateral reinforcement

Lateral reinforcement is generally introduced to overcome buckling, increase strength

and prevent longitudinal bars from being displaced during construction.

a) Ties:

*Choose ϕ12 ties if longitudinal bar diameter is larger than 32 mm.

*Choose ϕ10 ties if longitudinal bar diameter is smaller than or equal to 32 mm.
*Spacing: maximum ties spacing allowed by ACI code is the least of:
1- 16 db (longitudinal)
2- 48 db (ties)
3- The least column dimension.

b) Spirals:

Spirals are more effective in increasing column's strength more than ties due to their
confining nature.

*Spirals diameter: usually ϕ10 spirals are used for circular columns.
*Spacing: spirals clear spacing is allowed not less than 25 mm and no more than 75
mm.
To determine spacing in spiral columns

ρs = 0.45 ( – 1)

where,

Ag: the gross cross-sectional area

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Ac: the area of the core

ρs = = 4as (Dc – db)/SDc2

Dc : out-to-out core diameter

db: spiral diameter

4- Reduction Factors:

Φ for tied compression controlled members is 0.65

Φ for spiral compression controlled members is 0.75.

Axially Loaded Columns

It seems impossible for a column to be perfectly axially loaded. Even if loads could
be perfectly centered at one time, they would not stay in place. Furthermore, columns
may be initially crooked or have other flaws, with the result that lateral bending will
occur. Wind and other lateral loads cause columns to bend, and the columns in rigid-
frame buildings are subjected to moments when the frame is supporting gravity loads
alone.

Design Formulas

Pu.e = Mu
e=

When the moments are small, when there is no calculated moments and when the
moment is sufficiently small so that e is less than 0.1h for tied columns and less than
0.05h for spiral columns, the following equations can be used:

For tied columns (ϕ = 0.65)

ϕPn = 0.8ϕ[0.85f'c (Ag – Ast) + fyAst]

For spiral columns (ϕ = 0.75)

ϕPn = 0.85ϕ[0.85f'c (Ag – Ast) + fyAst]

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Problem #1
Design a rectangular tied column with the long side equal to two times the length of
the short side. PD = 890 KN , PL = 1334 KN, f'c = 28 MPa, fy = 420 MPa (initially
assume ρ = 0.03)

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Problem #2
Design a circular column that is subjected to PD = 1100 KN, PL = 1300 KN, f'c = 28
MPa, fy = 420 MPa (Assume ρg = 0.02)

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Slenderness Effects
The slenderness of columns is based on their geometry and on their lateral bracing. As
slenderness increases, their bending stresses increase, and thus buckling may occur.
Reinforced concrete columns generally have small slenderness ratios. As a result they
can usually be designed as short columns. If slenderness effects are considered small,
then columns can be considered “short” and can be designed according to Chapter 10.
However, if they are “slender,” the moment for which the column must be designed is
increased or magnified. Once the moment is magnified, the column is then designed
according to Chapter 10 using the increased moment.
The ACI Code (10.10.2.1) limits second-order effects to not more than 40% of first-
order effects.

Slendreness ratio klu/r

1) Unsupported length (lu): This length is considered to be equal to the clear distance
between slabs, beams, or other members that provide lateral support to the column.

2) Effective length (klu) : This is the distance between points of zero moment in the
column.

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3) Radius of gyration: Put in general terms, the radius of gyration can be considered
to be an indication of the stiffness of a section based on the shape of the cross-section
when used as a compression member (for example a column). The radius of gyration
is used to compare how various structural shapes will behave under compression
along an axis. It is used to predict buckling in a compression member or beam

r=√

I = second moment of area

A = area of material in the cross section

r = 0.3 h (for a rectangular x –section)

r = 0.25 D (for a circular x –section)

Columns Part of a Frame

k factor can be calculated using either the alignment chart or the equations.

1) Determining k factor with alignment chart:

To use the alignment charts for a particular column, ψ factors are computed at each
end of the column. The ψ factor at one end of the column equals the sum of the
stiffness of the columns meeting at that joint, including the column in question,
divided by the sum of all the stiffnesses of the beams meeting at the joint.

ψ=

|Page7
2) Determining k factors with Equations

a) For braced compression members k is the smaller of:

k = 0.7 + 0.05(ψA+ ψB ) ≤ 1.0

k = 0.85 + 0.05ψmin ≤ 1.0

b) For unbraced compression members

Note:

Ψpin = ∞ (take it as 10)

Ψfixed = 0 (take it as 1)

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Moment of Inertia:

1) For nonsway frames, slenderness effects may be ignored if the following

expression is satisfied:

In this expression, M1 is the smaller factored end moment in a compression member.

It has a plus sign if the member is bent in single curvature (C shaped) and a negative
sign if the member is bent in double curvature (S shaped). M2 is the larger factored
end moment in a compression member, and it always has a plus sign. In this equation,
the term 34 – 12(M1/M2) shall not be taken larger than 40, according to ACI Code
10.10.1

2) For sway frames, slenderness effects may be ignored if

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Problem #3

For the frame shown, determine whether slenderness effects can be ignored for the
column AB knowing that the frame is braced against sidesway and has factored end
moments of 61 KN,m and 102 KN.m. Assume C- shape for curvature. E is constant.

| P a g e 11
CHAPTER 10: Design of Short Columns Subject to Axial Load and
Bending

All columns are subjected to some bending as well as axial forces, and they need to be
proportioned to resist both. Columns will bend under the action of moments, and
those moments will tend to produce compression on one side of the columns and
tension on the other. Depending on the relative magnitudes of the moments and axial
loads, there are several ways in which the sections might fail.

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Use of Interaction Diagrams

Interaction diagrams are useful for studying the strengths of columns with varying
proportions of loads and moments. Any combination of loading that falls inside the
curve is satisfactory, whereas any combination falling outside the curve represents
failure.

If individual column interaction diagrams were prepared as described in the preceding

sections, it would be necessary to have a diagram for each different column cross
section, for each different set of concrete and steel grades, and for each different bar
arrangement. The result would be an astronomical number of diagrams.

The number can be tremendously reduced, however, if the diagrams are plotted with
ordinates of Kn = Pn/f c Ag (instead of Pn) and with abscissas of Rn = Pn e/f c Ag h
(instead of Mn). The resulting normalized interaction diagrams can be used for cross
sections with widely varying dimensions. The ACI has prepared normalized
interaction curves in this manner for the different cross section and bar arrangement
situations shown in Figure 10.14 and for different grades of steel and concrete.

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| P a g e 13
Problem # 4
The short 400 mm * 550 mm column is used to support the following loads and moments Pu =
4000 KN and Mu = 220 KN.m. If f'c = 28 MPa and fy = 420 MPa. Select reinforcing bars to be
placed in its end faces only using appropriate ACI column interaction diagrams. Assume
concrete cover = 70 mm.

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Problem # 5

Using the appropriate interaction curves, determine the value of Pn for the short tied
column shown if ey = 250 mm. Assume f'c = 28 MPa and fy = 420 MPa.

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CHAPTER 11: Slender Columns

As previously explained, slender columns are previously defined as columns that are
greatly affected by secondary moments. In their design procedure, moment
magnification should be considered.

Magnification of Column Moments in Nonsway Frames

The load P causes the column moment

to be increased by an amount PΔ. This
moment will cause δ to increase a little
more, with the result that the PΔ
moment will increase, which in turn
will cause a further increase in Δ and
so on until equilibrium is reached.

In ACI Code 10.10.16, the factored design moment for slender columns with no sway
is increased by using the following expression, in which Mc is the magnified or
increased moment and M2 is the larger factored end moment on a compression
member:
Mc = δM2

Mc ≥ Mu min;
Mu min = Pu ( 15 + 0.03h), h is in mm as the number 15. The term 15 + 0.03 h
represents the minimum eccentricity e min.

To calculate moment magnification factor δ

Cm: bending coefficient

Cm = 0.6 + 0.4(

Pc: Euler buckling load, which is represents the maximum axial load a column can
withstand while staying straight.

Pc = (

If steel bars are previously estimated or when steel percentage to be used is high,

EI =

| P a g e 16
If steel bars are not previously estimated or when steel percentage to be used is low,

EI =

1. Ec = 4700 √ for normal-weight concrete in MPa (see Section 1.11 for other
densities).
2. Ig = gross inertia of the column cross section about the centroidal axis being
considered.
3. Es = 200 GPa.
4. Ise = moment of inertia of the reinforcing about the centroidal axis of the section.
(This value equals the sum of each bar area times the square of its distance from the
centroidal axis of the compression member.)

The term βdns accounts for the reduction in stiffness caused by sustained axial loads
and applies only to nonsway frames.

βd = PUD/Pu , βd ≤ 1

| P a g e 17
Problem # 6
Design column AB that lies in the braced frame shown given that all beams are 250
mm * 400 mm, all columns are 400 mm * 400 mm, PL = 413 KN, PD = 700 KN,
Mu1 = 160 KN.m, Mu2 = 200 KN.m. Assume f'c = 28 MPa and fy = 420 MPa.

| P a g e 18
Nonsway and Sway Frames

It is first necessary to decide whether we have a nonsway frame or a sway frame. You
must realize that you will rarely find a frame that is completely braced against
swaying or one that is completely unbraced against swaying. Therefore, you are
going to have to decide which way to handle it.

The question may possibly be resolved by examining the lateral stiffness of the
bracing elements for the story in question. You may observe that a particular column
is located in a story where there is such substantial lateral stiffness provided by
bracing members, shear walls, shear trusses, and so on that any lateral deflections
occurring will be too small to affect the strength of the column appreciably.

If we cannot tell by inspection whether we have a nonsway frame or a sway frame,

the code provides two ways of making a decision. First, in ACI Section 10.10.5.1, a
story in a frame is said to be a nonsway one if the increase in column end moments
from second-order effects is 5% or less of the first-order end moments.

ΣPu = total factored vertical load for all of the columns on the story in question
Δo = the elastically determined first-order lateral deflection from Vu at the top of the
story in question with respect to the bottom of that story
Vu = the total factored horizontal shear for the story in question
lc = the height of a compression member in a frame measured from center to center
of the frame joints

If the value of the so-called stability index (which follows) is ≤ 0.05, the commentary
states that the frame may be classified as a nonsway one. (Should Vu be equal to zero,
this method will not apply).

| P a g e 19
Magnification of Column Moment in Sway Frames

If a frame is unbraced against sidesway, it is first necessary to compute its slenderness

ratio. If klu /r is less than 22, slenderness may be neglected (ACI 10.10.1). For this
discussion, it is assumed that values greater than 22 are obtained.
When sway frames are involved, it is necessary to decide for each load combination
which of the loads cause appreciable sidesway (probably the lateral loads) and which
do not. The factored end moments that cause sidesway are referred to as M1s and
M2s, and they must be magnified because of the PΔ effect. The other end moments,
resulting from loads that do not cause appreciable sidesway, are M1ns and M2ns.
They are determined by first-order analysis and will not have to be magnified.

Moment magnifier δs can be calculated using two methods:

1) The moment magnifier may be calculated with the equation given at the end of this
paragraph in which Q is the stability index previously presented. Should the computed
value of δs be greater than 1.5, it will be necessary to compute δs by ACI equation
10.21

2) With the second method and the one used in this chapter, the magnified sway
moments may be computed with the following expression:

In this last equation, ΣPu is the summation of all the vertical loads in the story in
question, and ΣPc is the sum of all the Euler buckling loads.

The design moments to be used must be calculated with the expressions that follow.

Some of combinations considering lateral loads according to ACI 318-11, section

9.2.1

U = 1.2 D + 1.6 L + 0.5 (Lr or S or R) (9-2)

U = 1.2 D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (1.0 L + 0.5 W) (9-3)
U = 1.2 D + 1.0 W +1.0 L + 0.5 (Lr or S or R) (9-4)
U = 0.9 D + 1.0 W (9-6)

Section 9.2.1(b) states that where W is based on service – level wind loads, 1.6 W
shall be used in place of 1.0 W in Eq (9-4) and (9-6) and 0.8 W shall be used in place
of 0.5 W in equation (9-3)

| P a g e 21
Problem # 7
Determine the moments and axial force that must be used for the design of column
CD of the unbraced frame of the following figure. Consider only bending in the plane
of the frame. The assumed member sizes are given in the figure. fy = 420 MPa and
f'c = 28 MPa. Consider the load factor cases of ACI equations 9-1, 9-4 and 9-6.

| P a g e 21
10.8 Biaxial Bending

Many columns are subjected to biaxial bending, that is, bending about both axes.
Corner columns in buildings where beams and girders frame into the columns from
both directions are the most common cases, but there are others, such as where
columns are cast monolithically as part of frames in both directions or where columns
are supporting heavy spandrel beams.
Bridge piers are almost always subject to biaxial bending.

Today, the analysis of columns subject to biaxial bending is primarily done with
computers.
One of the approximate methods that is useful in analysis and that can be handled
with pocket calculators includes the use of the so-called reciprocal interaction
equation "Bresler method"

Pni = the nominal axial load capacity of the section when the load is placed at a given
eccentricity along both axes. (Mnx = Mny = 0)
Pnx = the nominal axial load capacity of the section when the load is placed at an
eccentricity ex. (Mnx = Pn*ex)
Pny = the nominal axial load capacity of the section when the load is placed at an
eccentricity ey. (Mny = Pn * ey)
Po = the nominal axial load capacity of the section when the load is placed with a
zero eccentricity. It is usually taken as 0.85f 'c Ag+ fyAs.

Note:
1) The Bresler equation works rather well as long as Pni is at least as large as 0.10Po.
Should Pni be less than 0.10Po
2) This practice is probably reasonable as long as ey is less than about 20% of ex.

| P a g e 22
10.9 Design of Biaxially Loaded Columns

For square columns: Mx = My = (Mnx + Mny)

Should a rectangular section be used where the y-axis is the weaker direction, it would
seem logical to calculate My = Mnx + Mny and to use that moment to select the steel
required about the y-axis and spread the computed steel area over the whole column
cross section.
This procedure produces safe designs but uneconomical about the strong axis, thus, to
achieve a satisfactory approximation is to calculate My = (Mnx + Mny) and multiply it
by b/h

Problem # 8

Select the reinforcing needed for the short tied column shown.

PD = 450 KN
PL = 900 KN

MDX = 70 KN.m
MLX = 150 KN.m

MDY = 55 KN.m
MLY = 125 KN.m

f'c = 28 MPa

fy = 420 MPa

| P a g e 23
CHAPTER 12: FOOTINGS
Footings are structural members used to support columns and walls and transmit their
loads to the underlying soils. Reinforced concrete is a material admirably suited for
footings and is used as such for both reinforced concrete and structural steel buildings,
bridges, towers, and other structures.

A footing is generally subject to the loads shown in the figure below. Soil's pressure
pushes the footing upward while it's self-weight and the over burden soil push it
downward.

The net (resultant) soil pressure on the footing in KN/m2 can thus be calculated:

q net = q all – (γc*t + (Df – t)*γs

or conservatively,

q net = qall - γs*Df

Where,
q all: soil's allowable bearing capacity in KN/m2.
t: the initial assumed footing's depth in m.
Df: the depth of footing below grade in m.
Ps: service load in KN or KN/m coming from the column supported or wall = Ps + PD
γc : concrete's weight density. For normal weight concrete it ranges from (23 – 25)
KN/m3 .
γs: soil's weight density in KN/m3.

| P a g e 24
Moment and Shear in Footings:

| P a g e 25
1) Moment and Shear in Wall Footings:

The critical section in moment is located at the face of the column/wall supported by
the footing, while the ultimate shear is located a t a distance d from the face of the
column supported.

Mu = qu ( )2
Where qu is the factored soil pressure, qu = wu/L

Vu = qu(
√
ϕ Vc = ϕ bw*d
Wu = 1.2 wD + 1.6 wL

Total minimum practical depths are at least 150 mm. for regular spread footings and
300 mm for pile caps as stated by section 15.7 in the ACI code section.

The use of stirrups in footings is usually considered impractical and uneconomical.

For this reason, the effective depth of wall footings is selected so that Vu is limited to
the design shear strength, φVc , that the concrete can carry without web reinforcing.

| P a g e 26
Problem # 1

Design a wall footing to support a 250 wide wall with a dead load of 120 KN/m and a
live load of 80 KN/m. The maximum soil pressure is 100 KN/m2. f'c = 28 MPa, fy =
420 MPa and γsoil = 18 KN/m3. The footing is located at a depth of 1.5 m below grade.
Assume the clear bottom and side cover = 80 mm.

| P a g e 27
2) Moment and Shear in Column (Single) Footing
Moment critical section: As in wall footing, the critical section for moment is located
at the face of the supported column in both the short and the long direction and is
calculated in the same fashion.
In single footings two types of shears should be considered; one-way (beam) shear
and two-way (punching shear). The critical sections for both types of shear is shown
in Figure 12.8

Two-way shear

Vu = Pu – qu(c1+ d)*(c2+d)

ϕVc is the smallest of

√
ϕVc = ϕ ( ) bod
√
ϕVc = ϕ ( ) bod
√
ϕVc = ϕ bod

where bo is the perimeter of critical section at distance d/2 outside column

is the ration of column's long side to its short side.

= 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge columns and 20 for corner columns.

| P a g e 28
Problem # 2

Design a square footing that is at a depth of 1.5 m below grade to support a 400 mm
square column. The column carries a dead load of 400 KN and a live load of 300 KN.
The allowable soil pressure is 100 KN/m2. f'c = 28 MPa, fy = 420 MPa and γsoil = 18
KN/m3.

| P a g e 29
3) Development Length

The bar stresses must be transferred to the concrete by bond between the steel and the
concrete before the bars can be cut off. In this case the bars must be extended some
distance back into the support and out into the beam to anchor them or develop their
strength. This distance, called the development length (ld ), is shown in Figure 7.7(b).
It can be defined as the minimum length of embedment of bars that is necessary to
permit them to be stressed to their yield point plus some extra distance to ensure
member toughness.

a) Development length for bars in tension (ld)

ld = * db
√ ( )
α : bar location factor = 1 for bottom bars and 1.3 for top bars.
β: coating factor = 1.0 for uncoated bars and ranges between 1.2 to 1.5 for epoxy
coated bars.
αβ < 1.7

λ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.75 for light weight aggregate concrete.

C is the smallest of: the side cover, bottom cover and 0.5*center to center spacing
between the bars.

Ktr: transverse reinforcement index and it is allowed to be taken as 1.0 even if

transverse reinforcement is present.

*The provided development length should be equal to or less than the available
embedment bar length so bars can be fully developed.

*The critical section for development is the same as that in moment.

| P a g e 31
b) Development Length for Bars in Compression

Development for bars in compression is required if the allowable bearing stress in the
footing is exceeded. Dowels should be provided and developed both in the footing
and in the column to transfer the excessive stresses to the column. Development
lengths for bars in compression are generally less than those required in tension since
the compressed nature of the associated members provides additional toughness to the
members.

ldc = ≥ 0.04 db fy
√

As in tension bars, the provided development length should be be equal to or less than
the available embedment bar length so bars can be fully developed down into the
footing.

c) Bearing Strength of Footing

Bearing strength of column ϕPnb = ϕ(0.85 f'c A1) where A1 is the area of column's
cross-section.
Bearing strength of footing increased by factor √ ≤ 2 where A2 is the area of
pyramid cone having side slope 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.

If the computed bearing force is higher than the smaller of the two allowable values in
the column or the footing, it will be necessary to carry the excess with dowels or with
column bars extended into the footing. Instead of using dowels, it is also possible to
increase the size of the column or increase f 'c. Should the computed bearing force be
less than the allowable value, no dowels or extended reinforcing are theoretically
needed, but the code (15.8.2.1) states that there must be a minimum area of dowels
furnished equal to no less than 0.005 times the gross cross-sectional area of the
column or pedestal.

**Calculate the development lengths required for bars in tension and bars in
compression in problem #2 and check bearing strength.

| P a g e 31
4) Combined Footings

In combined footings, the centroid of load resultant and footing must coincide.

Problem #3:

Design a rectangular combined footing to support the two columns. Property lines
require that the footing not extend beyond the face of column A more than 0.2 m. The
allowable soil pressure is 200 KN/m2. f'c = 28 MPa and fy = 420 MPa and soil's unit
weight is γsoil = 20 KN/m3

| P a g e 32
One-way Ribbed Slab Design

| P a g e 33
| P a g e 34
One way joist floor System

*The type of slab is also called a ribbed slab.

it is consist of a floor, usually 50-100 mm thick, supported by reinforced
concrete ribs.
* the ribs are usually tapered and uniformly spaced at distances that do not
exceed 750mm.
*In some ribbed slabs, the space between ribs may be filled with
permanent fillers to provide a horizontal slab soffit.

| P a g e 35
Advantages :
–Longer spans with heavy loads.
-Reduced dead load due to voids.
-Electrical, mechanical etc. can be placed between voids.
-Good vibration resistance .

ACI Requirements for joist construction

(sec. 8.11, ACI 318-02)
-Slabs and ribs must be cast monolithically.
-Ribs must be spaced consistently.
-Ribs may not be less than 100 mm in width.
-Depth of ribs may not be more than 3.5 time the minimum rib width.
-Clear spacing between ribs shall not exceed 750mm.
** Ribbed slabs not meeting these requirements are
designed as slabs and beams **

Slab Thickness
ACI sec. 8.11.6.1
t>= 50 mm or >= (1/12 distance between ribs)
Building codes give minimum fire resistance rating:

1-hour fire rating: 20 mm cover, 75-90 mm slab thickness.

2-hour fire rating: 25 mm cover, 115 mm slab thickness.

Distribution Ribs
-Placed perpendicular to joists*
Spans <6.0 m : None.
Spans 6.0 -9.0 m : Provided a midspan.
Spans > 9.0 m : provided at third-points
-At least one continuous 12-mm diameter bar is provided at top and
bottom of distribution rib.
*Note: not required by ACI Code, but typical used in construction

| P a g e 36
Member Depth
ACI provides minimum member depth and slab thickness requirements that •
can be used without a deflection calculation (sec. 9.5, ACI 318).

Useful for selecting preliminary member sizes 

ACI 318-02: Table 9.5a

| P a g e 37
 Joist Design
1) Flat Slab reinforcement is calculated for bending or minimum reinforcement
for shrinkage and temperature.

(ACI Sec 7.12.2) GR 40 or Gr 50 0.0020 Ag

GR 60 0.0018 Ag

2) Shear Design of Joist Ribs

a) Allowable Vᴄ = 1.10 * Vᴄ

b) Shear strength may be increased using shear reinforcement or by widening the end
of the ribs (not typical)

3) ACI Shear and moment coefficient may be used if requirement in ACI Sec
8.3.3 are met.

4) Ribs are designed as T-Sections. Main positive reinforcement includes at least

2 bars

| P a g e 38
Example:
Design simply supported slab shown below. the slab is part of a floor in a typical
residential building. use =28 MPa 420 MPa

The Effective span length = .1

= 4.5+0.2 = 4.7m

2. Live Load :

From minimum design loads for structures LL=2.0 KN/m²

3. Required depth of the ribbed slab by ACI Table 9.5a

5. Suggested Dimensions

| P a g e 39
6. Dead Load for 1.0-m strip

Flat slab weight = 0.06*1.0*24.0 = 1.44 KN/m

Ribs weight = (0.12+0.16)/2*0.24*24.0/0.52 = 1.55 KN/m
Own weight of blocks = 5.0*0.18/0.52 = 1.73 KN/m

6. Dead Load for 1.0-m strip (continue)

Own weight of the fill = 0.1*1.0*12.9 = 1.29 KN/m2

Own weight of the Mortar = 0.025*1.0*22.0 = 0.55 KN/m2

Own weight of the tiles = 0.025*1.0*24.0 = 0.6 KN/m2

Own weight of plastering = 0.025*1.0*22.0 = 0.55 KN/m2

Own weight of Partitions = 1.0 KN/m²

Total Dead Load = 8.71 KN/m²

7. Total ultimate load = 1.2 DL +1.6 LL

= 1.2(8.71)+1.6(2.0)=13.65 KN/m²

8. Total ultimate load on one rib = 13.65*0.52 = 7.1 KN/m

9. Ultimate moment = /8

= 7.1* /8 = 19.6 KN.m

(
( (

ρ ( √ )

| P a g e 41
 ( ( / rib

( ( / rib

mm/ rib

Check N.A in the flange a= 266*420/(0.85*28*520) = 7.7 mm

9. Shear Design

Ultimate Shear on rib ( )

10.Upper Plate Design

Conservatively, design the upper plate as a simply supported slab

/8 = 0.273 KN.m× /8 = 13.65

(
( (

ρ ( √ ) 023

( ( / rib

( ( / rib

mm

Rib Block or use welded wire mesh if available

| P a g e 41
| P a g e 42
| P a g e 43
Two-Way Slab Design
Method:

*Direct Design Method

(DDM)
Equivalent Frame Method
*(EFM)
*Method of the 1963 ACI
Code (Coefficient Method)

Coefficient Method
Reference:

“Winter and Nilson, 1979, Design of concrete structures”

Notes:
*Is not a part of the 1977 or later ACI Code
*For Slabs supported on four sides by:
-Walls
-Steel beams
-Monolithic concrete beams with

Minimum

| P a g e 44
From compatibility

From equilibrium: (

For example:

One-way and two-way slab action carry load in two directions.

| P a g e 45
1) Middle strip moment

Where:

W= Uniform load
Length of clear span in short and long direction, respectively.

2) Column strip moments

3) Negative Moment at Discontinuous Edges

| P a g e 46
| P a g e 47
Special Reinforcement

** Reinforcement is the same as that required for the maximum positive moment in the panel.
L= Length of longer span

| P a g e 48
Example:
Beams are of 300 mm width and 600 mm
depth



Required:
Design the corner panel

Solution:

h= perimeter/180 =2(6.1+7.62)/180 = 0.152m =152mm

Select a trial depth = 160 mm
24=3.84 × The corresponding DL=0.16
Factored loads

4.6
10.6
Total load = 15.2

Moment calculations:
Ratio of panel sides

1- Middle strips

Negative moment at continuous edges (Table 8.3)

40.16

| P a g e 49
Positive moments = (Table 8.4 and 8.5)
6.68
18.93

4.27
12.31

Negative moment at discontinuous edges

8.54

2- Column Strips

Moments decrease linearly from full calculated value at inner edge of the column strip
to (1/3) of this value at the edge of the supporting beam.
Design for an average moment in the column strip = (2/3) of the corresponding
moment in the middle strip, or
Use the same steel in the middle strip but with a spacing = (3/2) spacing in the middle
strip
* Need to check maximum spacing limitations

Flexural design

Short direction d= h-20-(16/2) = 132 mm

Long direction d= h-20-(16/2)-16 = 116 mm

| P a g e 51
Table 1 Middle Strip

Table 2 Middle Strip

| P a g e 51
Special reinforcement at the corners:

Same area of steel as of the maximum positive moment in the slab

Shear Design: (Use Table 8.6)

71% short direction 
29% long direction 
Total load the panel = 76.5
Load on the long beam =

Load on the short beam =

This is above the required shear strength at factored loads

Otherwise, increase the depth of the slab

| P a g e 52
CHAPTER 15: Torsion
Torsion may occur in buildings, where the edge of floor slab and its beams are
supported by a spandrel beam running between exterior columns. It may be significant
in curved grids, spiral stairways, balcony girders, and whenever large loads are applied to any
beam “off-center”.

Plain concrete subjected to pure torsion will crack and fail along 45 degrees spiral
lines corresponding to the torsional stresses. Maximum shears and torsional forces
may occur in areas where bending moments are small .

Torsional Moments to be considered in design:

1) Equilibrium torsion Design for all Tu

-In statically determinate structures.

-Cannot be reduced by a redistribution of internal forces or by a rotation of the
member

2) Compatibility torsion:

Torsional moment may be reduced if that part of the indeterminate structure cracks
under the torsion.

| P a g e 53
Design Procedure
1) Torsional Moments can be neglected if

√
( )

**This equation ignores the presence of any axial forces

: area enclosed by the outside perimeter of the concrete x-Section

: the outside perimeter of that x-Section

3) Maximum torsional moment strength for solid section:

√
√( ) (( ) ( )
)

3) Maximum torsional moment strength for hollow section :

√
( )

4) To calculate the required area of torsional reinforcing needed for 1 leg of

stirrups:

: gross area enclosed by the shear flow path around the perimeter of the tube

= from center of stirrup leg to center of stirrup leg

| P a g e 54
*Minimum area of transverse reinforcing required :

*Additional longitudinal reinforcing required for torsion :

( )

*Minimum total area of additional longitudinal reinforcing required.

**Where ( ⁄ may not be taken as less than ( ⁄ )

Limitations:

1) Max spacing permitted for transverse torsional reinforcing = .

2) The diameter of stirrups may not be less than 0.042 times their spacing (0.042s), and
stirrups smaller than 10 may not be used.

3) Maximum yield stresses .

Example 1 (Example 15.2 in McCormac) :

Design the torsional reinforcing for the beam shown

, ,

Reinforcement required for Assume stirrups and a clear cover

of .

| P a g e 55
| P a g e 56
| P a g e 57
Example 2:
Design the transfer girder beam:
Ultimate applied load = 90 KN.m Assume columns provide full torsion rigidity
Flexural rigidity at the ends of the spans may be assumed to develop 40% of the
maximum moment that would be obtained if the girder was simply supported.

| P a g e 58
1) Flexural Design

For Positive Moment

Then ρ= 0.005

Check

Use 3 16 mm

For Negative Moment

54.0 KN.m

Then ρ 0.0033

Check

Use 3 16 mm

2) Design for shear

at d from support = = 45.0 KN
(√ ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄

Provide minimum since

Select a 10-mm diameter stirrup ( = 157 )

| P a g e 59
Do we need to set
minimum required based on shear??
Conservative to do so, but:
Take /mm/two legs

3) Design for Torsion

= 27.0 KN.m at d from face of support
√ ( )
Check ( )( ) ( )( )
( ( ))

Result: must consider torsion

Equilibrium or Compatibility Torsion?

Check the adequacy of the section

(

√(

√(( (

√(( ) ( ( ) ) )

√(

(( ( √ ))

√ √ √
( ) = ( )

( )

| P a g e 61
 (
/m/one leg

( (

=(( ) ) (

/m/two legs

Assume section size is ok

Try 12-mm diameter stirrup

Area of two legs = 226

Check 12mm@125mm O.C

( = 26

( ) √ = 24.6 ok.

( ( )

( ( )( (

Check ( (√ ) ( ) ( )

With (

( ( )( ) ( ( )(

860

At mid height need (860/6)=143

| P a g e 61
For top steel =

= (

For Bottom steel = (

| P a g e 62