Advanced Thermodynamics AEE 331

Learning Outcome

When you complete this learning material, you will be able to:

Explain the concepts and use of thermodynamic cycles using pressure-volume and temperature-
entropy diagrams.

Learning Objectives

You will specifically be able to complete the following tasks:

1. Explain the concept of a heat engine and describe the different types of heat engines.

2. Describe the Carnot cycle.

3. Explain the Rankine cycle using pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams.

4. Explain the Otto cycle using pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams.

5. Explain the Diesel cycle using pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams.

6. Explain the Brayton cycle using pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams.

7. Calculate thermal efficiencies for vapour cycles and explain efficiency limits.

8. Calculate thermal efficiencies for gas cycles and explain efficiency limits.

9. Calculate the heat balance at different points in a Rankine cycle system using test data

provided
 Objective 1

Explain the concept of a heat engine and describe the different types of heat
engines.

HEAT ENGINES

One of the most important applications of thermodynamics is in heat engines. A heat engine
converts heat energy into mechanical energy. This module will cover the most common types.

A conceptual way of depicting the basic elements of a heat engine is shown in Fig.1. Every heat
engine has three components:

1. A high temperature heat source usually obtained by combustion of a fuel.

2. A cyclic process that acts on a working fluid.
3. A low temperature heat sink to which heat is rejected.

The following are three general statements about how heat engines operate:

1. The heat supply and rejection processes are carried out cyclically to produce continuous
work (or power).
2. 2 The working fluid is able to return to its original state at the end of each cycle.
 3. The work done during a cycle is equivalent to the difference between the heat supplied
and heat rejected.

There are different ways of constructing a heat engine and various cycles are used.

The heat engine can operate in reverse, so it becomes a refrigeration device, air conditioner or
heat pump. These applications are covered in other modules.
A SIMPLE HEAT ENGINE

F. 2 Shows the basic elements of a simple heat engine. C is the cylinder, open at one end and
closed at the other, in which is fitted a gas-tight working face B, called a piston.

The piston moves in or out within the cylinder freely. A gas is trapped in the cylinder ‘rice G.
The rod R, fixed to the piston, is attached to the rack (or ratchet) N, at the joint J. the rack being
in contact with the toothed wheel M, or ratchet wheel. This is prevented from turning in an
anticlockwise direction by the pawl Q.

The toothed wheel is attached to the drum D, around which is wrapped a cord A carrying a mass
W. It is clear that when the piston moves to the right, the ratchet wheel M will be turned
clockwise by the rack, hut if the piston moves to the left the wheel will remain stationary, held
by the pawl Q. The motion of the piston to the right will be resisted by the action of the mass W
(through the ratchet wheel and rack) and by the pressure of the atmosphere on the outer face of
the piston. Such motion of the piston, however, will cause work to be done in that the mass will
be raised through, sax a height h.
If the gas in the cylinder is heated such that its volume increases, that is, the gas expands, the
piston R will move to the right, and work will be performed in lifting the mass. The amount of
work which may be done in this way is, however, limited by the extent of the travel of the piston
in the cylinder. By cooling the gas, the piston could be made to move to the left, the volume of
the gas decreasing in the cooling process (the piston being moved to the left by virtue of the
pressure difference between the atmosphere and the gas in the cylinder). In this way, the
condition of the gas might be restored to its initial state, or condition, such that subsequent
heating would produce further work.

It is seen, therefore, that by alternate heating and cooling processes the engine can be made to
raise the mass through any desired height in stages.

This simple example allows for the following important observations to be made and some
conclusions drawn which apply equally well to all heat engines:

 A conversion of energy from heat to mechanical work has taken place. This has been
done through the alternate supply and rejection of heat to and from the working fluid in
the engine cylinder.
 It is apparent that these operations must be repeated to maintain the work output.
 There must be a relationship between the quantities of heat involved and the amount of
work produced.

These observations, supported by experiments and calculations lead to the following

 All heat engines must have a source of heat, a working fluid and a sink.
 In order to produce continuous work, the processes of heat supply and heat rejection must
be carried out cyclically.
 The working fluid must be capable of returning to its original state at the end of each
cycle.
 During the cycle of operations, the work done will be equivalent to the difference
between the heat supplied and the heat rejected.

TYPES OF HEAT ENGINES

Heat engines are known by the type of thermodynamic cycle they utilize. The cycles explained in
this module are:

1. The Carnot cycle: a theoretical cycle which has the highest possible efficiency
2. The Rankine cycle: applicable to steam plants
3. The Otto cycle: used by spark ignition engines
4. The Diesel cycle: used by compression ignition or Diesel engines
5. The Brayton cycle: applicable to gas turbines (closed and open)

Heat engines are divided into two types based on the type of working fluid:

 Gas cycle
 Vapour cycle

Gas Cycles

Gas cycles use air as the main working fluid. They take air from the atmosphere, combust it with
fuel and release it back to the atmosphere after the available energy has been extracted. The Otto,
Diesel and Brayton cycles are all gas cycles. The closed cycle gas turbine, which can use any
fluid because combustion is external with a heat exchanger, is an exception.

Vapour Cycle

The vapour cycle features a condensable vapour which is in the liquid phase during a part of the
cycle. The most commonly used working fluid is steam. The Rankine cycle is the classic vapour
cycle.