MINI PROJECT REPORT

ON
SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR
-------------------------------------------------
(In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering under Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad University of Technology, Kolkata)

Submitted by:

Names: Ayandeep Datta, Rudraneel Paul, Paromita Das

ROLL NOs: 11900321021, 11900321022, 11900321023.

Under the guidance of

Dr. Manas Kr. Parai
Assistant Professor, Department of ECE, Siliguri Institute of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SILIGURI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
PO: SUKNA, SILIGURI, PIN: 734009, WEST BENGAL
YEAR: 2024
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Mini Project ((EC 681) report entitled 'Series Voltage Regulator’
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Technology in
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING of the

MAULANA ABDUL KALAM AZAD UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,

KOLKATA during the year 2023-24, is a faithful record of the bonafide work carried out by:
Ayandeep Datta, Rudraneel Paul, Paromita Das; ROLL NOs:
11900321021,11900321022,11900231023 under my guidance and supervision.

Dr. Manas Kr. Parai

-------------------------------

(Guide’s Name and signature)

Assistant Professor

Department of ECE

Siliguri Institute of Technology

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all those who have supported and guided us
throughout this project. This endeavor would not have been possible without the
encouragement and assistance of many individuals.

Firstly, we are deeply indebted to Dr. Manas Kr. Parai, whose invaluable mentorship,
insightful guidance, and unwavering support were crucial to the completion of this project.
His expertise and advice were instrumental in shaping our work and helping us navigate
through various challenges. We would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks to Mr. Saikat,
whose constant encouragement and constructive feedback greatly enhanced the quality of this
project. His profound knowledge and attention to detail inspired us to strive for excellence
and provided us with the confidence to tackle complex problems.

Additionally, we are grateful to our peers and faculty members who provided us with
assistance and support throughout this journey. Their collaborative spirit and shared insights
were immensely helpful.

This project has been a significant learning experience, and we are thankful to everyone who
contributed to its successful completion.

Thanking you,
Names: Ayandeep Datta, Rudraneel Paul, Paromita Das
Roll No: 11900321021, 11900321022, 11900321023
Dept: ECE, 3rd Year
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SL. NO. CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1. Abstract 5

2. Introduction 6

3. Components required 8

4. Components Description 9 - 11

5. Working Principle 12 -13

6. Circuit Diagram

7. Calculation 14

8. Observation Table 15

9. Demonstration of the model 16

10. Uses 15

11. Advantages & Disadvantages 15

12. Conclusion 16

13. References 17
 ABSTRACT

A voltage series regulator is an essential component in power electronics, designed to provide

a stable output voltage despite variations in input voltage and load conditions. This type of
regulator employs a series pass element, typically a transistor, which dynamically adjusts its
resistance to maintain the desired output voltage. The regulation process involves continuous
monitoring of the output voltage, comparing it to a reference value, and making real-time
adjustments to counteract any deviations. Voltage series regulators are valued for their
simplicity, reliability, and ability to deliver low noise and ripple in the output voltage, making
them ideal for applications requiring precise voltage control, such as in sensitive electronic
devices, communication systems, and instrumentation.

Despite their lower efficiency compared to switching regulators due to higher power
dissipation, advancements in semiconductor technology and control methods enhance their
performance and broaden their application scope in modern electronic systems.
 INTRODUCTION

A voltage series regulator, also known as a linear voltage regulator, is a crucial component in
power electronics designed to maintain a constant output voltage despite fluctuations in the
input voltage or variations in the load. This type of regulator is widely used in electronic
circuits where stable voltage supply is critical for the proper functioning of the components
and devices.

The core principle of voltage series regulation involves a series pass element, typically a
transistor, which adjusts its resistance in response to changes in the input voltage or the load
current. The regulator continuously monitors the output voltage, compares it to a predefined
reference voltage, and makes real-time adjustments to maintain the desired output. This
feedback mechanism ensures that the output voltage remains stable within a narrow tolerance
range.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

SL. NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1. Transistor (SL100, BC107) 1,1

2. Zener diode 1

3. Resistor:680 Ω, 100Ω, 330Ω, 5.6k Ω 1,1,1,1

4. Connecting Wires As per Requierd

5. Breadboard 1

6. Digital Multi-Meter(DMM) 2

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

Transistor (SL100)
The transistor-like SL100 is a medium, general-purpose power
NPN transistor. So this transistor is used in a wide range of
electronic applications like switching, logic gates design,
reproduction of sound, amplification, signal processing & radio
transmission.
However, it is normally used as a switch within the
configuration of CE (Common Emitter). This transistor is turned
ON once fixed DC voltage is applied (biased) and if there is a
signal on its base terminal & it is turned OFF completely in the
nonexistence of the base signal.
Based on the biasing of a transistor & different circuits can be connected to it, so that the
transistor works either like a switch or an amplifier. When the transistor works as an
amplifier, it can transmit or obtain radio signals to achieve analog mathematical calculations
or produce signals in between other functions.
Similarly, when the transistor works like a switch, it controls different loads like motor, light,
etc, and performs different mathematical & digital logic operations.

Transistor (BC107)
BC107 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will
be left open (Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at
ground and will be closed (Forward biased) when a signal is
provided to base pin. BC107 has a gain value h fe of 50; this
value determines the amplification capacity of the transistor.
The maximum amount of current that could flow through the
Collector pin is 100mA, hence we cannot connect loads that
consume more than 100mA using this transistor.
When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a
maximum of 100mA to flow across the collector and emitter.
This stage is called Saturation Region. When base current is
removed the transistor becomes fully off, this stage is called as
the Cut-off Region.

Zener Diode
A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped semiconductor
device engineered to function in the reverse direction. When the voltage across a Zener
diode’s terminals is reversed
and reaches the Zener Voltage
(also known as the knee
voltage), the junction
experiences a breakdown,
allowing current to flow in the
opposite direction. This
phenomenon, known as the
Zener Effect, is a key
characteristic of Zener diodes.
A Zener diode functions similarly to a regular diode when forward biased. However, in
reverse-biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage
increases and reaches the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), current begins to flow
through the diode. This current reaches a maximum level determined by the series resistor,
after which it stabilizes and remains constant across a wide range of applied voltages.
Resistor
Resistor is defined as a passive electrical component with two
terminals that are used for either limiting or regulating the
flow of electric current in electrical circuits.

The main purpose of resistor is to reduce the current flow and

to lower the voltage in any particular portion of the circuit. It
is made of copper wires which are coiled around a ceramic
rod and the outer part of the resistor is coated with an
insulating paint.

OTHER COMPONENTS

Connecting Wires:
Connecting wires are essential for establishing electrical
connections between electronic components. They come in various
types, colours, lengths, and gauges. These wires are insulated to
prevent short circuits and can feature connectors for easy
attachment. Connecting wires facilitate circuit assembly, testing,
and prototyping in electronics projects.

Breadboard:
A breadboard is a reusable tool used in electronics prototyping. It
consists of a grid of holes connected by metal strips, allowing for
easy insertion and connection of electronic components without
soldering. Power rails along the edges provide access to power
sources, and terminal strips enable external connections.
Breadboards are portable and facilitate rapid circuit design and testing, making them
essential for electronics enthusiasts, students, and professionals.

Digital Multi-meter(DMM)
A digital multi-meter (DMM) is a versatile electronic device used
to measure various electrical properties, including voltage,
current, and resistance. The device displays the measurements on
a digital screen, making it easy to read and understand the results
accurately. Digital multi-meters have replaced traditional analog
meters and offer higher accuracy, reliability, and better handling
of impedance.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

A voltage regulator maintains a constant output voltage regardless of changes in input

voltage or load conditions. There are different types of voltage regulators, including
linear and switching regulators. Here, we'll focus on the working principle of a simple
linear voltage regulator using two transistors and four resistors, commonly known as
a series voltage regulator.
Components:
1. Transistors: Q1 (Pass transistor) and Q2 (Control transistor)
2. Resistors: R1, R2, R3, and R4
Circuit Configuration:
1. Q1 (Pass Transistor): This transistor is in series with the load and acts as a variable
resistor, controlling the amount of current flowing to the load.
2. Q2 (Control Transistor): This transistor controls the base current of Q1, thus
regulating its operation.
3. R1 and R2: These resistors form a voltage divider network to set a reference
voltage.
4. R3: This resistor is connected between the output and the base of Q1. It helps
stabilize the base current of Q1.
5. R4: This resistor is connected between the base of Q1 and the emitter of Q2. It
provides biasing to Q2.

Working Principle:

1. Voltage Division:
- The resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider that sets a reference voltage (Vref).
- This reference voltage is fed to the base of the control transistor Q2.

2. Control Transistor Operation:

- Q2 is configured as an emitter-follower. Its emitter voltage (E2) will be
approximately equal to the reference voltage minus the base-emitter voltage drop
(VBE2).
- The emitter of Q2 is connected to the base of Q1 through resistor R4, providing
the base drive to Q1.
3. Pass Transistor Operation:
 - The pass transistor Q1 is in series with the load.
- The base-emitter voltage of Q1 (VBE1) determines its conduction.
- The emitter of Q1 is connected to the output voltage (Vout), and its base is driven
by the voltage from the emitter of Q2 (VE2) minus the voltage drop across R4.

4. Feedback and Regulation:

- If the output voltage (Vout) tends to increase, the voltage drop across R3
increases, reducing the base drive to Q1, which in turn decreases the output current
and voltage.
- Conversely, if ( Vout) tends to decrease, the base drive to Q1 increases, allowing
more current to flow through Q1, thus increasing ( Vout).
- This feedback mechanism ensures that the output voltage remains stable.
- The emitter of Q1 is connected to the output voltage (Vout), and its base is driven
by the voltage from the emitter of Q2 (VE2) minus the voltage drop across R4.

Circuit Diagram
Fig: Emitter following series voltage regulator with error amplifier

CALCULATION
V0 = 5v Iz = 20mA
Vz = 0.75*v0 = 0.75*5 V = 3.75V
IR2 = 20mA (For minimum current)
IE1(max) = IL+ID2
= 20+20 = 40mA
Specified for Q1:
Vin = 12V
hFE1(min) = 100 (CL 100)
IB1 = IE1(max)/ hFE1 = 40/100
= 1mA
IC2 = 2 mA
VB1= VBE1 + V0 = 0.6 + 6 = 6.6
R1 = (Vin-VB1)/(Ic2+IB1)
= (12-6.6)/6
= 680 Ω
(Voltage at the base of Q1 is VB1 = Vo+ VBE1 = 0.7)
R2 = (Vo-Vz)/IRZ = 100 Ω
Assuming,
I4 = 1mA
R4 = (Vz+VBE2)/I4 = 5.6 k Ω
VR4 = R4I =( 5.1*103)*10-3 = 5.1V
R3 = (Vo-VR4)/I4 = 330 Ω

Observation Table
 Vin Vout
12.0 0.2
12.5 0.7
13.0 1.17
13.5 1.6
14.0 2.1
14.5 2.64
15.0 3.1
15.5 3.6
16.0 4.0
16.5 4.5
17.0 5.1
17.5 5.6
18.0 5.9
18.5 6.2
19.0 6.6
19.5 7.1
20.0 7.6

Output:

Vo for ± 10 % change∈Vin
% of Line Regulation =
Vo
7.6−3.6
= 100 x
5.6
= 71.4%

¿
% of Load Regulation = x 100

5.6−7.6
= x 100 = 26.3%
7.6

DEMONSTRATION OF THE MODEL

 APPLICATIONS

1. Power Supply Units (PSUs)

Series voltage regulators are essential components in power supply units for electronic
devices. They ensure that the output voltage remains constant even when there are
fluctuations in the input voltage or changes in the load.

2. Battery Chargers

In battery charging circuits, series voltage regulators help to maintain a constant voltage
level, which is crucial for safe and efficient charging of batteries.

3. Consumer Electronics

Devices such as televisions, radios, and home appliances use series voltage regulators to
ensure stable operation and prevent damage from voltage fluctuations.

4. Computers and Laptops

Series voltage regulators are used in computers and laptops to provide stable power to critical
components like the CPU, memory, and other integrated circuits.

5. Communication Equipment

Telecommunications equipment, such as routers, modems, and base stations, use series
voltage regulators to maintain stable voltage levels, ensuring reliable performance and data
integrity.

ADVANTAGE

1. Stable Output Voltage

Series voltage regulators provide a constant output voltage despite variations in the input
voltage or load current. This stability is crucial for sensitive electronic devices that require
precise voltage levels for proper operation.

2. Simplicity and Ease of Design

The circuit design of a series voltage regulator is relatively simple and straightforward. It
typically involves a few components, such as transistors and resistors, making it easy to
design and implement.

3. Low Noise

Series voltage regulators produce minimal noise and ripple on the output voltage. This low
noise characteristic is essential for applications like audio equipment, medical devices, and
instrumentation, where signal integrity is critical.

Disadvantages

1. Inefficiency

Series voltage regulators are less efficient compared to switching regulators, especially when
there is a large difference between the input and output voltages. The excess energy is
dissipated as heat, resulting in power loss.

2. Heat Dissipation

Due to the inefficiency, series regulators can generate significant heat, especially at high
current loads or large input-output voltage differentials. This necessitates the use of heat sinks
or other cooling mechanisms, adding to the overall size and cost of the system.

3. Limited Output Current

The maximum output current of a series voltage regulator is limited by the pass transistor and
the thermal dissipation capabilities. This can restrict their use in high-current applications.

CONCLUSION

Series voltage regulators are fundamental components in many electronic devices and
systems, valued for their ability to provide stable and constant output voltage. They offer
several advantages, such as simplicity, low noise, good load regulation, and ease of
integration, making them a popular choice for various applications including consumer
electronics, medical devices, audio equipment, and more.

However, series voltage regulators also have notable disadvantages, particularly in terms of
efficiency and heat dissipation. They can be less efficient than switching regulators,
especially when there is a significant difference between the input and output voltages,
leading to power loss and heat generation. This inefficiency limits their use in high-power
applications and in scenarios where thermal management is a concern. Additionally, their
limited current handling and requirement for a minimum dropout voltage further restrict their
applicability in certain designs.

REFERENCES

Web References

https://www.elprocus.com/transistor-series-voltage-regulator/
 https://www.homemade-circuits.com/simple-voltage-regulator-circuits-using-
transistor-and-zener-diode/

Books References

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

BY: DAVID A. BELL