1.

0 Maxwell’s Equations

In the next few lectures we will be dwelling on the contributions of Maxwell to the development
of the electromagnetic theory. It is instructive to note that Maxwell's contribution lay firstly in
recognizing that the laws of electrodynamics, as they were thought to exist at his time, were
mutually inconsistent and required modification to render them Self-consistent, secondly in
discovering the appropriate modification, and thirdly in making experimentally verifiable
predictions of the Consequences of the corrections he had introduced.

Faraday’s Law

According to Faraday’s law, a time varying magnetic flux creates an electric field ⃗
E.

In integral form we write

∂Φ
∫ E⃗⋅d ⃗l =− ∂ t
(1.1)

where Φ the magnetic flux is given by

Φ=∫ B⋅d A (1.2)

Using (1.2) in (1.1) we obtain

∮ ⃗E⋅d ⃗l =− ∂t∂ ∫ B⋅d A

(1.3)

Now there is an important theorem called Stoke’s theorem which relates the line integral around
a closed path of any vector to the Surface integral thus

∮ F⃗⋅d ⃗l =∫( ∇× ⃗F ) d ⃗A (1.4)

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applying (1.4) in (1.3) we obtain

∫ (∇× ⃗E ) d ⃗A =− ∂t∂ ∫ B⋅d A

∂B
∴ ∇× E⃗ =−
∂t (1.5)

Now Gauss's law for electrostatics states that the electric flux through closed surface is
proportional to the charge enclosed (Fig 1.2a). The electric field lines originate from the positive
charge (source) and terminates at the negative charge (Sink)

Fig l.2a

In this regard one would be tempted to write down the magnetic equivalent as

Qm
Φ m=∫ B⋅d A=
S μ0

where
Qm is the magnetic charge (monopoles) enclosed by the closed surface.

However despite intense search effort, no isolated magnetic monopole has ever been observed.

Hence
Qm=0 and Gauss law for magnetism becomes

Φ m=∫ B⋅d A=0

S (1.6)

This implies that the number of magnetic field lines entering a closed surface is equal to the
number of fields lines leaving the surface i.e, there is no source or sink. In addition, the lines

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must be continuous with no starting point or end point as shown for a circular current loop (Fig
1.2b)

Now according to Gauss’s (Divergence) theorem

∫ F⃗⋅d A=∫ ( ∇⋅F⃗ ) d V⃗

S V (1.7)

Applying (1.7) into (1.6) we obtain the differential form of the integral relationship (1.6) as

∇⋅⃗B =0 (1.8)

We have earlier Stated Gauss’s law for electrostatics. Hence for a closed surface we write

Q
∫ E⃗⋅d A= ∈ t
S 0 (1.9)

Where
Qt =∫ ρ t d V⃗

Rewriting (1.9) we obtain

∫ ρt d V⃗
∫ E⃗⋅d A= ∈0
S (1.10)

Applying (1.7) into (1.10)

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 ∫ ρt d V⃗
∫ (∇⋅⃗E )⋅d V⃗ = ∈0

and we have

ρt
⃗=
∇⋅E
∈0 (1.11)

Now Ampere has shown that an electric current creates a magnetic field. In integral form we
have

∮ ⃗B⋅d ⃗l =μ 0 I (1.12)

where I the the current through A.

In differential form we have

∮ ⃗B⋅d ⃗l =∫ (∇× ⃗B ) d ⃗A =μ 0∫ ⃗j t⋅dA

∇× B⃗ =μ0 ⃗j t (1.13)

⃗
where j t is the current density. In a region devoid of current, ⃗
B is rotational.

Now Maxwell clearly bothered by the lack of symmetry of Eqns (1.5) and (1.13) made a

fundamentally deep remark in assuming that because time varying ⃗

B -field creates ⃗
E -field,
⃗ -field must create a B
similarly a pulsating E ⃗ -field.

This assumption made him to rewrite Ampere’s law as

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 ⃗ =μ ⃗j +∈ μ ∂E
∇× B 0 0 0
∂t (1.14)

Applying the Curl operator on (1.14) we have

∇×∇× ⃗B=μ 0 ( ∇× ⃗j )+∈0 μ0 ∂ ( ∇×E )

∂t

∇( ∇⋅⃗B )−∇ 2 ⃗B=μ 0 ( ∇×⃗j )+∈0 μ0 ∂ (∇×E )

∂t

Now using (1.5) and (1.8) we obtain in vacuum

∂2 ⃗
B
∇2 ⃗
B=∈0 μ 0
∂t 2
(1.15)

Eq (1.15) shows that B –field satisfies the wave equation and that electromagnetic waves are

seen to propagate with the velocity of

1
c=
√ ∈ 0 μ0

This is the velocity of light in vacuum. In this regards, light waves are therefore electromagnetic

waves. This fundamental result would not be obtained if the displacement current

⃗j =∈ ∂ E
dis 0
∂t

was not introduced to the Ampere’s law.

1.1 Maxwell’s Equation and Electromagnetic Waves

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We now have four equations which form the foundation of electromagnetic phenomena. In
differential form we have

∂B
∇× ⃗E=−
i. Faraday’s law of E: ∂t

ii. Gauss’s law of B: ∇⋅⃗B =0 (1.16)

ρt
⃗=
∇⋅E
iii. Gauss’s law of E: ∈0

⃗ =μ ⃗j + μ ∈ ∂E
∇× B 0 0 0
iv. Ampere-Maxwell’s law: ∂t

The physical interpretations of these equations are for:

i. Faraday’s law: Changing magnetic flux produces an electric field

ii. Gauss’s law of B: The total magnetic flux through a closed surface is

zero

iii. Gauss’s law of E: Electric flux through a closed surface is

proportional to the enclosed charge.
iv. Ampere-Maxwell’s law: Electric current and changing electric flux

produces a magnetic field.

It is noteworthy to observe that those physical interpretations appear much more obvious when
these equations are written out in integral form

∂Φ m
∮ ⃗E⋅dl=− ∂t
i.

∫ ⃗B⋅d ⃗A =0
ii. S
(1.17)
Q
∫ E⃗⋅d ⃗A = ∈
iii. S 0

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 ∂Φ E
∫ ⃗B⋅d ⃗l =μ 0 ⃗j + μ 0 ∈0 ∂t
iv.

⃗
Where ρ and j are the free charge and conduction current densities, respectively. In the
⃗
absence of sources where ρ=0 , j=0 , the above equations become

∂Φ
∮ ⃗E⋅dl=− ∂ t
i.

∫ ⃗B⋅d ⃗A =0
ii. S
(1.18)

∫ E⃗⋅d ⃗A =0
iii. S

∂ ΦE
∫ ⃗B⋅d ⃗l =μ 0 ∈0 ∂t
iv.

consequence of
Now as we observed in Eq (1.15), and would also see below, an important
Maxwell’s equations is the prediction of the existence of electromagnetic waves that travel with
1
c= .
the speed of light √ ∈ 0 μ0

The reason is due to the fact that changing electric field produces magnetic field and vice versa,

and the coupling between the two field leads to generation of electromagnetic waves. The

prediction was confirmed by H. Hertz in 1887.

2.0 Electromagnetic Potential

Using Maxwell’s equation, we have observed from Eq (1.15) and Eq (l.31), namely

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 ⃗2 ∂2 ⃗B
∇ B − μ0 ∈ 0 =0 (1 . 15)
∂ t2

( ){
E y( x , t )
}
2 2
∂ −μ ∈ ∂ =0 ( 1. 31)
2 0 0 2
∂t ∂t Bz ( x , t )

that the E and B fields satisfy the wave equation. Now a consideration of Eqs (1.15) and (1.31)

would indicate that they do not involve sources and as such would lend themselves to easier

solutions than wave equations that involve sources - charges and currents.

Now in problems which involve sources the analysis of the electromagnetic field is made easier

by the use of auxiliary functions called potentials.

Presently, in this section, we will outline the steps that are taken to obtain the potentials in terms

of any given charge and current distribution.

Now the Maxwell’s equation (1.8)

∇⋅⃗B =0

can be satisfied if we set

⃗ ⃗
B= ∇ × A ( 2. 1)

Inserting this relation in Eq (l.5)

∂B
∇× ⃗E=−
∂t

yields

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 (
∇× ⃗E +
⃗
∂A
∂t
=0 ) (2.2)

The LHS of Eq (2.2) indicates that the vector between the brackets in the expression is

irrotational; therefore can be derived from a scalar potential:

⃗
⃗E + ∂ A =−∇ φ ,
∂t

we therefore write

⃗
⃗E =− ∂ A −∇ φ ,
∂t
(2.3)

Eqs (2.1) and (2.3) respectively represent the B and E fields. We will now proceed to use the

remaining of the Maxwell’s equation to derive differential equation for Ø and A which we called

the scalar and vector potential respectively.

In order to simplify our task, we shall limit ourselves to changing charge and current distribution

in free space.

Inserting Eq (2.3) into Eq (1.11) i.e.

⃗= ρ
∇⋅E
∈0

yields

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 ρ
−∇⋅( ∇ φ )− ∂ ( ∇⋅⃗A )=
∂t ∈0

ρ
−∇ 2 φ− ∂ (∇⋅⃗A )= .
∂t ∈0
(2.4)

Substituting (2.1) and (2.3) in Eq (1.14)

⃗ =μ ⃗j + μ ∈ ∂E
∇× B 0 0 0
∂t

we obtain

∂E
∇×∇ × ⃗A =μ0 ⃗j +μ0 ∈0
∂t

∂ ⃗A
∇×∇ × ⃗A =μ0 ⃗j +μ0 ∈0 ∂ (− −∇ φ)
∂t ∂t

∂2 ⃗
A
A =μ0 ⃗j−μ 0 ∈0 2 −μ 0 ∈0 ∂ ( ∇ φ )
∇×∇ × ⃗
∂t ∂t

∂2 ⃗A
∇ ( ∇⋅⃗A )−∇ 2 ⃗A =μ 0 ⃗j−μ0 ∈0 −μ0 ∈0 ∂ (∇ φ)
∂t 2 ∂t

( ∇ 2 ⃗A −μ0 ∈0
∂t ) (
∂2 ⃗A
2
−∇ ∇⋅⃗A + μ0 ∈0
∂φ
∂t )
=−μ 0 ⃗j

(2.5)

As can be seen from (2.4) and (2.5), the potentials are not uniquely specified by Eqs (2.1) and

(2.3). However, Eqs (2.4) and (2.5) may be uncoupled by noticing that the potentials are not

unique.

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To do this, we can impose any condition on the functions A and Ø that does not contradict

Maxwell’s equations. For example if we add to the vector A any function whose Curl is zero, the

magnetic field will remain unaltered:

In dealing with the time-dependent magnetic field, the condition

∂φ
∇⋅⃗A =−μ0 ∈0
∂t
(2.6)

is imposed.

The condition on the potentials imposed by Eq (2.6) is known as Lorentz Condition. It is

noteworthy that Lorentz condition involves no contradiction or difficulties and introduces

symmetry into the equations for the scalar and vector potentials that is useful and elegant.

Now if we substitute Eq (2.6) into Eq (2.4) we have

(
−∇ 2 φ− ∂ −μ0 ∈0
∂t
∂φ
∂t
=
ρ
∈0 )
2 ∂2 φ ρ
−∇ φ+μ0 ∈0 2 = ,
∂t ∈0

∂2 φ ρ
∇ 2 φ−μ0 ∈0 =− .
∂t 2 ∈0
(2.7)

Eq (2.7) involves Ø alone. It must be noted that in those regions of space where the charge

density is zero, the potential Ø obeys the same wave equation as E and B.

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The equation for the vector potential is obtained by substituting Eq (2.6) into Eq (2.5)

∂2 ⃗
A
∇2 ⃗
A −μ0 ∈0 =−μ0 ⃗j
∂ t2
(2.8)

The use of Eq (2.6) means that we have worked in the Lorentz gauge. However instead of

Lorentz gauge, we could for steady magnetic field use the Coulomb’s gauge

∇⋅⃗A =0

to uncouple Eqs (2.4) and (2.5). In this special case, Eq (2.4) reduces to the Poisson’s equation:

ρ
∇ 2 φ=− .
∈0

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