Journal of Ecological Engineering

Journal of Ecological Engineering 2023, 24(4), 85–98 Received: 2022.12.29

https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/159347 Accepted: 2023.02.07
ISSN 2299–8993, License CC-BY 4.0 Published: 2023.02.20

Analysis of the Use of Biochar from Organic Waste Pyrolysis

in Agriculture and Environmental Protection

Tomasz Niedziński1*, Jan Łabętowicz1, Wojciech Stępień1, Tadeusz Pęczek2

1
Independent Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agriculture, Warsaw University of Life
Sciences, ul. Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
2
Pro Civis Foundation of Education and Social Dialogue, ul. Szkolna 36A, 25-604 Kielce, Poland
* Correspondence author’s e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Nowadays, research on the use of pyrolysis products in the broadly understood economy is widely conducted in
the world. This publication presents the results of research on the use of biochar primarily as a material for use in
agriculture and environmental protection. In particular, its use to improve soil properties and as a component of
organic fertilisers or composts, as well as an ingredient for animal bedding in livestock buildings or an additive
for silage is discussed. In addition, the possibilities of using biochar in the energy sector as a solid fuel and in the
broader field of environmental protection for remediation of contaminated land, for carbon sequestration and as a
raw material for the production of activated carbons are discussed.

Keywords: biochar, pyrolysis, carbon, soil, resource recovery.

INTRODUCTION et al., 2016]. One solution to mitigate the occur-

rence of adverse environmental changes is to in-
The pyrolysis of organic waste is increasingly crease the intensity of soil carbon sequestration
becoming one of the important elements of the with biochar. The introduction of biochar into the
modern closed loop economy. By appropriately soil increases soil fertility, crop yields [Lehm-
controlling the pyrolysis process, different quan- ann and Joseph, 2012], and the productivity and
titative proportions of the final products can be profitability of agricultural production [Atkinson
obtained. Among the pyrolysis products, biochar et al., 2010]. Biochar is defined as a high-carbon
has particular potential for use in agriculture and product obtained from various organic materi-
environmental protection due to its special physi- als including manure, straw, wood, leaves by
cal and chemical properties, which predestine it pyrolysis, with high stability and longevity in
for use in agriculture and environmental protec- the soil [Shackley et al., 2012]. The solid frac-
tion in the broadest sense. Organic carbon is the tion obtained by pyrolysis is called biochar. The
basic element responsible for maintaining soil other two fractions are the gas fraction, which is
fertility. Depletion of soil organic matter in ag- a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, and the liq-
ricultural areas has been observed for several de- uid fraction, referred to as oil, which is a mixture
cades. The addition of biochar to soil is one of of liquid hydrocarbons. There are six main types
the new solutions to improve soil fertility. Cur- of pyrolysis technology: fast pyrolysis, flash py-
rently, there is an increase in the concentration of rolysis, slow pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis, hydro
carbon dioxide in the atmospheric air worldwide, pyrolysis and microwave pyrolysis [Li et al.,
causing an increase in air temperature, together 2022]. The pyrolysis process takes place under
with other greenhouse gases. The effect of these strict conditions and limited or no oxygen [Sohi,
changes is to negatively alter soil fertility, its 2012]. This process makes it possible to man-
chemical, physical and biological properties [Pak age various types of plant material residues and

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Journal of Ecological Engineering 2023, 24(4), 85–98

biomass in an environmentally friendly manner. (less than 10 °C∙s-1) and long exposure time –
Unlike composting or open burning, where air- several hours. The main product of the process
polluting compounds, i.e. H2S, SO2, and NH3, are is biochar. Typically, the temperature rise time is
emitted [Alhazmi and Loy, 2021; Chungcharoen between 0.1 and 1 °C∙s-1 and the residence time
and Srisang, 2020], pyrolysis is a new technol- is long 300–7200 seconds, with pyrolysis tem-
ogy for biomass reuse in line with global net zero peratures in the range of 300–700 °C [Li and
emission targets. Biochar, as a carbon-rich mate- You, 2022]. The low rate of temperature eleva-
rial, is used in a wide variety of applications due tion limits the formation of secondary products
to important characteristics such as specific sur- and thermal cracking of biomass components,
face area, pore volume, calorific value, functional favouring the formation of biochar as the main
groups on the surface, cation exchange capacity product with a high proportion of amorphous car-
and structural properties [Wang and Wang, 2019]. bon [Chen et al., 2003; S and P, 2019]. Pyroly-
Due to its specific properties, it can be an absor- sis of maize cobs, rice straw and hulls and wheat
bent for the removal of water and air pollutants. straw at a low temperature of 300–450 °C and a
There is also potential for the catalytic use of bio- residence time of 3600 s and a temperature in-
char in various industrial processes including bio- crease of 0.33 °C∙s-1 provides a biochar yield of a
diesel production, gas production and as microbial maximum of 43% a higher temperature to 450 °C
fuel cell electrodes [Lee et al., 2017]. The perfor- reduces the biochar formation efficiency to 35%
mance of biochar in these applications and the [Biswas et al., 2017]. Slow pyrolysis yields the
associated environmental impact depends on the highest proportion of the solid fraction of about
physicochemical properties of the biochar, which 35%. This process is also carried out at 500 °C,
are closely related to the pyrolysis process condi- but the residence time of the substrate at this tem-
tions and feedstock composition [Li et al., 2019; perature is significantly longer, ranging from 5
Sun et al., 2017]. This paper discusses a number of to 30 minutes. With regard to gasification, where
properties of different biochar produced from dif- the temperature is maintained above 800 °C and
ferent biomass sources, characterises their prop- the residence time at the final temperature of the
erties and presents the possibilities of their man- substrate is 10–20 seconds, only 10% of the solid
agement both in the context of their suitability for fraction is produced. Under these conditions, the
agricultural and environmental purposes. predominant product is the gas fraction, which
accounts for 85% [Malińska et al., 2014]. The fast
Conditions for the formation pyrolysis process takes place under conditions of
of biochar by pyrolysis rapid temperature rise (> 103 °C∙s-1) and short re-
action time (< 2 s) with rapid cooling of volatiles
Biochar is produced by the transformation leading to the formation of biooil and biochar as
and decomposition of organic matter subjected an intermediate [Zhao et al., 2020]. In addition,
to temperatures in the range 200-900 °C [Sohi, catalysts and microwave assistance are often used
2012]. The proportions of the various products of in the thermal conversion of biomass to improve
biomass pyrolysis depend on the pyrolysis pro- product distribution and quality [Lu et al., 2021;
cess parameters such as; temperature ramp rate, Zulkornain et al., 2022]. Most often, high-speed
decomposition time i.e. residence time at final pyrolysis takes place under conditions where the
temperature, process temperature and pressure temperature builds up by 10–200 °C∙s-1, favour-
(Table 1). ing oil formation and reducing carbon formation
Slow pyrolysis (biocarbonisation) takes [Liu et al., 2020]. Under conditions where the
place under conditions of slow temperature rise pyrolysis temperature is 500–1200 °C∙s-1 and the

Table 1. Proportion of pyrolysis products carried out under different process conditions [Lewandowski et al., 2011]
Pyrolysis process share of fractions obtained in different pyrolysis processes in %
Pirolitic process
Liquid fraction Gas fraction Liquid fraction
Fast pyrolysis 75 Fast pyrolysis 75
Moderate pyrolysis 50 Moderate pyrolysis 50
Biocarbonisation 30 Biocarbonisation 30
Gasification 5 Gasification 5

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time of temperature ramp-up phases is controlled the biochar is formed [Gaskin et al., 2008]. Dur-
to be 0.5–10 s, thermal cracking of the biomass ing formation, the amount of nitrogen in biochar
occurs, limiting carbon formation [Ghysels et al., decreases regardless of temperature, but the total
2019; Tripathi et al., 2016]. Typically, under these nitrogen content decreases with increasing tem-
conditions, about 12% biochar is formed relative perature [Bera et al., 2014]. As temperature in-
to the weight of the products obtained while the creases, an increase in the macro and micronu-
liquid fraction products predominate. trient content of various biochar materials is ob-
served [Mimmo et al., 2014]. Examples of macro
The properties of the solid fraction that and micronutrient contents are shown in Table 2.
determine its practical applications The amount of nutrients is influenced by the bio-
char fraction. The finest fractions < 1–2 mm con-
The solid fraction extracted by pyrolysis tain significantly more nutrients than the coarser
called biochar has a number of properties that fractions [Angst and Sohi, 2013; Prasad et al.,
determine its high potential for practical applica- 2020]. Biochar differs from other types of organic
tions. These include biochar characteristics such matter in that it contains significantly more aro-
as chemical composition, stability, specific sur- matic carbon compounds, which, due to the large
face area, and porosity [Malińska et al., 2014]. number of functional groups, determine its sorp-
The chemical composition of biochar var- tion properties towards ions [Krull et al., 2012].
ies considerably, which depends critically on the This characteristic makes biochar similar to soil
type of substrate from which it is made and also humus and thus can be used as a means of im-
on the conditions under which the pyrolysis pro- proving the properties of light soils. In addition,
cess is carried out [Gaskin et al., 2008]. Biochar biochars, unlike soil humus, show little suscepti-
is characterised by an alkaline reaction reaching bility to microbial decomposition [Cheng et al.,
a pH even above 10.0 on the pH scale [Naeem 2008], and therefore exhibit considerable stability
et al., 2014]. The main component of biochar is once introduced into the soil.
stable organic carbon and, in smaller quantities, The physical properties of biochar, shaped
so-called leachable carbon [Naeem et al., 2014; by the pyrolysis process, largely determine its
Thabelo, 2018; Trompowsky et al., 2005]. In ad- multidirectional use, especially in agriculture
dition, an important component of biochar is ash, and environmental protection. Biochar is char-
which contains minerals, macro- and micronu- acterised by an exceptionally developed internal
trients important for fertiliser potential. During porous structure and an associated large spe-
the formation of biochar, the carbon content in- cific surface area, which, depending on the tem-
creases relative to the raw material from which perature of the pyrolysis process, is in the range

Table 2. Chemical composition of different types of biochar expressed as content of total elemental forms
Parameter
Biochar C N P K Ca Mg Zn Fe Mn Temp. Source
pH
g∙kg-1 g∙kg-1 g∙kg-1 g∙kg-1 g∙kg-1 g∙kg-1 ppm ppm ppm °C
Pine wood 9.2 549 0.7 4.89* 1.32 - - - - - >500 [Thabelo, 2018]
Wheat straw 7.7 517 13.8 2.6 30 6.3 4.5 47 158 106 300 [Naeem et al., 2014]
Wheat straw 8.8 620 9.4 3.0 32 8.3 5.6 59 259 117 400 [Naeem et al., 2014]
Wheat straw 9.4 662 8.5 3.4 36 8.7 6.9 70 422 163 500 [Naeem et al., 2014]
Rice straw 8.0 452 11.5 1.1 36 9.1 8.1 67 195 396 300 [Naeem et al., 2014]
Rice straw 9.7 555 9.8 1.3 41 9.8 9.6 89 341 554 400 [Naeem et al., 2014]
Rice straw 10.4 630 8.5 1.4 48 13.3 11.3 98 521 649 500 [Naeem et al., 2014]
Chicken
10.1 392 34.7 30.1 51.1 42.7 10.7 628 6060 596 400 [Gaskin et al., 2008]
manure
Chicken
9.7 392 30.9 35.9 58.6 50.4 12.9 752 8030 725 500 [Gaskin et al., 2008]
manure
Ground nut
10.5 732 24.3 1.83 15.2 4.62 2.19 35 1000 116 400 [Gaskin et al., 2008]
shells
Ground nut
10.1 804 24.8 1.97 16.4 5.12 2.50 37 1150 131 500 [Gaskin et al., 2008]
shells

Note: * – amount of phosphorus in bioavailable form, expressed in mg P∙kg-1.

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of 80 - 200, sometimes above 400 m2∙g-1 [Chun from maize straw at a formation temperature of
et al., 2004]. Among all pores, different pore 700 °C has a very high specific surface area of
sizes are distinguished, respectively macropores up to 251 m2∙g-1 [Zhao et al., 2018]. The chemi-
> 50nm, mesopores 2-50 nm, micropores <2 cal and physical properties of biochar, such as, in
nm, nanopores <0.9 nm [Ahmedna et al., 2004; particular, the high content of organic carbon in
Downie et al., 2012]. A change in the structure stable form and minerals, and the strongly devel-
of organic matter occurs during pyrolysis, ac- oped internal porosity and specific surface area,
companied by the formation of pores, increasing mean that it can find wide application in various
the proportion of micropores with increasing py- areas of agriculture and environmental protection
rolysis temperature [Katyal et al., 2003]. At tem-
peratures above 800 °C, the specific surface area
Possibilities for economic use of the solid
of the material decreases due to partial melting
of the carbonaceous material [Lua et al., 2004]. fraction obtained in the pyrolysis process
These features also determine the extremely high The biochar obtained from pyrolysis can be
sorption properties of biochar towards cations, directly used in many areas of the economy. A
which, depending on the pyrolysis temperature, wide range of possibilities in this regard is out-
reach values in the range of 100 – 300 mmol∙kg-1, lined below. It should also be emphasised that
the higher the pyrolysis temperature the lower the biochar obtained from pyrolysis is also a raw
exchange sorption capacity [Méndez et al., 2013;
material for further processing into so-called ac-
Song and Guo, 2012]. An increase in the pyroly-
tivated carbon, which is increasingly used in the
sis temperature from 250 to 600 °C results in a de-
broader field of environmental protection.
crease in the sorption capacity of biochar towards
Use of biochar in bioenergy as a solid fuel.
heavy metals by more than 3 times [Ding et al.,
The energetic use of biochar is the oldest and
2014]. The above-mentioned physical character-
best-known direction of its economic use. By
istics of biochar determine their ability to retain
water and their sorption properties that determine definition, it is a carbon-rich "a carbon (C)-rich
their ability to retain plant nutrient elements. The product’" [Lehmann and Joseph, 2012]. It can be
water retention of biochar is due to the propor- burned or co-fired in power plants providing an
tion of micro pores < 10 µm in diameter and the alternative to fossil fuels. The pyrolysis process
material from which it is formed. Materials with provides an increase in the energy value of the re-
a higher lignin content have a negative correla- sulting product, due to the volatilisation of other
tion of water retention capacity [Wang and Xing, elements, i.e. S, O, H, N, and the concentration of
2007]. Biochar materials with a higher content of carbon in the final product. The pyrolysis process
aromatic groups relative to aliphatic groups have can increase the energy value of plant materials,
a higher water absorption capacity [Zhao et al., i.e. nut shells, by 30–40% [Suman and Gautam,
2018]. Biochar materials with a higher content 2017]. The calorific value (Table 3), as can be
of aromatic groups relative to aliphatic groups seen from the data in the table below, is similar
have a higher water absorption capacity [Sun et to that of hard coal and higher than that of lignite
al., 2014]. The specific surface area of biochar and higher than that of biomass.

Table 3. Parameters of selected fuels and biochar obtained from different types of substrates [Malińska et al., 2014]
Selected fuels Calorific value MJ∙kg-1 Coal % C Volatile matter % Ash %
Fossil fuels
Natural gas 48.0 75.0 100.0 0.0
Hard coal 25.0 60.0 25.0 12.0
Lignite 7.5–21.0 66.0–73.0 40.0–60.0 20.0–20.0
Biomass
Wood 10.5 35.0 55.0 1.0
Straw 15.0 43.0 73.0 3.0
Biochar
Rapeseed straw biochar 23.4 72.7 13.6 21.8
Cherry wood biochar 27.7 59.5 22.2 9.1

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Use in fertilisation to improve soil proper- increasing soil organic carbon content in contrast
ties. Biochar is a material that is produced under to the temperature of formation, achieving higher
natural conditions around the world as a result efficiencies for lower pyrolysis temperatures <
of forest fires, so its long-term positive effects 500 °C than for high pyrolysis temperatures >
on the soil environment and the recovering for- 500 °C. Soil porosity also increases under the in-
est vegetation after a fire are largely understood. fluence of biochar, with an increase in total poros-
A number of studies have shown that the addi- ity of up to 78% when average doses are applied
tion of biochar to poor and degraded soils as a under field conditions [Singh et al., 2022]. The
result of their excessive agricultural use contrib- application of biochar also affects soil microbial
utes significantly to improving their fertility and biodiversity. The type of biochar used, with the
productivity (Table 4) [Beesley et al., 2011; Ni- advantage of biochar made from green plant resi-
gussie, 2012]. In addition, a reduction in nitrous dues, has a strong effect on shaping biodiversity
oxide (N20) and methane (CH4) emissions has compared to other types, i.e. wood, lignin-cellu-
been observed under the influence of soil fertili- losic waste. In contrast, the increase in soil fungal
sation with biochar [F. Verheijen, 2010]. The ap- diversity was most effective after the application
plication of biochar affects a number of chemi- of biochar from lignin-cellulosic waste, to a lesser
cal physical and biological properties. Soil pH extent from green plant residues, and no change
is increased as a result of (I) the introduction of after the application of wood biochar [Singh et
alkaline material and (II) the potential reduction al., 2022]. The use of biochar for fertilisation also
in toxicity of active aluminium [Butnan et al., significantly increases the content of bioavail-
2015; Syuhada et al., 2016]. able forms of soil nutrients such as phosphorus,
The effectiveness of biochar substrates is as potassium, calcium and magnesium [Novak and
follows: manure > wood > lignin-cellulosic ma- Busscher, 2013]. The effect of biochar fertilisa-
terials > green plant parts. The effectiveness of tion on soil properties and nutrient abundance is
increasing soil pH is generally not correlated with illustrated by the results in the table below. The
the temperature of biochar formation [Singh et al., data also indicate a significant increase in soil or-
2022]. The incorporation of biochar into the soil ganic carbon content under biochar fertilisation.
increases the sorption capacity of the soil. The This carbon with organic carbon status increases
most effective changes occur on light soils where the organic carbon stock in the soil, a stock that is
this increase can be around 33–37%. The sorption much more permanent than natural humus.
capacity of soils is influenced by the temperature Disadvantages of biochar. Biochar as a fer-
of biochar formation, with biochar formed at high tilizer material, in addition to its undoubted ad-
temperatures being more effective. The type of vantages, also has disadvantages that must be
material used to make biochar is not significant in taken into account when using it in agriculture.
terms of changes in soil sorption capacity [Singh One of them is the varying chemical composition
et al., 2022]. The use of biochar affects the organ- [Cantrell et al., 2012; Gul et al., 2015; Singh et
ic matter content of the soil. The carbon content is al., 2010]. Depending on the biomass used and
influenced by the biochar application rate; at high the conditions of the pyrolysis process, biochar
application rates (> 80 t∙ha-1) the average increase can have low or high carbon content above 50%,
in organic carbon content is over 40%, at medi- varying C: N ratios, or variable mineral content.
um application rates (40–80 t∙ha-1) the increase is Biochar can also contain varying amounts of aro-
37%, at low application rates (< 40 t∙ha-1) the in- matic compounds [Jindo et al., 2014; Leng and
crease is 20%. The type of biochar used is not sig- Huang, 2018; Wang et al., 2015] and aliphatic
nificant from the point of view of the efficiency of [Liu et al., 2015] and easily degraded oxidized

Table 4. Effect of biochar application on selected properties of sandy soil [Novak and Busscher, 2013]
Pyrolysis CEC1 Corg. N0g. P K Ca Mg
Type of biochar pH
rate mol(+)∙kg-1 g∙kg-1 mg∙kg-1 (bioavailable forms)
Control - 5.2 1.8 2.81 0.22 29.0 14.0 100.0 14.0
Peanut shells 500 °C 7.4 2.1 19.5 0.71 33.0 145.0 179.0 37.0
Hardwoods fast 6.2 2.3 17.2 0.37 22.0 46.0 157.0 18.0
Note: 1 CEC – cation exchange capacity.

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Journal of Ecological Engineering 2023, 24(4), 85–98

carbon compounds [Buss and Mašek, 2016]. In of widespread use of biochar is due to the ambi-
addition, the fertilizer components contained in guity of the methodology of introducing biochar
biochar are slowly released into plant-available into the soil, especially in small-scale or no-till
forms, with higher temperatures and longer resi- farming. There is a lack of comprehensive studies
dence times, promoting the accumulation of total on the behavior of different forms of carbon com-
P and K [Peng et al., 2011; Xie et al., 2015] and pounds and their stability, studies related to the
the release of Ca, Mg and Si and the retention of risk of introducing heavy metals into the soil and
Fe, Mn i S [Qambrani et al., 2017]. Studies have even the possibility of reducing the effectiveness
also shown that some biochar can contain toxic of chemicals used in plant protection [Cheng et
compounds and contaminants t.j. dioxins (PCDD/ al., 2017]. Field studies are particularly important
Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in this regard, as most of the experiments on the
[Lyu et al., 2016; Zielińska and Oleszczuk, 2016], properties of biochar have been done at the labo-
whose formation is recorded during thermal con- ratory and short-term field level.
version of biomass. Toxic substances can be re- Biochar as an additive to natural fertilisers
leased into the soil/air/water environment when and organic manures. Natural fertilisers such as
using biochar, which can pose secondary pollu- the commonly used manure or slurry are char-
tion and ecological risks. In addition, in remedia- acterised by considerable odour, which becomes
tion applications, biochar can also be a carrier of particularly apparent when these fertilisers are
heavy metals [Xu et al., 2019]. These unfavorable applied to agricultural fields. This is particularly
characteristics of biochar create problems with its troublesome if these natural fertilisers are applied
standardization and result in the fact that its legal to fields close to human settlements. The addition
status as a material used in agricultural produc- of a few to several weight percent of biochar to
tion is so far not legally regulated in the European these fertilisers eliminates the odour of these fer-
Union [Commision, 2016]. The process of legal- tilisers to a great extent or reduces or even elimi-
izing biochar “as a product for plant nutrition” nates them completely. This is due to the sorption
has been in the draft phase of the harmoniza- properties of biochar towards all kinds of chemi-
tion of the Community Fertilizer Law for several cal compounds, including those in gaseous form.
years. So far, only some biochar organizations After being applied to fields, natural fertilisers
have developed their own quality standards for undergo rapid decomposition processes, resulting
biochar and the resulting certification of biochar. in the release of gaseous ammonia. Fertiliser ni-
These are in the US the International Biochar Ini- trogen losses from natural fertilisers can be con-
tiative (IBI) and in Europe the European Biochar siderable, which significantly reduces their fertil-
Foundation and the British Biochar Foundation iser value. The addition of biochar during storage
(These are respectively; IBI Biochar Standards, of these fertilisers significantly eliminates these
European Biochar Certificate and Biochar Qual- losses. A similar odour- and ammonia-reducing
ity Mandate). Participation in these quality sys- effect is obtained from the addition of biochar to
tems is voluntary. various organic materials processed into organic
The use of biochar can generate higher CO2 fertilisers. This includes materials such as sewage
greenhouse gas emissions under certain condi- sludge, waste ash substrate.
tions [Yang et al., 2017], N2O [Lee et al., 2022; Biochar as an additive to composts. The com-
Liu et al., 2014], CH4 [Ribas et al., 2019]. Fertil- posting of any organic material involves provid-
izer use of biochar itself is burdened with other ing optimal conditions in the compost heap for
drawbacks, the main ones being its low density the aerobic decomposition of organic compounds.
and hydrophobic properties. Dust, especially Therefore, the composting materials must also in-
PM10, is the most serious health risk associated clude structuring materials to prevent excessive
with biochar, as well as the most difficult as- compaction of the compost mass which would
pect of its use in the field [Li et al., 2018; Ravi hinder the access of air. During these processes,
et al., 2016]. Small carbon particles can irritate organic compounds decompose, carbon dioxide,
and cause lung damage if inhaled [Sahu et al., the main product of this aerobic process, escapes,
2014; Schenker et al., 2009]. Due to these char- the C: N ratio narrows and from the decomposed
acteristics, the use of biochar as an additive to organic matter the mineral forms of the fertil-
natural and organic fertilizers and composts is iser components available to plants are released
recommended in agricultural practice. The lack and the compost acquires the status of fertiliser

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material. During the composting process, which environment. As a result, poultry droppings have
sometimes lasts several months, odorous gaseous an alkaline reaction which causes the mineral ni-
products are also released. In addition, the am- trogen formed by the decomposition of organic
monium nitrogen produced by the mineralisation compounds in the form of ammonium ion to vola-
of the organic matter may undergo nitrification to tilise as ammonia under these conditions. These
form nitrates, which in turn promotes the leaching losses on poultry farms can be significant, given
of this form of nitrogen from the compost heap. that the nitrogen content of chicken faeces is three
The addition of a few percent of biochar elimi- to four times higher than that of cattle or pig fae-
nates all these above-mentioned negative effects ces. Biochar, due to its gas sorption properties,
of the transformations occurring during compost- can be an excellent preparation component that,
ing. Biochar binds the gaseous products formed in when added to bedding in a livestock building,
the process, including ammonia, reduces odour, or mixed with manure during storage in a pile, or
binds the ammonium form limiting nitrification added to slurry, will essentially bind the resulting
and thus protects mineral nitrogen from leach- gaseous products including ammonia and volatile
ing from the compost heap. In addition, biochar odorous substances [Steiner et al., 2010].
added to the compost acts as a structuring mate- Biochar as an additive to silage. Biochar can
rial and also provides fertilising components. All also be used as an additive for silage. As shown
the above-mentioned characteristics of biochar in a study conducted in Germany, the addition
allow it to be recommended as a very good com- of biochar to silage increased the healthiness of
ponent of composting materials [Dias et al., 2010; this feed in cattle feeding. When silage was fed
Malińska et al., 2014]. with biochar supplementation, there was a reduc-
Biochar as an ingredient in animal bedding. tion in the incidence of diarrhoea and the number
Livestock can be kept in livestock buildings on of fertility disorders in the herd decreased. Most
bedding or in what is known as a slurry system. generally, biochar supplementation resulted in a
Litter has absorbent properties and, when mixed beneficial ‘tonic’ effect in cattle nutrition [Ger-
with animal faeces and urine, improves hygienic lach H., 2014].
conditions in the building. In the alcove system, Biochar as a means of sequestering carbon in
which is the most commonly used, the mixture of the soil. The increase in atmospheric CO2 emis-
faeces and litter that constitutes the natural fer- sions that is currently taking place is leading in
tiliser – the manure – is removed each day to the the long term to a growing imbalance in carbon
slurry pit, from where the manure is taken to the emissions and absorption in nature. Ways are
fields twice a year in spring and autumn. In the therefore being sought to capture and store it in
housing and in the slurry house, microbiological a stable form outside the atmosphere. One way
transformations take place in the manure, result- is to store it in the soil in the form of biochar.
ing in various odorous volatile substances and When introduced into the soil, biochar allows for
ammonia as a product of protein decomposition. long-term carbon storage. The addition of 13.5
These are highly undesirable phenomena during t∙ha-1 of biochar to soil, representing 0.3 % of the
storage which, in addition to their negative im- top 30 cm of soil, is estimated to provide carbon
pact on animal health, contribute to significant storage for at least two centuries. It is estimated
nitrogen losses, thus reducing the fertilising value that if 10% of the world’s biomass resources were
of the manure. Nitrogen losses in the form of am- converted to biochar with a process efficiency of
monia emissions are particularly high from lit- 50% and obtaining 30% of the energy from vola-
ter on poultry farms. These losses occur both in tile matter, carbon sequestration of about 20% of
the housing and in the piles during storage and the current annual increase in atmospheric carbon
handling of chicken manure. This extreme sus- would be possible [Matovic, 2011].
ceptibility of poultry manure to nitrogen losses in Biochar as a remediation agent for contaminat-
the form of ammonia is due to the specificity of ed soils. Contamination of soils with various or-
poultry manure compared to pig or cattle manure ganic substances (e.g. aromatic hydrocarbons from
[Gerlach H., 2014]. These excreta, due to the fact oil pollution) or inorganic substances (heavy met-
that poultry do not excrete urine, contain easily als) is increasingly common in various regions of
decomposed simple organic compounds (such the world, posing threats to living organisms and
as urea, uric acid, hippuric acid), which easily humans. Therefore, solutions are being sought to
decompose into mineral forms and alkalise the cheaply and effectively remove harmful substances

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Journal of Ecological Engineering 2023, 24(4), 85–98

from contaminated ecosystems and revitalise Physical activation involves treating the solid py-
them. Such an effective solution could be the addi- rolysis product with oxidising gases at high tem-
tion of biochar to contaminated soils. Thanks to its perature. Chemical activation uses, in the treat-
properties, it can permanently sorb various chemi- ment of the raw material after pyrolysis, concen-
cal compounds and lead to their immobilisation in trated aqueous solutions of various compounds
the soil environment and essentially reduce their such as; acids (e.g. H3P04) alkalis (e.g. KOH) or
bioavailability [Beesley et al., 2011]. salts (e.g. ZnCl2, K2S). As a result of the activa-
Other applications of biochar. A number of tion process, a significant part of the mass of the
studies have demonstrated many interesting uses carbonised material is lost. Depending on the type
for biochar. Due to its sorption properties, bio- of raw material and the desired sorption proper-
char has been shown to absorb ethylene, a gas ties, the mass of the final product obtained is be-
excreted by fruit and vegetables - accelerating tween 10 and 40% of the initial mass. The porous
their ripening. This characteristic of biochar has structure of activated carbons is made up of pores
found its way into the food industry to produce of different sizes, which, according to the cur-
packaging with biochar added, thus extending the rent classification, are divided into three groups;
expiry date of products. Another use of biochar is micropores (< 2 nm), mesopores (2–50 nm) and
the production of biodegradable pots from it for macropores (>50 nm). The pores that determine
horticultural production applications, seed strips to the greatest extent the specific surface area and
and germinator strips for mechanised systems thus the sorption properties of activated carbons
in horticulture. Other applications of biochar in- are the micropores [Sing et al., 1985]. Activated
clude the possibility of its use in the production carbons are products with a wide range of appli-
of surgical and sweat garments and biodegradable cations in many industries (Table 5).
bags for organic waste [HP, 2012]. Biochar has The main exemplary application directions
also found use in electronics as a semiconduc- are as follows:
tor and component of lithium-sulphur batteries. (I) Gas cleaning: odour removal, flue gas
It can be used to produce porous carbon-sulphur cleaning of toxic substances, VOC capture and
nano-elements as a cathode in these batteries solvent recovery, separation of gas mixtures, re-
[Gu et al., 2015]. duction of exhaust emissions from fuel combus-
tion in transport. (II) Water and waste water treat-
Biochar obtained by pyrolysis as raw material ment: drinking water treatment, swimming pool
for the production of carbon adsorbents water treatment, industrial process water treat-
ment, groundwater treatment, industrial waste
Carbon adsorbents, known as activated car- water treatment, landfill leachate treatment. (III)
bons, are products obtained by pyrolysis of vari- Purification of substances: purification of sub-
ous organic materials and further activated by strates and products in the food industry, purifica-
physical or chemical methods. Thus, pyrolysis is tion of liquids in the chemical and pharmaceutical
the first step in the production of activated car- industries, cosmetic industry, gold recovery. (IV)
bons. In this process, under anaerobic conditions, Other applications: catalyst carriers, respiratory
the organic material is destroyed and a porous protection, energy storage.
structure is produced. However, this structure is Active coals by physical form can be divided
disordered and the free internal spaces can be into three groups: (i) dusty activated carbons -
filled with tar compounds from the decomposition PAC ( Powder Activated Carbon), (ii) granular
of the input material, which significantly reduces activated carbons – GAC( Granular Activated
the specific surface area of the produced biochar. Carbon), (iii) extruded activated carbons – EAC
Only the second step of subjecting biochar to (Extruded Activated Carbon) [S. Rangabhashi-
activation processes allows to expand its porous yam, 2019].
structure and increase its specific surface area Examples of the use of activated carbons are
many times over, which creates new possibilities given below [Dębowski Z., 2004; Henning KH,
for its practical applications as absorbents in dif- 1991; Izquierdo et al., 2003; S., 2019; Tsuji and
ferent areas of the economy [Hays et al., 1976; Shiraishi, 1997]:
Walker Philip L.Jr. and L. Figueiredo, 1986]. • DAC dusty activated carbons, have grain di-
Activation processes for biochar can be car- ameters of less than 0.2 mm after grinding.
ried out by physical and chemical methods. They are most commonly used for; (I) the

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 Journal of Ecological Engineering 2023, 24(4), 85–98

Table 5. Typical values for basic structural parameters of activated carbons [S. Rangabhashiyam, 2019]
Raw material Total pore volume (cm3∙g-1) Average pore radius (nm) Specific surface area (m2∙g-1)
Activated carbons used in gas purification
Coconut shells 0.5–0.6 1.0–1.1 1000–1100
Peat 0.6–0.7 1.1–1.2 1000–1250
Brown coal 0.9–1.0 2.9–3.2 600–675
Black coal 0.6–0.7 1.2–1.4 1000–1150
Activated carbons used in liquids treatment
Wood (chemical activation) 1.4–1.8 2.2–2.6 1200–1600
Peat 1.1–1.2 2.3–2.6 900–1050
Brown coal 0.9–1.0 2.9–3.2 600–675

treatment of drinking water (surface water 0.8 to 5.0 mm. They are most commonly used
during algal blooms or for the reduction of hu- for; (I) – purification of drinking water in mu-
mus compounds); (II) the reduction of COD nicipal water treatment plants (improvement
(chemical oxygen demand) and AOX (adsorb- of colour, taste, odour, removal of pesticides
able organically bound halogens) in waste- and humus compounds); (II) reduction of
water treatment; (III) enrichment of activated volatile organic compounds (VOCs); (III) pu-
sludge in wastewater treatment plants; (IV) rification of reaction gases from various types
decolourisation of chemical and food prod- of pollutants; (IV) respiratory protection; (V)
ucts; (VI) removal of dioxins, furans, mercury deodorisation of air e.g. waste handling halls,
and other pollutants from fuel combustion wastewater treatment plant rooms, biogas plant
gases; (VII) as a carrier of bacterial colonies rooms, air discharged from composting plants;
in biological wastewater treatment processes. (VI) recovery of organic solvents; (VII) pu-
• GAC granular activated carbons are adsor- rification of natural gas and biogas. Growing
bents with an irregular shape and a grain size public awareness of the need to protect the en-
of grains of 0.2 to 5.0 mm. They are most vironment has resulted in a steadily increasing
commonly used for: (I) purification of drink- global demand for activated carbons (Table 6).
ing water in municipal water treatment plants
(improvement of colour, taste, odour, removal Between 2007 and 2016, the global market
of pesticides and humus compounds); (II) cat- for activated carbons doubled to an estimated
alytic removal of residual chlorine and ozone 1,770,000 Mg. Market forecasts estimate that
in water treatment; (III) removal of various global demand will grow at an annual rate of 5.3%
organic compounds in wastewater treatment; (w/w). The main reasons for this growth will be
(IV) removal of hydrocarbons in water and increasing requirements in the form of new direc-
land remediation; (V) decolourisation of food tives and regulations for water treatment quality,
products (sugar, glucose); (VI) purification of wastewater treatment and reduction of toxic emis-
paraffin and pharmaceutical glycerine. sions (e.g. mercury) from energy processes. On
• EAC moulded activated carbons, are in the this basis, it can be predicted that the total glob-
form of cylinders with diameters ranging from al demand for activated carbons in 2025 could

Table 6. World demand and production capacity for activated carbons from 2007 to 2021 in thousand Mg [Roskill, 2017]
Annual demand Annual capacity
World region
2007 2016 2021 2007 2016 2021
Europe 100 225 Europe 100 225 Europe
USA 210 463 USA 210 463 USA
China 45 514 China 45 514 China
Japan 120 190 Japan 120 190 Japan
India 40 108 India 40 108 India
Others 135 270 others 135 270 others
World 650 1770 World 650 1770 World

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Journal of Ecological Engineering 2023, 24(4), 85–98

reach a value of approximately 2707,000 Mg. Acknowledgements

Global production of activated carbons is increas-
ing steadily, as shown in the table above. Analy- The publication was created as part of project
sis of the data (Table 6) in the above table shows RPSW.01.02.00-26-0030/18, the title "Biodistil-
that Europe and Japan are areas where demand lation – an innovative technology for processing
for activated carbons exceeds their production waste biomass of plant origin".
potential, indicating that their needs are met by
imports, mainly from China.
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