LECTURE NOTE

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
 INTRODUCTION
Definitions:
Disaster:
The term disaster owes its origin to the French word “Desastre” which is a combination of two words
‘des’ meaning bad and ‘aster’ meaning star. Thus the term refers to ‘Bad or Evil star’.


A disaster can be defined as “A serious disruption in the functioning of the community or a
society causing wide spread material, economic, social or environmental losses which exceed the
ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources”.

A disaster is a result from the combination of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient capacity or
measures to reduce the potential chances of risk.

A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on the vulnerable population and causes damage,
casualties and disruption. Any hazard – flood, earthquake or cyclone which is a triggering
event along with greater vulnerability (inadequate access to resources, sick and old people,
lack of awareness etc) would lead to disaster causing greater loss to life and property.

Hazards:
The word ‘hazard’ owes its origin to the word ‘hasard’ in old French and ‘az-zahr’ in Arabic meaning
‘chance’ or ‘luck’.


Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or event, that threat or have the potential for
causing injury to life or damage to property or the environment.”

Hazards can be grouped into two broad categories:
1. Natural Hazard
2. Manmade Hazard

Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural phenomena (hazards with
meteorological, geological or even biological origin).

 Examples of natural hazards are cyclones, tsunamis, earthquake and volcanic eruption which
are exclusively of natural origin.
 Landslides, floods, drought, fires are socio-natural hazards since their causes are both natural
and manmade.
 For example flooding may be caused because of heavy rains, landslide or blocking of drains
with human waste.

Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to human negligence.

 Manmade hazards are associated with industries or energy generation facilities and include
explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife etc.
Various Types of Disasters:

Difference between Disaster and Hazard:

Vulnerability:
Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community, structure, services or geographic
area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their
nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area.”

Vulnerabilities can be categorized into:

1. Physical vulnerability
2. Socio-economic vulnerability

Physical Vulnerability: It includes notions of who and what may be damaged or destroyed by natural
hazard such as earthquakes or floods. It is based on the physical condition of people and elements at
risk, such as buildings, infrastructure etc; and their proximity, location and nature of the hazard. It
also relates to the technical capability of building and structures to resist the forces acting upon them
during a hazard event.

Socio-economic Vulnerability: The degree to which a population is affected by a hazard will not
merely lie in the physical components of vulnerability but also on the socioeconomic conditions. The
socio-economic condition of the people also determines the intensity of the impact. For example,
people who are poor and living in the sea coast don’t have the money to construct strong concrete
houses. They are generally at risk and lose their shelters whenever there is strong wind or cyclone.
Because of their poverty they too are not able to rebuild their houses.

Capacity:
Capacity can be defined as “resources, means and strengths which exist in households and
communities and which enable them to cope with, withstand, prepare for, prevent, mitigate or quickly
recover from a disaster”.

Capacities could be:

1. Physical capacity
2. Socio-economic capacity

Physical Capacity: People whose houses have been destroyed by the cyclone or crops have been
destroyed by the flood can salvage things from their homes and from their farms. Some family
members have skills, which enable them to find employment if they migrate, either temporarily or
permanently.

Socio-economic Capacity: In most of the disasters, people suffer their greatest losses in the physical
and material realm. Rich people have the capacity to recover soon because of their wealth. In fact,
they are seldom hit by disasters because they live in safe areas and their houses are built with stronger
materials.
Risk:
Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a
specific time period. Risk is a function of the probability of particular hazardous event and the losses
each would cause.”

The level of risk depends upon:
 Nature of the hazard
 Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
 Economic value of those elements

A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards and is likely to be adversely
affected by its impact.

Disaster Risk Reduction:

Disaster Risk Reduction can take place in the following ways:

1. Preparedness:
This protective process embraces measures which enable governments, communities and
individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively.
Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans, the development of
warning systems, the maintenance of inventories and the training of personnel. It may also
embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be at risk
from a recurring disaster. Preparedness therefore encompasses those measures taken before a
disaster event which are aimed at minimising loss of life, disruption of critical services, and
damage when the disaster occurs.
2. Mitigation:
Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and the vulnerable
conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore mitigation activities
can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements exposed to the threat. Examples of
mitigation measures which are hazard specific include water management in drought prone
areas, relocating people away from the hazard prone areas and by strengthening structures to
reduce damage when a hazard occurs. In addition to these physical measures, mitigation
should also aim at reducing the economic and social vulnerabilities of potential disasters.

Disaster Management Cycle:

Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measures which can
be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact
or recover from its losses. The three key stages of activities that are taken up within disaster risk
management are:

(i) Pre-disaster
(ii) Disaster occurrence
(iii) Post disaster
Pre-disaster (Before a disaster):

It includes the activities taken to reduce human and property losses caused by a potential hazard. For
example carrying out awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of
the disaster management plans at household and community level etc. Such risk reduction measures
taken under this stage are termed as mitigation and preparedness activities.

Disaster occurrence (During a disaster):

It includes the initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met and
suffering is minimized. Activities taken under this stage are called emergency response activities.

Post-disaster (After a disaster):

It includes the initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery and
rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called as
response and recovery activities.
 EARTHQUAKES
Definition:
Earthquake can be defined as the sudden shaking of the earth crust. It is one of the most destructive
natural hazards. They may occur at any time of the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little
warning.

Cause of Earthquake:
The earth’s crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness ranging from a depth of about 10 kilometres
under the sea to 65 kilometres under the continents. The crust is not one piece but consists of portions
called ‘plates’ which vary in size from a few hundred to thousands of kilometres. The ‘theory of plate
tectonics’ holds that the plates ride up on the more mobile mantle, and are driven by some yet
unconfirmed mechanisms, perhaps thermal convection currents. When these plates contact each other,
stress arises in the crust. These stresses can be classified according to the type of movement along the
plate’s boundaries:

a) Pulling away from each other,

b) Pushing against one another and

c) Sliding sideways relative to each other.

All these movements are associated with earthquakes.

Convergent - where crust is

destroyed as one plate dives under
another.

Divergent - where new crust is

generated as the plates pull away
from each other.

Transformational - where crust is

neither produced nor destroyed as
the plates slide horizontally past
each other.
The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated energy by slipping or rupturing are
known as 'faults'. The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crust is continuously stressed by the
movement of the tectonic plates; it eventually reaches a point of maximum supportable strain. A
rupture then occurs along the fault and the rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses until the strain
is relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic (from the Greek 'seismos' meaning
shock or earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus in all directions. The point of rupture is
called the 'focus' and may be located near the surface or deep below it. The point on the surface
directly above the focus is termed as the 'epicentre' of the earthquake.


Earthquakes can be of three types based on the focal depth:
(i)Deep:- 300 to 700 kms from the earth surface

(ii)Medium:- 60 to 300 kms

(iii)Shallow: less than 60 kms


The deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the time the waves reach the surface
the impact reduces. Shallow focus earthquakes are more common and are extremely damaging
because of their proximity to the surface.

Measurement of Earthquake:
Earthquakes can be described by the use of two distinctively different scales of measurement
demonstrating magnitude and intensity.


Earthquake magnitude or amount of energy released is determined by the use of a
seismograph’ which is an instrument that continuously records ground vibration. The scale
was developed by a seismologist named Charles Richter. An earthquake with a magnitude 7.5
on the Richter scale releases 30 times the energy than one with 6.5 magnitudes. An
earthquake of magnitude 3 is the smallest normally felt by humans. The largest earthquake
that has been recorded with this system is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and Chile, 1960).


The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures the effects of an earthquake
where it occurs. The most widely used scale of this type was developed in 1902 by Mercalli
an Italian seismologist. The scale was extended and modified to suit the modern times. It is
called the Modified Mercalli Scale, which expresses the intensity of earthquake effect on
people, structure and the earth’s surface in values from I to XII. With an intensity of VI and
below most of the people can feel the shake and there are cracks on the walls, but with an
intensity of XII there is general panic with buildings collapsing totally and there is a total
disruption in normal life.
Typical adverse effects:

Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure, especially
bridges, elevated roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical generating facilities.

Aftershocks of an earthquake can cause much greater damage to already weakened structures.

Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides which may block water ways and
also cause flooding.

Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing dangerous materials resulting in

possible chemical spills.
There may also be a breakdown of communication facilities.

There are large number of casualties because of the poor engineering design of the buildings
and close proximity of the people. About 95 per cent of the people who are killed or who are
affected by the earthquake is because of the building collapse.

There is also a huge loss to the public health system, transport and communication and water
supply in the affected areas.

Possible risk reduction measures:

Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating earthquake impact.
The most effective way to save you even in a slightest shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.

Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and guidelines for safe
construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the buildings are constructed the building plans
have to be checked by the Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline
buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with earthquake safety
measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by retrofitting techniques.

Public education: Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an
earthquake and preparedness measures. It can be created through sensitization and training
programme for community, architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government
functionaries teachers and students.

Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per the building by laws
to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and engineering inputs need to be put together to improve
building design and construction practices. The soil type needs to be analyzed before construction.
Building structures on soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on soft soil are more likely to get
damaged even if the magnitude of the earthquake is not strong. Similar problems persist in the
buildings constructed on the river banks which have alluvial soil.
 TSUNAMI
Definition:
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor' and nami meaning
'waves'. Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they actually have nothing to do with the tides.
These waves which often affect distant shores, originate by rapid displacement of water from the lake
or the sea either by seismic activity, landslides, volcanic eruptions or large meteoroid impacts.
Whatever the cause may be sea water is displaced with a violent motion and swells up, ultimately
surging over land with great destructive power.

Causes of Tsunami:
The geological movements that cause tsunamis are produced in three major ways.

Earthquake: The most common of these are fault movements on the sea floor, accompanied by an
earth-quake. They release huge amount of energy and have the capacity to cross oceans. The degree
of movement depends on how fast the earthquake occurs and how much water is displaced.

Landslide: The second most common cause of the tsunami is a landslide either occurring under
water or originating above the sea and then plunging into the water. The largest tsunami ever
produced by a landslide was in Lituya Bay, Alaska 1958. The massive rock slide produced a wave
that reached a high water mark of 50 - 150 meters above the shoreline.

Volcano: The third major cause of tsunami is volcanic activity. The flank of a volcano located near
the shore or under water may be uplifted or depressed similar to the action of a fault, or, the volcano
may actually explode. In 1883, the violent explosion of the famous volcano, Krakotoa in Indonesia,
produced tsunami measuring 40 meters which crushed upon Java and Sumatra. Over 36,000 people
lost their lives in this tyrant waves.

Predictability:
There are two distinct types of tsunami warning:

a) International tsunami warning systems and

b) Regional warning systems.


International Tsunami Warning Systems: Shortly after the Hilo Tsunami (1946), the
Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS) was developed with its operational center at the
Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) near Honolulu, Hawaii. The PTWC is able to alert
countries several hours before the tsunami strikes. The warning includes predicted arrival time
at selected coastal communities where the tsunami could travel in few hours. A tsunami watch
is issued with subsequent arrival time to other geographic areas.
 
Regional Warning Systems usually use seismic data about nearby earthquakes to determine
if there is a possible local threat of a tsunami. Such systems are capable enough to provide
warnings to the general public in less than 15 minutes. In India, the Survey of India maintains
a tide gauge network along the coast of India. The day-to-day maintenance of the gauge is
carried with the assistance from authorities of the ports. Apart from the tide gauge, tsunami
can be detected with the help of radars. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, recorded data from
four radars and recorded the height of tsunami waves two hours after the earthquake. It should
be noted that the satellites observations of the Indian Ocean tsunami would not have been of
any use in delivering warnings, as the data took five hours to process and it was pure chance
that the satellites were overhead at that time. However, in future it is possible that the space-
based observation might play a direct role in tsunami warning.

Typical adverse effects:


Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the majority of damage.
The force of the water can raze everything in its path.

It is normally the flooding affect of the tsunami that causes major destruction to the human
settlements, roads and infrastructure thereby disrupting the normal functioning of the society.

As the waves withdraw towards the ocean they sweep out the foundations of the buildings, the
beaches get destroyed and the houses carried out to sea.

Damage to ports and airports may prevent importation of needed food and medical supplies.

Apart from the physical damage, there is a huge impact on the public health system.

Deaths mainly occur because of drowning as water inundates homes. Many people get
washed away or crushed by the giant waves and some are crushed by the debris, causes.

Availability of drinking water has always been a major problem in areas affected by a disaster.

Sewage pipes may be damaged causing major sewage disposal problems.

Open wells and other ground water may be contaminated by salt water and debris and sewage.

Flooding in the locality may lead to crop loss, loss of livelihood like boats and nets, environmental
degradation etc.

Possible risk reduction measures:

In certain tsunami prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on
shore. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5m (13.5
ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Other localities have built flood gates and channels to
redirect the water from incoming tsunamis. However,framed structures in the area. The wall may have
succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami but it did not prevent major
destruction and loss of life.
Site Planning and Land Management:

Site planning determines the location, configuration, and density of development on particular sites
and is, therefore, an important tool in reducing tsunami risk.


The designation and zoning of tsunami hazard areas for such open-space uses as agriculture,
parks and recreation, or natural hazard areas is recommended as the first land use planning
strategy. This strategy is designed to keep development at a minimum in hazard areas.

In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open-space uses, other land use planning
measures can be used. These include strategically controlling the type of development and
uses allowed in hazard areas, and avoiding high-value and high occupancy uses to the greatest
degree possible.

Engineering structures:

Most of the habitation of the fishing community is seen in the coastal areas. The houses constructed
by them are mainly of light weight materials without any engineering inputs. Therefore there is an
urgent need to educate the community about the good construction practices that they should adopt
such as:


Site selection – Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred feet of the coastline
as these areas are more likely to experience damage from tsunamis.

Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to mean sea level.

Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters in height. Elevating house will
help reduce damage to property from most tsunamis.

Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.

Use of water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.

Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can act as shelters at the time of a
disaster.

Flood management:

Flooding will result from a tsunami. Tsunami waves will flood the coastal areas. Flood mitigation
measures could be incorporated.
 CYCLONES

Definition:
Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric pressure resulting in
swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful winds blowing in anticlockwise direction
in the Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. They occur
mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the world.

Cyclones are known by different names in different parts of the world:


Typhoons in the Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline

Hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Northeast Pacific Ocean east of the dateline, or the
South Pacific Ocean.

Tropical cyclones -the Southwest Pacific Ocean and Southeast Indian Ocean.

Severe cyclonic storm” (the North Indian Ocean)

Tropical cyclone (the Southwest Indian Ocean)

Willie-Willie in Australia

Tornado in South America

General Characteristics:
Cyclones in India are moderate in nature. Some of the general characteristics of a cyclone are:

1. Strong winds

2. Exceptional rain

3. Storm surge

The development of a cyclone covers three stages namely

(a) Formation and initial development state:

Four atmospheric/ oceanic conditions are necessary for the formation of a cyclone:


A warm sea temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade, to a depth of 60 meters, which
provides abundant water vapour in the air by evaporation.

High relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by water vapor) of the
atmosphere to a height of about 7000 meters, facilitates condensation of water vapor
into droplets and clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in pressure.
 
Atmospheric instability (an above average decrease of temperature with altitude)
encourages considerable vertical cumulus cloud convection when condensation of
rising air occurs.

A location of at least 4-5 latitude degrees from the Equator allow the influence of the
force due to the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force) to take effect in inducing cyclonic
wind circulation around low pressure centers.

(b) Fully matured:

The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone is a spiral pattern of highly turbulent giant
cumulus thundercloud bands. These bands spiral inwards and form a dense highly active
central cloud core which raps around a relatively calm zone. This
is called the “eye” of a cyclone. The eye looks like a black hole or a dot surrounded by thick
clouds. The outer circumference of the thick cloud is called the ‘eye wall’.

(c) Weakening or decay:

A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon as its source of warm moist air is abruptly cut
off. This is possible when the cyclone hits the land, on the cyclone moves to a higher altitude
or when there is the interference of another low pressure.

Indian Hazard Zones:

The 7516.6 kilometres long Indian coastline is the earth’s most cyclone battered stretch of the world.
Around 8 per cent of the total land area in India is prone to cyclones. About two-third of the cyclones
that occur in the Indian coastline occur in the Bay of Bengal. The states which are generally affected
in the east coast are West-Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and on the west coast Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala.

Warning:

Low pressure and the development can be detected hours or days before it causes damage.

The satellites track the movement of these cyclones based on which the people are evacuated from
areas lively to be affected. It is difficult to predict the accuracy.

Accurate landfall predictions can give only a few hours’ notice to threatened population.

India has one of the best cyclone warning systems in the world. The India Meteorological
Department (IMD) is the nodal department for wind detection, tracking and forecasting
cyclones.

Cyclone tracking is done through INSAT satellite.

Cyclone warning is disseminated by several means such as satellite based disaster warning
systems, radio, television, telephone, fax, high priority telegram, public announcements and
bulletins in press. These warnings are disseminated to the general public, the fishing
community especially those in the sea, port authorities, commercial aviation and the
government machinery.
Typical Adverse effects:
High winds cause major damage to infrastructure and housing, in particular fragile constructions.
They are generally followed by heavy rains and floods and, in flat coastal areas by storm surge riding
on tidal waves and inundating the land over long distances of even up to 15 kilometres inland.

Physical damage: structures will be damaged or destroyed by the wind force, flooding and storm
surge. Light pitched roofs of most structures especially the ones fitted on to industrial buildings will
suffer severe damage.

Casualties and public health: caused by flooding and flying elements, contamination of water
supplies may lead to viral outbreaks, diarrhoea, and malaria.

Water supplies: Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by flood waters. Crops and
food supplies – high winds and rains ruin the standing crop and food stock lying in low lying areas.
Plantation type crops such as banana and coconut are extremely vulnerable. Salt from the sea water
may get deposited on the agricultural land and increase the salinity. The loss of the crop may lead to
acute food shortage.

Communication: severe disruption in the communication links as the wind may bring down the
electricity and communication towers, telephone poles, telephone lines, antennas and satellite disk
and broadcasting services. Transport lines (road and rail) may be curtailed, Lack of proper
communication affects effective distribution of relief materials.

Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

Coastal belt plantation - Green belt plantation along the coastal line in a scientific interweaving
pattern can reduce the effect of the hazard. Providing a cover through green belt sustains less damage.
Forests act as a wide buffer zone against strong winds and flash floods. Without the forest the cyclone
travel freely inland. The lack of protective forest cover allows water to inundate large areas and cause
destruction. With the loss of the forest cover each consecutive cyclone can penetrate further inland.

Hazard mapping – Meteorological records of the wind speed and the directions give the probability
of the winds in the region. Cyclones can be predicted several days in advance. The onset is extensive
and often very destructive. Past records and paths can give the pattern of occurrence for particular
wind speeds. A hazard map will illustrate the areas vulnerable to cyclone in any given year. It will be
useful to estimate the severity of the cyclone and various damage intensities in the region. The map is
prepared with data inputs of past climatological records, history of wind speed, frequency of flooding
etc.

Land use control designed so that least critical activities are placed in vulnerable areas. Location of
settlements in the floodplains is at utmost risk. Sitting of key facilities must be marked in the land use.
Policies should be in place to regulate land use and building codes should be enforced.

Engineered structures – structures need to be built to withstand wind forces. Good site selection is
also important. Majority of the buildings in coastal areas are built with locally available materials and
have no engineering inputs. Good construction practice should be adopted such as: -
  Cyclonic wind storms inundate the coastal areas. It is advised to construct on stilts or on earth
mound.
 Houses can be strengthened to resist wind and flood damage. All elements holding the
structures need to be properly anchored to resist the uplift or flying off of the objects. For
example, avoid large overhangs of roofs, and the projections should be tied down.
 A row of planted trees will act as a shield. It reduces the energy.
 Buildings should be wind and water resistant.
 Buildings storing food supplies must be protected against the winds and water.
 Protect river embankments.
 Communication lines should be installed underground.
 Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.

Flood management – Torrential rains, strong wind and storm range leads to flooding in the cyclone
affected areas. There are possibilities of landslides too. Flood mitigation measures could be
incorporated

Improving vegetation cover – The roots of the plants and trees keep the soil intact and prevent
erosion and slow runoff to prevent or lessen flooding. The use of tree planted in rows will act as a
windbreak. Coastal shelterbelt plantations can be developed to break severe wind speeds. It minimizes
devastating effects. The Orissa calamity has also highlighted the need for urgent measures like
shelterbelt plantation along cyclone-prone coastal areas. Species chosen for this purpose should not
only be able to withstand the impact of strong cyclonic winds, but also check soil erosion.
 FLOODS

Definition:

Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to inundation of
land, which is not usually submerged. Floods may happen gradually and also may take hours or even
happen suddenly without any warning due to breach in the embankment, spill over, heavy rains etc.

Causes of Floods:

Heavy rainfall

Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity of the rivers/stream.

Blockages in the drains lead to flooding of the area.

Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.

Construction of dams and reservoirs

In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by heavy down pour along with storm surge
leads to flooding.

Indian Hazard Zones:

Floods occur in almost all the river basins of the country. Around 12 per cent (40 million hectare) of
land in India is prone to floods. Most of the flood affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra
basin (comprising of Barak, Tista, Torsa,Subansiri, Sankosh, Dihang and Luhit), the northwestern
river basin (comprising Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas and the Ghagra), peninsular river basin
(Tapti, Narmada, Mahanadi, Baitarani, Godavari, krishna, Pennar and the Kaveri) and the coastal
regions of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, orissa and Kerela. Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa are
some of the states who have been severely prone to floods. Our country receives an annual rainfall of
1200 mm, 85% of which is concentrated in 3-4 months i.e June to September. Due to the intense and
periodic rain, most of the rivers of the country are fed with huge quantity of water, much beyond their
carrying capacity.

Warning:

With the advancement of technology such as satellite and remote-sensing equipments flood waves can be
tracked as the water level rises.

Heavy precipitation will give sufficient warning of the coming river flood.

High tides with high winds may indicate flooding in the coastal areas.

Evacuation is possible with suitable monitoring and warning. Warning is issued by the
Central Water Commission (CWC), Irrigation & Flood Control Department, and Water
Resources Department.CWC maintains close liaison with the administrative and state
engineering agencies, local civil authorities to communicate advance warning for appropriate
mitigation and preparedness measures.
Typical Adverse Effects:

The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and property.

Structures like houses, bridges; roads etc. get damaged by the gushing water, landslides
triggered on account of water getting saturated, boats and fishing nets get damaged. There is
huge loss to life and livestock caused by drowning.

Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of water (well, ground water, piped
water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria and many
other infectious diseases.

Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting inundated as a result there is a huge crop
loss. This results in shortage of food, and animal fodder.

Floods may also affect the soil characteristics. The land may be rendered infertile due to erosion of top
layer or may turn saline if sea water floods the area.

Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing the risk of the region.
Historical records give the indication of the flood inundation areas and the period of occurrence and
the extent of the coverage. Warning can be issued looking into the earlier marked heights of the water
levels in case of potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels and the land characteristics will
determine the submergence areas. Flood hazard mapping will give the proper indication of water flow
during floods.

Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when waters inundate the flood plains and
the coastal areas. The number of casualties is related to the population in the area at risk. In areas
where people already have built their settlements, measures should be taken to relocate to better sites
so as to reduce vulnerability. No major development should be permitted in the areas which are
subjected to high flooding. Important facilities like hospitals, schools should be built in safe areas. In
urban areas, water holding areas can be created like ponds, lakes or low-lying areas.

Construction of engineered structures in the flood plains and strengthening of structures to

withstand flood forces and seepage. The buildings should be constructed on an elevated area. If
necessary build on stilts or platform.

Flood Control aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by decreasing the amount of runoff
with the help of reforestation, protection of vegetation, clearing of debris from streams and other
water holding areas, conservation of ponds and lakes etc. Flood Diversion include levees,
embankments, dams and channel improvement. Dams can store water and can release water at a
manageable rate. Flood Proofing reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use of sand bags to
keep flood water away, blocking or sealing of doors and windows of houses etc. Houses may be
elevated by building on raised land. Buildings should be constructed away from water bodies.

Flood Management In India, systematic planning for flood management commenced with the Five
Year Plans, particularly with the launching of National Programme of Flood Management in 1954.
Structural measures include, storage reservoirs flood embankments, drainage channels, anti erosion
works, channel improvement works, detention basins etc. and non-structural measures include flood
forecasting, flood plain zoning, flood proofing, disaster preparedness etc. The flood management
measures undertaken so far have provided reasonable degree of protection to an area of 15.81 million
hectares throughout the country.
 DROUGHTS

Definition:
Drought is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its normal pattern in a region for an extended
period of time leading to general suffering in the society. It is interplay between demand that people
place on natural supply of water and natural event that provides the water in a given geographical
region.

It is a slow on-set disaster and it is difficult to demarcate the time of its onset and the end.

Any unusual dry period which results in a shortage of useful water.

Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate. Climate is expected to show some aberrations and
drought is just a part of it.

Drought can occur by improper distribution of rain in time and space, and not just by its amount.

Drought is negative balance between precipitation and water use (through evaporation,
transpiration by plants, domestic and industrial uses etc) in a geographical region.

Causes of Droughts:

Deficit rainfall

Over population

Over grazing

Deforestation

Soil erosion

Excessive use of ground and surface water for growing crops

Loss of biodiversity

Types of droughts:
Drought proceeds in sequential manner. Its impacts are spread across different domains as listed
below.

Meteorological drought:

Meteorological drought is simple absence/deficit of rainfall from the normal. It is the least severe
form of drought and is often identified by sunny days and hot weather.

Hydrological drought:

Hydrological drought often leads to reduction of natural stream flows or ground water levels, plus
stored water supplies. The main impact is on water resource systems.
Agricultural drought:

This form of drought occurs when moisture level in soil is insufficient to maintain average crop
yields. Initial consequences are in the reduced seasonal output of crops and other related production.
An extreme agricultural drought can lead to a famine, which is a prolonged shortage of food in a
restricted region causing widespread disease and death from starvation.

Socio-economic drought:

Socio-economic drought correlates the supply and demand of goods and services with the three
above-mentioned types of drought. When the supply of some goods or services such as water and
electricity are weather dependant then drought may cause shortages in supply of these economic
goods.

Elements at Risk:

In general, all those elements that are primarily dependent on water are most affected.

It affects the rain fed crops and then slowly creeps into the irrigated crops.

People who are dependent on agriculture and areas where the other livelihood opportunities are least
developed are greatly affected.

The herdsman, landless labourer, subsistence farmers, women, children and farm animals are the most
vulnerable groups.

Distribution Pattern in India:


Around 68 per cent of India’s total area is drought prone to drought.

315 out of a total of 725 Talukas in 99 districts are drought prone.

50 million people are annually affected by drought.

In 2001 more than eight states suffered the impact of severe drought.

In 2003 most parts of Rajasthan experienced the fourth consecutive year of drought.

Typical adverse effects:


As the meteorological drought turns into hydrological drought, the impacts start appearing first in
agriculture which is most dependants on the soil moisture.

Irrigated areas are affected much later than the rain fed areas.

However, regions surrounding perennial rivers tend to continue normal life even when
drought conditions are prevailing around. The impacts slowly spread into social fabric as the
availability of drinking water diminishes, reduction in energy production, ground water
depletion, food shortage, health reduction and loss of life, increased poverty, reduced quality
of life and social unrest leading to migration.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

There are various mitigation strategies to cope up with drought.

Public Awareness and education: If the community is aware of the dos and don’ts, then half of
the problem is solved. This includes awareness on the availability of safe drinking water, water
conservation techniques, agricultural drought management strategies like crop contingency plans,
construction of rain water harvesting structure. Awareness can be generated by the print, electronic
and folk media.

Drought Monitoring: It is continuous observation of the rainfall situation, availability of water in

the reservoirs, lakes, rivers etc and comparing with the existing water needs in various sectors of the
society.

Water supply augmentation and conservation through rainwater harvesting in houses and
farmers’ fields increases the content of water available. Water harvesting by either allowing the runoff
water from all the fields to a common point (e.g. Farm ponds) or allowing it to infiltrate into the soil
where it has fallen (in situ) (e.g. contour bunds, contour cultivation, raised bed planting etc) helps
increase water availability for sustained agricultural production.

Expansion of irrigation facilities reduces the drought vulnerability.

Land use based on its capability helps in optimum use of land and water and can avoid the undue
demand created due to their misuse.

Livelihood planning identifies those livelihoods which are least affected by the drought. Some of
such livelihoods include increased off-farm employment opportunities, collection of non-timber forest
produce from the community forests, raising goats, carpentry etc.

Drought planning: the basic goal of drought planning is to improve the effectiveness of
preparedness and response efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation and response measures.

Planning would help in effective coordination among state and national agencies in dealing
with the drought. Components of drought plan include establishing drought taskforce which is
a team of specialists who can advise the government in taking decision to deal with drought
situation, establishing coordination mechanism among various agencies which deal with the
droughts, providing crop insurance schemes to the farmers to cope with the drought related
crop losses, and public awareness generation.
 LANDSLIDES

Definition :

The term ‘landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements of hill slopes and can be defined as the
downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of rocks, soils, artificial fills
or combination of all these materials along surfaces of separation by falling, sliding and flowing,
either slowly or quickly from one place to another.

Causes of Landslides:

There are several causes of landslide. Some of the major causes are as follows:


Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and structure of rock or soil may
also cause landslides.


Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of vegetation, construction of roads might
increase the vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.


Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as short as several hours or
have a more moderate intensity lasting several days have triggered abundant landslides.
Heavy melting of snow in the hilly terrains also results in landslide.


Human Excavation of slope and its toe, loading of slope/toe, draw down in reservoir,
mining, deforestation, irrigation, vibration/blast, Water leakage from services.


Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many different topographic and geologic
settings. Rock falls, soil slides and rockslides from steep slopes involving relatively thin or
shallow disaggregated soils or rock, or both have been the most abundant types of landslides
triggered by historical earthquakes.


Volcanic eruption: Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides commonly is followed by
accelerated erosion and frequent mud or debris flows triggered by intense rainfall.

Distribution Pattern in India:

Landslides constitute a major natural hazard in our country, which accounts for considerable loss of
life and damage to communication routes, human settlements, agricultural fields and forest lands. The
Indian subcontinent, with diverse physiographic, seismic, tectonic and climatological conditions is
subjected to varying degree of landslide hazards; the Himalayas including North-eastern mountains
ranges being the worst affected, followed by a section of Western Ghats and the Vindhyas. Removal
of vegetation and toe erosion has also triggered slides. Torrential rainfall on the deforested slopes is
the main factor in the Peninsular India namely in Western Ghats and Nilgiris.
Typical Adverse Effects of Landslides:

The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on the steep slopes, built at the
toe and those built at the mouth of the streams emerging from the mountain valley.

All those buildings constructed without appropriate foundation for a given soil and in sloppy areas are
also at risk.

Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.

Possible risk reduction measures:

Hazard mapping locates areas prone to slope failures. This will help to avoid building
settlements in such areas. These maps will also serve as a tool for mitigation planning.

Land use practices such as:


Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to be afforested with
suitable species. Existing patches of natural vegetation (forest and natural grass land) in good
condition, should be preserved

Any developmental activity initiated in the area should be taken up only after a detailed study
of the region has been carried out.

In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper care is to be taken to avoid blockage of
natural drainage

Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made mandatory.

Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path of the landslide

No construction of buildings in areas beyond a certain degree of slope

Retaining Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are commonly seen along
roads in hill stations). These are constructed to prevent smaller sized and secondary landslides that
often occur along the toe portion of the larger landslides.

Surface Drainage Control Works: The surface drainage control works are implemented to
control the movement of landslides accompanied by infiltration of rain water and spring flows.

Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand or take the ground movement
forces. Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should be made flexible to move in order to
withstand forces caused by the landslide

Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of arresting landslides.
This helps to bind the top layer of the soil with layers below, while preventing excessive run-off
and soil erosion.

Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are likely to be damaged by landslides or by any
other natural hazards.
 FOREST FIRES

Definition:
The most common hazard in forests is forests fire. Forests fires are as old as the forests themselves.
They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime to fauna and flora
seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology and environment of a region. During summer,
when there is no rain for months, the forests become littered with dry senescent leaves and twinges,
which could burst into flames ignited by the slightest spark. The Himalayan forests, particularly,
Garhwali Himalayas have been burning regularly during the last few summers, with colossal loss of
vegetation cover of that region. Forest fire causes imbalances in nature and endangers biodiversity by
reducing faunal and floral wealth. Traditional methods of fire prevention are not proving effective and
it is now essential to raise public awareness on the matter, particularly among those people who live
close to or in forested areas.

Causes of Forest Fires:


Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which set trees
on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing much damage. High
atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable circumstance for a fire
to start.

Man made causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or bidi,
electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable material.

Causes of forest fire can be categorized into two groups:

(i) Environmental causes( which are beyond control)

(ii) Human related causes (which are controllable)

Environmental causes: These are largely related to climatic conditions such as temperature, wind
speed and direction, level of moisture in soil and atmosphere and duration of dry spells. Other natural
causes are the friction of bamboos swaying due to high wind velocity and rolling stones that result in
sparks setting off fires in highly inflammable leaf litter on the forest floor.

Human related causes: These result from human activity as well as methods of forest
management. These can be intentional or unintentional, for example:

 graziers and gatherers of various forest products starting small fires to obtain good grazing
grass as well as to facilitate gathering of minor forest produce like flowers of Madhuca indica
and leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon
 the use of fires by villagers to ward off wild animals
 fires lit intentionally by people living around forests for recreation
 fires started accidentally by careless visitors to forests who discard cigarette butts.

The causes of forest fire have been increasing rapidly. The problem has been accentuated by the
growing human and cattle population. People enter forests even more frequently to graze cattle,
collect fuel wood, timber and other minor forest products. It has been estimated that 90% of forest
fires in India are man-made.
Adverse Effects of Forest Fires:
Fires are a major cause of forest degradation and have wide ranging adverse ecological, economic and
social impacts, including:

 Loss of valuable timber resources

 Degradation of catchment areas
 Loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals
 Loss of wildlife habitat and depletion of wildlife
 Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover
 Global warming
 Loss of carbon sink resource and increase in percentage of CO2 in atmosphere
 Change in the microclimate of the area with unhealthy living conditions
 Soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production
 Ozone layer depletion
 Health problems leading to diseases
 Loss of livelihood for tribal people and the rural poor, as approximately 300 million people
are directly dependent upon collection of non-timber forest products from forest areas for
their livelihood.

The Need of Fire Management:

The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is burned each year. The
major cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to the problem. Both the national focus and the
technical resources required for sustaining a systematic forest fire management programs are lacking
in the country. Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centres, coordination
among Ministries, funding, human resource development, fire research, fire management, and
extension programs are missing. Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is
necessary to make some major improvements in the forest fire management strategy for the country.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has prepared a National Master Plan
for Forest Fire Control. This plan proposes to introduce a well-coordinated and integrated fire-
management program that includes the following components:

 Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental modification. It will

include cultural activities, engineering works, people participation, and education and
enforcement. It is proposed that more emphasis be given to people participation through Joint
Forest Fire Management for fire prevention.
 Prompt detection of fires through a well coordinated network of observation points, efficient
ground patrolling, and communication networks. Remote sensing technology is to be given
due importance in fire detection. For successful fire management and administration, a
National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting System are to be
developed in the country.
 Fast initial attack measures.
 Vigorous follow up action.
 Introducing a forest fuel modification system at strategic points.
 Fire fighting resources.

Each of the above components plays an important role in the success of the entire system of fire
management. Special emphasis is to be given to research, training, and development.
 INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS
Definitions:
Industrial hazard may be defined as any condition produced by industries that may cause
injury or death to personnel or loss of product or property.

Types of Industrial hazards:

1. Mechanical hazards
2. Electrical hazards
3. Chemical hazards
4. Fire hazards
5. Dust hazards
6. Accident records

1. Mechanical Hazards:

A mechanical hazard is involving a machine or process. Motor vehicles and air bags pose
mechanical hazards. Compressed gases or liquids can also be considered a mechanical hazard.

Causes of Mechanical Hazards:


It occurs when a machine is malfunctioning.

Machines may run either manually or automatically.

A few machines are cutting, shearing, crushing, breaking.

Most injuries occur when the machine needs human intervention repeatedly for its
proper functioning.

The machines are driven by a suitable power supply (electricity or steam).

Preventions of Mechanical Hazards:

 Prevent contact: The safeguard must prevent hands, arms, or any part of a worker's
body from making contact with dangerous moving parts.
 Secure: Workers should not be able to easily remove with the safeguard. Guards and
safety devices should be made of durable material that will withstand the conditions
of normal use.
 Protect from falling objects: The safeguard should ensure that no objects can fall
into moving parts. A small tool which is dropped into a cycling machine could easily
become a projectile that could strike and injure someone.
 Create no interference: Proper safeguarding can actually enhance efficiency, since
workers will not be afraid of injuries then.
 Allow safe lubrication: If possible, one should be able to lubricate the machine
without removing the safeguards. Locating oil reservoirs outside of the guard, with a
line leading to the lubrication point, will reduce the need for the operator or
maintenance worker to enter the hazardous area.
2. Electrical Hazards:

Shock is one of the common electrical hazards. It occurs when the electric current passes
through the body. This is possible when human is in contact with a conductor carrying a
current and simultaneously in contact with the ground. This is referred to as SHORT
CIRCUIT .

Causes of Electrical Hazards:

Different sources of electrical hazards are short circuit, electrostatic hazards and explosive
materials.

A worker will receive a shock when he/she:


Touches two wires at different voltages at the same time.

Touches the phase standing on the ground

Touches the phase having wet cloth and high humidity.

Receive a shock from electrical components those are not grounded properly.

Touching another person receiving an electrical shock.

Preventions of Electrical Hazards:


Power equipment should be plugged into wall receptacles with power switches in the off
position.

Electrical equipment should be unplugged by grasping the plug and pulling. Never pull or jerk
the cord to unplug the equipment.

Frayed, cracked or exposed wiring on equipment cords must be corrected. Also check
for defective cord clamps at locations where the power cord enters the equipment or
the attachment plug.

Temporary or permanent storage of materials must not be allowed within 3 feet of electrical
equipment.

Any electrical equipment causing shocks or which has high leakage potential must be tagged
with a DANGER—DO NOT USE label or equivalent

3. Chemical Hazards:

Chemical hazards are systems where chemical accidents could occur under certain
circumstances. Such events include fires, explosions, leakages or release of toxic or
hazardous materials that can cause people illness, injury, or disability. Chemical accident
means an accident involving a fortuitous, or sudden or unintended occurrence while handling
any hazardous chemicals resulting in continuous, intermittent or repeated exposure to death,
or injury to, any person or damage to any property but does not include an accident by reason
only of war or radio-activity.
 Causes of Chemical Hazards:

Solvents used in extraction plants, purification of synthetic drugs and in chemical analysis
may produce vapours.
This vapours or gases may produce:
 Breathing problem and suffocation to worker.
 Irritation or burn to eye or skin of the worker.
 Explosion in the work place.
 General anaesthesia or death e.g. chloroforms and ether vapour

Liquid chemicals if spilled on workers may produce
 Dehydration by strong dehydrating agents e.g. concentrated sulphuric acid.
 Burning by strong acid or alkalis.
 Oxidation by strong oxidizing agents.

Dusts of chemicals produced from different equipment may produce
 Dermatitis or dust allergies to the workers.
 Skin and eye irritations.
 Resistance to certain antibiotics e.g. resistant to chloroform if the same
worker is exposed to it regularly.
 Some dusts may be carcinogenic (producing cancers).

Preventions of Chemical Hazards:


Before starting work with a chemical a “chemical hazard pocket guide” should be
consulted for necessary information about the chemical. It will give the type of
reaction the chemical may produce, its in flammability, carcinogenicity, prevention
and treatment procedures etc.

No eating, drinking, or smoking where chemicals are used.

Skin should be covered with protective clothing.

Clothing should be removed immediately it gets wet or contaminated with a chemical.

Eyes or skins should be washed with plenty of water after an accident

Face mask may be used in toxic dust or gases.

Workers working in antibiotic related products must be changed routinely so that an
individual is not exposed to a certain antibiotic for a long period of time.

Whenever a dust allergy or respiratory problem precipitates the worker should
immediately be removed from the work place and put under proper healthcare.

In case of inflammable gas or solvent leakage the exhaust fans should be started and all the
source of fire should be extinguished.
4. Fire Hazards:
Fire hazards are the workplace hazards that involve the presence of flame or risk of an
uncontrolled fire.

Causes of Fire Hazards:


Class A Fires: These are fires in ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper
etc. those produce glowing ember.

Class B Fires: These are fires of flammable petroleum products, liquids, gases and greases etc.

Class C Fires: These fires involve energized electrical equipment.

Class D Fires: These are fires in combustible metals.

Preventions of Fire Hazards:


Fire Extinguishers: Fire extinguishing agents work by:
 removal of fuel e.g. blanketing with foam or interposing a layer of gas
between the fuel and the flames .
 by removal of oxygen e.g. by dilution with inert gases or vapours .
 by removal of heat by cooling with water or other extinguishing agents


Water based fire extinguishers: They produce CO2 by reaction with acid and
carbonates, or CO2 is kept under pressure. E.g. Portable fire extinguisher, Soda-Ash
Extinguisher, Antifreeze Extinguisher.


Water based foams: Two types of foams are available. Chemical foams and
Mechanical foams. Chemical foams are bubbles filled with CO2 produced by chemical
reaction in an aqueous solution mixed with a foaming agent. The reacting chemicals
are usually of sodium carbonate and ammonium sulphate. Mechanical foams are
bubbles filled with air. Foams forms barrier and prevents contact between fuel and air.


Dry chemicals: These are finely divided solid particles usually discharged through a
hose pipe. Usually they contain sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate and
ammonium sulphate.

5. Dust Hazards:
Combustible dust is defined as a solid material composed of distinct particles or pieces,
regardless of size, shape, or chemical composition, which presents a fire or deflagration
hazard when suspended in air or some other oxidizing medium over a range of concentrations.

Causes of Dust Hazards:


Grinding or milling of drugs, excipients, or herbal products.

During weighing dusts may float on air.

During powder mixing dusts may be generated. During coating operation dusts are
generated.

During capsule filling and tablet punching operation dusts may be generated.
Preventions of Dust Hazards:

Filtration: Air is sucked through a suitable filter medium (like paper, wool,
cotton-wool and nylon). Filter bags can be attached with machines where dust is
produced.


Inertial separator: In cyclone separator the air is circulated at high speed in a
spiral manner. Due to centrifugal force the dust particles are thrown outward and
the particles are collected at the bottom and the clean air comes out through the
top.


Electrostatic separator: It consists of metal tubes though which a conductor wire
is passed. Several thousand volts of DC current is applied on the metal wire. When
air is passed through the pipes the dust particles becomes charged and precipitates
on the inner wall of the tube and clean air passes out. Periodically the dust is
collected.
 EPIDEMICS
Definition:

An epidemic is the rapid spread of infectious disease to a large number of people in a given
population within a short period of time, usually two weeks or less.

An epidemic may be restricted to one location; however, if it spreads to other countries or continents
and affects a substantial number of people, it may be termed a pandemic.

Causes of Epidemics:


Epidemics relating to the spread of infectious diseases are caused by the lack of knowledge on
specific ways a germ is transmitted and the ability for treatments to be effective in controlling
the spread of the disease. There are viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, classifications of
disease organisms. Each strain can mutate when exposed in the human body or other living
organisms and form new strains of that disease. It is very difficult for scientists and doctors to
keep up with this as many environmental factors can influence mutations also. So because of
this, until new sanitation preventive measures and treatments are discovered, many diseases
spread quickly resulting in an epidemic.

The conditions which govern the outbreak of epidemics include infected food supplies such
as contaminated drinking water and the migration of populations of certain animals, such as
rats or mosquitoes, which can act as disease vectors. Certain epidemics occur at certain
seasons.

For example, whooping-cough occurs in spring, whereas measles produces two epidemics,
one in winter and one in March. Influenza, the common cold, and other infections of the
upper respiratory tract, such as sore throat, occur predominantly in the winter. There is
another variation, both as regards the number of people affected and the number who die in
successive epidemics: the severity of successive epidemics rises and falls over periods of five
or ten years.
Typical Adverse Effects of Epidemics:

Direct Effects of Epidemics:


Epidemics usually affect large number of individuals and can lead to
complications including disabilities and death.


There is always a possibility of existence of sufficient number of disease carriers who
may favour the resurgence and spread of disease.


On seeing the suffering and deaths especially within close relatives,
psychological effects are also common during epidemics.

Indirect Effects of Epidemics:


Social and political disruption due to tension and law and order problems.


Economic loss arising from lack of strength of cultivates.


Economic loss arising from lack of strength of cultivates.


Scarcity of clean food and water leading to malnutrition and starvation.

Mitigation measures:

 Investment in improved sanitation, provision of clean water and better urban infrastructure
can reduce the frequency of human contact with pathogenic agents.

 Building strong health systems and supporting proper nutrition will help ensure good baseline
levels of health, making people less susceptible to infectious diseases.

 Investment in reliable disease surveillance in both human and animal populations will help in
reducing epidemics.

 Technological solutions can help minimize the burden of sizable outbreaks and epidemics.

 Better and less costly treatments including novel antibiotics and antiviral to counter resistant
diseases, are sorely needed. New and improved vaccines are even more important.
 HEAT WAVES
Definition:
Heat-wave is a condition of atmospheric temperature that leads to physiological stress, which
sometimes can claim human life.


Heat-wave is defined as the condition where maximum temperature at a grid point is 3˚C or more than
the normal temperature, consecutively for 3 days or more.

World Meteorological Organization defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive days
during which the daily maximum temperature exceeds the average maximum temperature by
five degrees Celsius.

If the maximum temperature of any place continues to be more than 45° C consecutively for two days,
it is called a heat wave condition.

There will be no harm to the human body if the environmental temperature remains at 37° C.
Whenever the environmental temperature increases above 37° C, the human body starts gaining heat
from the atmosphere. If humidity is high, a person can suffer from heat stress disorders even with the
temperature at 37°C or 38°C.

Causes of Heat waves:

A heat wave occurs when a system of high atmospheric pressure moves into an area. In such a high-
pressure system, air from upper levels of our atmosphere is pulled toward the ground, where it
becomes compressed and increases in temperature. This high concentration of pressure makes it
difficult for other weather systems to move into the area, which is why a heat wave can last for several
days or weeks. The longer the system stays in an area, the hotter the area becomes. The high-pressure
inhibits winds, making them faint-to-nonexistent. Because the high-pressure system also prevents
clouds from entering the region, sunlight can become punishing, heating up the system even more.
The combination of all of these factors come together to create the exceptionally hot temperatures we
call a heat wave.

Adverse Effects of Heat waves:


Heat waves causes serious health risks like dehydration, heat rash, heat cramps, sunburn, heat
exhaustion, heat stroke etc.

Excessive heat causes psychological stress

Abnormally hot temperatures cause electricity demand to increase during the peak
summertime hours which leads to electricity spikes due to increased air conditioning use,
which can create power outages. As a result, available electricity supplies are challenged
during a higher, wider, peak electricity consumption period.

If a heat wave occurs during a drought, which dries out vegetation, it can contribute to bushfires and
wildfires.

Heat waves can cause roads and highways to buckle and melt water lines to burst, and power
transformers to detonate, causing fires.
Mitigation measures:


Establish Early Warning System and Inter-Agency Coordination to alert residents on
predicted high and extreme temperatures. Who will do what, when, and how is made clear to
individuals and units of key departments, especially for health.


Capacity building / training programme for health care professionals at local level to
recognize and respond to heat-related illnesses, particularly during extreme heat events. These
training programs should focus on medical officers, paramedical staff and community health
staff to reduce mortality and morbidity.


Public Awareness and community outreach Disseminating public awareness messages on
how to protect against the extreme heat-wave through print, electronic and social media and
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials such as pamphlets, posters and
advertisements and Television Commercials (TVCs) on Do’s and Don’ts and treatment
measures for heat related illnesses.


Collaboration with non government and civil society: Collaboration with non-
governmental organizations and civil society organizations to improve bus stands, building
temporary shelters, wherever necessary, improved water delivery systems in public areas and
other innovative measures to tackle Heat wave conditions.
 Road, Rail and Air Traffic Accidents

(i) Road accidents

Road networks are developed for better connectivity and service. Increased number of
vehicles, violation of traffic rules, speeding, drunken driving and poor maintenance of
vehicles as well as of roads are some of the main causes of road accidents. In order to avoid
accidents following safety measures can be adopted:
• Look on either side of the road before crossing.
• Use zebra crossing while crossing the road by foot.
• Wear helmet while riding a two-wheeler.
• Use seat belt provided in your car.
• Drive only if you possess a proper driving license.
• Be familiar with road markings and honour them.
• Maintain a safety distance from the vehicle in front.
• Do not jump lanes. It becomes difficult for other vehicles, on the road to anticipate your
move.
• Do not be rash and do not try to overtake unnecessarily.
• The best way to be safe on roads is to follow “lane driving”
• While driving avoid sudden acceleration and deceleration.
• Replace the worn tyres and faulty headlamps.
• Check the tyre pressure, radiator water, brake oil and fuel frequently.
• Dip your beam whenever you spot an oncoming vehicle.
• Follow the maintenance schedule prescribed by the manufacturer.
• Overcome impatience, anger and intoxication during driving. Road rage is dangerous.
• In case a mishap occurs stay calm.
• In case of fire, try to get out as early as possible and do not worry about the baggage.
(ii) Rail accident
The most common type of rail accident is derailment due to human error, sabotage or natural
landslide in a hilly track, or fire. Rail accidents lead to large number of casualties and
material damage. Indian Railways incur heavy loss due to such accidents every year.
Some of the common safety measures are:-
• At railway crossings pay attention to the signal and the swing barrier. Do not get underneath
and try to get across.
• In case of a unmanned crossing, get down from the vehicle and look at either sides of the
track before crossing.
• Do not stop the train on a bridge or tunnel where evacuation is not possible.
• Do not carry inflammable material in a train.
• Do not lean out of a moving train.
• Do not smoke in train.
• Do not pull the emergency cord unnecessarily.
(iii) Air accidents
Air accidents may occur due to technical problems, fire, poor landing and take-off, weather
conditions, hijacking, bombing etc. Some of the common safety measures are:
• Pay attention to the flight crew safety demonstration.
• Carefully read the safety card in the pocket.
• Know where is the nearest emergency exit and learn how to open it.
• Always keep your seatbelt fastened when seated.
• Stay calm, listen to the crew members and follow their instructions.
• Before you try to open any emergency door yourself, look outside the window. If you see a
fire outside the door, do not open it or the flame may spread into the cabin. Try to use an
alternate route for escape.
• Remember, smoke rises. So try to stay down if there is smoke in the cabin.
• If you have a cloth, put it over your nose and mouth.

Vulnerability
 It is the susceptibility of a population to specific type of event. Vulnerability is also
associated with the degree of possible or potential loss from a risk that results from a
hazard at a given intensity.
 It is essential to make distinction between hazard and disaster. The presence of hazard
by its self can neither cause risk nor disasters. There are different predisposing factors
that make vulnerable the survivors. The following are some of such underlying
causes:
 Poverty: Virtually all disaster studies show that the wealthiest of the population
survive the disaster, remains unaffected or are able to recover quickly.
 Population growth: Increasing number of people will compete for limited amount of
resources which can lead to conflict and conflict may result in crisis-induced
migration.
  Rapid urbanization: competition for scarce resources is an inevitable consequence of
rapid urbanization, leading to human-made disasters.
 Environmental degradation: Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off, which
contributes to flooding.
 Wars and civil strife are among the principal man made factors precipitating disaster.
 Lack of awareness and information: Disasters can also happen because people
vulnerable to them simply do not know how to get out of harm’s way or to take
protective measures.

COMMUNITY LEVEL DISASTER MANAGEMENT

At the time of disaster, various agencies such as government, NGOs and community plays an
important role for disaster management. These are preparedness, response, recovery and
prevention details are on follows:
Disaster management has four basic components:
Preparedness
Preparedness: Are the measures that ensure the organized mobilization of personnel, funds,
equipments, and supplies within a safe environment for effective relief. Disaster preparedness
is building up of capacities before a disaster situation prevails in order to reduce impacts. Its
measures include inter alia, availability of food reserve, emergency reserve fund, seed
reserve, health facilities, warning systems, logistical infrastructure, relief manual, and shelves
of projects.
Measure to ensure that communities and services are capable of coping with the effect of
disaster. It has the following main elements:
• Community awareness and education;
• Preparation of disaster management plans for community, school, individual;
• Mock drill, training and practice;
• Inventory of resources both material resources and human skill resources;
• Proper warning systems;
• Mutual aid arrangement;
• Identifying the vulnerable groups;
Response
Measures taken in anticipation of, during and immediately after a disaster for minimizing its
adverse impact. It has following main elements:
• Activate the emergency operation centres (control room);
• Deployment of search and rescue teams.
• Issuing updated warning;
• Setting up community kitchens using local groups;
• Set up temporary living accomodation and toilet faciliites;
• Set up medical camps;
• Mobilising resources;
Recovery
Measures are initiated to undertake reconstruction of the physical infrastructure and
restoration of economic and emotional well being. The main elements are as follows:
• Community awareness on health and safety measures;
• Counselling programme for those who have lost the near and dear ones;
• Restoring the essential services -roads, communication links, electricity etc.;
• Providing shelters;
• Collecting usable materials for construction from rubble;
• Providing financial support
• Finding employment opportunities;
• Reconstructing new buildings.
Prevention
 Prevention is defined as those activities taken to prevent a natural phenomenon or
potential hazard from having harmful effects on either people or economic assets.
Delayed actions drain the economy and the resources for emergency response within a
region. For developing nations, prevention is perhaps the most critical components in
managing disasters, however, it is clearly one of the most difficult to promote.
 Prevention planning is based on two issues: hazard identification (identifying the
actual threats facing a community) and vulnerability assessment (evaluating the risk
and capacity of a community to handle the consequences of the disaster). Once these
issues put in order of priority, emergency managers can determine the appropriate
prevention strategies.
Measures to eliminate or reduce the incidence of severity.
• Land use planning;
• Preventing habitation in risk zones;
• Disaster resistant buildings;
• Finding ways to reduce risk even before the disaster strikes;
• Community awareness and education.
The first few hours before and after a disaster are critical and precious for saving lives and
reducing further injury. Often external help may take time to reach the disaster site. In any
disaster, often the neighbours are first to respond. The first responders are people who act
first in a disaster situation, usually lack basic response skills to deal medical or other
emergencies. The aim of community level management is to train the individuals and the
members of local community to deal with emergency situation effectively. Trained
community members are life saving assets in such situations. Thus community level
management involves people’s participation.
Mitigation
 Mitigation: is permanent reduction of the risk of a disaster. Primary mitigation refers
to reducing the resistance of the hazard and reducing vulnerability. Secondary
mitigation refers to reducing the effects of the hazard (preparedness). Mitigation
includes recognizing that disasters will occur; attempts are made to reduce the harmful
effects of a disaster, and to limit their impact on human suffering and economic assets.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The Government of India has set up a National Committee on Disaster Management (NCDM)
under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister. The recommendations of this National
Committee would form the basis of national disaster risk management programme and
strengthening the natural disaster management and response mechanisms. United Nations
Development Programmes (UNDP) has also been supporting various initiatives of the
government to strengthen disaster management capacities.
The programme components would include the following:
• Development of state and district disaster management plans.
• Development of disaster risk management and response plans at Village/ Ward, Gram
Panchayat, Block/Urban Local Body levels.
• Constitutions of Disaster Management Teams and Committees at all levels with adequate
representation of women in all committees and team. (Village/ Ward, Gram Panchayat,
Block/Urban local body, District and State.)
• Capacity Building of Disaster Management Teams at all levels. Special training for women
in first aid, shelter management, water and sanitation, rescue and evacuation, etc.
• Capacity Building in cyclone and earthquake resistant features for houses in disaster prone
districts, training in retrofitting, and construction of technology demonstration units.
• Integration of disaster management plans with development plans of local self governments.

What is disaster risk reduction?

Historically, dealing with disasters focused on emergency response, but towards the end of
the 20th century it was increasingly recognised that disasters are not natural (even if the
associated hazard is) and that it is only by reducing and managing conditions of hazard,
exposure and vulnerability that we can prevent losses and alleviate the impacts of disasters.
Since we cannot reduce the severity of natural hazards, the main opportunity for reducing risk
lies in reducing vulnerability and exposure. Reducing these two components of risk requires
identifying and reducing the underlying drivers of risk, which are particularly related to poor
economic and urban development choices and practice, degradation of the environment,
poverty and inequality and climate change, which create and exacerbate conditions
of hazard, exposure and vulnerability. Addressing these underlying risk drivers will reduce
disaster risk, lessen the impacts of climate change and, consequently, maintain the
sustainability of development.
We need to manage risks, not just disasters.
DRR is a part of sustainable development, so it must involve every part of society,
government, non-governmental organizations and the professional and private sector. It
therefore requires a people-centred and multi-sector approach, building resilience to multiple,
cascading and interacting hazards and creating a culture of prevention and resilience.
Consequently DRM includes strategies designed to:
 avoid the construction of new risks
 address pre-existing risks
 share and spread risk to prevent disaster losses being absorbed by other
development outcomes and creating additional poverty
Although DRM includes disaster preparedness and response activities, it is about much more
than managing disasters.
Successful DRR results from the combination of top-down, institutional changes and
strategies, with bottom-up, local and community-based approaches. DRM programmes
should not be standalone but instead be integrated within development planning and practice,
since disasters are an indicator of failed or skewed development, of unsustainable economic
and social processes, and of ill-adapted societies.
Approaches need to address the different layers of risk (from intensive to extensive risk),
underlying risk drivers, as well as be tailored to local contexts. There is no ‘one-size fits all’
approach to DRM, but there exist a number of approaches and frameworks, which have been
effectively implemented to reduce disaster risk. But, before being able to reduce risk, we need
to understand the hazards, and the exposure and vulnerability of people and assets to those
hazards.

How do we reduce risk?

Disaster risk management involves activities related to:
Prevention
Activities and measures to avoid existing and new disaster risks (often less costly than
disaster relief and response). For instance, relocating exposed people and assets away from a
hazard area.
Mitigation
The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters. For
instance, constructing flood defences, planting trees to stabilize slopes and implementing
strict land use and building construction codes.
Transfer
The process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences of particular risks
from one party to another whereby a household, community, enterprise or state authority will
obtain resources from the other party after a disaster occurs, in exchange for ongoing or
compensatory social or financial benefits provided to that other party. For instance, insurance.
Preparedness
The knowledge and capacities of governments, professional response and recovery
organisations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover
from the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions. For instance,
installing early warning systems, identifying evacuation routes and preparing emergency
supplies.
Implementation of these activities and measures is rarely done in isolation and includes a
number of associated activities, including:
 Identification and measuring disaster risk
 Education and knowledge development
 Informing people about their risk (awareness raising)
 Incorporating DRM into national planning and investment
 Strengthening institutional and legislative arrangements
 Integrating DRR across multiple sectors, including health, environment, etc.
 Providing financial protection for people and businesses at risk (finance and
contingency planning)

Identifying and understanding risk: the foundation of risk reduction

Awareness, identification, understanding and measurement of disaster risks are all clearly
fundamental underpinnings of disaster risk management. Disaster risk reduction is about
decisions and choices, including a lack of, so risk information has a role in five key areas of
decision making:

Risk identification

Because the damages and losses caused by historical disasters are often not widely known,
and because the potential damages and losses that could arise from future disasters (including
infrequent but high-impact events) may not be known at all, DRM is given a low priority.
Appropriate communication of robust risk information at the right time can raise awareness
and trigger action.

Risk reduction

Hazard and risk information may be used to inform a broad range of activities to reduce risk,
from improving building codes and designing risk reduction measures (such as flood and
storm surge protection), to carrying out macro-level assessments of the risks to different types
of buildings (for prioritizing investment in reconstruction and retrofitting, for example).
Preparedness

An understanding of the geographic area affected, along with the intensity and frequency of
different hazard events, is critical for planning evacuation routes, creating shelters, and
running preparedness drills. Providing a measure of the impact of different hazard events—
potential number of damaged buildings, fatalities and injuries, secondary hazards—makes it
possible to establish detailed and realistic plans for better response to disasters, which can
ultimately reduce the severity of adverse natural events.

Financial protection

Disaster risk analysis was born out of the financial and insurance sector’s need to quantify the
risk of comparatively rare high-impact natural hazard events. As governments increasingly
seek to manage their sovereign financial risk or support programs that manage individual
financial risks (e.g., micro-insurance or household earthquake insurance).

Resilient reconstruction

Risk assessment can play a critical role in impact modelling before an event strikes (in the
days leading up to a cyclone, for example), or it can provide initial and rapid estimates of
human, physical, and economic loss in an event’s immediate aftermath. Moreover, risk
information for resilient reconstruction needs to be available before an event occurs, since
after the event there is rarely time to collect the information needed to inform resilient design
and land-use plans.

Are we reducing disaster risk?

While we have made some progress in reducing disaster mortality associated with intensive
risks, increasing exposure of people and economic assets means that mortality and economic
losses from extensive risk are trending up and absolute global economic losses from disasters
are increasing, although not relative to GDP. Some low and middle-income countries may not
have the financial resilience to accommodate the likely average annual losses from future
disasters, which threaten the very economic existence of many small island development
states.
We’ve been generating risk faster than we have been reducing it.

More needs to be done to prevent new risks, which are already emerging owing to increasing
urbanisation, the threat of climate change and other risk drivers. In an increasingly
interconnected world, we are seeing that disasters can also result in synchronous failures.
Development can be sustainable, it is just a question of whether we can change our approach
in time to prevent disaster risk from reaching dangerous levels.

We have made more progress in managing disasters than in reducing our disaster risk.

Over the last 10 years, there has been significant progress in strengthening disaster
preparedness, response and early warning capacities and in reducing specific risks, according
to the HFA Monitor. However, progress has been limited in most countries when it comes to
managing the underlying risks.

Although we know how to reduce disaster risk, there is often a lack of incentive to do so.

Both individuals, governments and businesses tend to discount low-probability future losses
and seem reluctant to invest in DRM. Despite the magnitude of disaster costs, reducing risks
is often perceived as less of a priority than fiscal stability, unemployment or inflation. New
evidence demonstrates, however that the opportunity cost of disasters is high and that many
low and middle-income countries, and small island development states are financially unable
to cope with the predicted future losses from disasters while also maintaining their capacity to
develop. In other words, they are not resilient.