Different types of data & their tabulation

& graphical representation

RESEARCH REPORT
In

statistics
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar university Agra
For the fulfilment of

Bachelor of Science
2024
Under the supervision of
DR. Rohit Patawa
Department of statistics
Agra college, Agra
By

Anshika Rathore
2200010041143
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A student at a university will have to write the acknowledgement for their project or
research paper stating that the submission is done and is not copied. The
acknowledgement sample for the university project is mostly attached after the
dedication page thanking all the faculty members of the department, HOD and the
mentor.

I would like to express my profound gratitude to Mr. Digvijay pal sir , of statistics
department for their contributions to the completion of my project titled different
types of data & their tabulation & graphical representation.

I would like to express my special thanks to our mentor Mr. Rohit patawa sir for his
time and efforts he provided throughout the year. Your useful advice and
suggestions were really helpful to me during the project’s completion. In this aspect, I
am eternally grateful to you.

I would like to acknowledge that this project was completed entirely by me and not
by someone else.

Signature

Anshika Rathore
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 INDEX
Sr no. Description page no.

1. Introduction of data types 7

2. Classification of Data 8

3. Qualitative Data 9

4. Quantitative Data 11

5. Tabulation of Data 14

6. Types of Tabulations 14

7. Tabulation of Qualitative Data 16

8. Tabulation of Quantitative Data 19

9. Graphical representation of 21
Qualitative Data

10. Graphical representation of 29

Quantitative Data

11. Problem 31

12. Conclusion 33

13. Reference 34
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 Introduction to data types

In the world of data analysis. Understanding the

different types of data and how to properly tabulate
and graphically represent them is crucial. This
document will guide you through the key concepts
of qualitative and quantitative data, as well as the
techniques for effectively organizing and visualizing
this information.
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 Classification of Data

Data can be classified into various types based on their

characteristics and the way they are collected, stored, and
analysed. Here are the main types of data:
Data is a valuable asset – so much so that it’s the world’s most
valuable resource. That makes understanding the different types of data – and
the role of a data scientist – more important than ever. In the business world,
more companies are trying to understand big numbers and what they can do
with them. Expertise in data is in high demand. Determining the right data and
measurement scales enables companies to organise, identify, analyse and
ultimately use data to inform strategies that will allow them to make a genuine
impact.
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 Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is non-numerical data that describes qualities or
characteristics. Unlike quantitative data, which deals with quantities and
measurements, qualitative data provides descriptive information that cannot
be easily quantified. Qualitative data often comes from observations,
interviews, surveys, or open-ended responses, and it is commonly used in
fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and market research.

Qualitative data describes the qualities of data points and is non-numerical.

It’s used to define the information and can also be further broken down into
sub-categories through the four scales of measurement.

1.Ordinal Data:
1. Ordinal data represents categories with a specific order or ranking.
However, the differences between categories are not uniform or
measurable. Examples include:
2. Educational attainment (high school diploma, bachelor’s degree,
master’s degree, Ph.D.)
3. Likert scale responses (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly
disagree)
4. Socioeconomic status (low, middle, high)

2. Nominal Data:
1. Nominal data consists of categories with no inherent order or
ranking. Each category is distinct and unrelated to other categories.
Examples include:
 Types of fruits (apple, banana, orange)
 Types of pets (dog, cat, bird, fish)
 Colours (red, blue, green, yellow)
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 Qualitative data analysis often involves techniques such as
thematic analysis, content analysis, coding, and narrative analysis.
Unlike quantitative data, which is analyzed using statistical
methods, qualitative data analysis focuses on identifying themes,
patterns, and meanings within the data. Visualization of qualitative
data may involve techniques such as word clouds, thematic maps,
or concept maps to illustrate key themes or patterns.
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 Quantitative Data

Quantitative data, also known as numerical data, is information that can

be measured and expressed with numbers. It deals with quantities and
amounts, making it suitable for mathematical operations and statistical
analysis. Quantitative data can be further classified into two main types:
continuous and discrete.

1. Discrete Data:
 Discrete data can only take specific, distinct values and cannot
be measured to fractions or decimals. It usually comes in whole
numbers and often results from counting. Examples include:
 Number of students in a classroom
 Number of cars in a parking lot
 Number of books on a shelf
 Number of goals scored in a soccer match.
 Number of siblings in a family
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 2. Continuous Data:
 Continuous data can take any value within a given range and
can be measured to any level of precision. It is often obtained
through measurement. Examples include:
 Height
 Weight
 Temperature
 Time
 Distance
 Speed
 Age (when measured in years or months)

Continuous data has two parts :

o Interval scale
o Ratio scale

 Interval scale :
The interval scale contains properties of nominal and ordered data, but
the difference between data points can be quantified. This type of data
shows both the order of the variables and the exact differences between
the variables. They can be added to or subtracted from each other, but not
multiplied or divided. For example, 40 degrees is not 20 degrees
multiplied by two.
This scale is also characterised by the fact that the number zero is an
existing variable. In the ordinal scale, zero means that the data does not
exist. In the interval scale, zero has meaning – for example, if you measure
degrees, zero has a temperature.
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 Data points on the interval scale have the same difference between them.
The difference on the scale between 10 and 20 degrees is the same
between 20 and 30 degrees. This scale is used to quantify the difference
between variables, whereas the other two scales are used to describe
qualitative values only. Other examples of interval scales include the year
a car was made or the months of the year.

 Ratio scale :
Ratio scale of measurement include properties from all four scales
of measurement. The data is nominal and defined by an identity, can be
classified in order, contains intervals and can be broken down into exact
value. Weight, height, and distance are all examples of ratio variables.
Data in the ratio scale can be added, subtracted, divided, and multiplied.
Ratio scales also differ from interval scales in that the scale has a ‘true
zero’. The number zero means that the data has no value point. An
example of this is height or weight, as someone cannot be zero
centimetres tall or weigh zero kilos – or be negative centimetres or
negative kilos. Examples of the use of this scale are calculating shares or
sales. Of all types of data on the scales of measurement, data scientists
can do the most with ratio data points.
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 Tabulation of Data

Tabulation passes on to the meticulous arrangement of the information

in to two forms (i.e., Column wise and row wise preparations). These
columns and rows are systematically put in an order and are horizontally
arranged. The records, facts of any data or statistics are tabulated and are
represented in rectangular formation with appropriate headings to put
together clearly all the information into special columns and rows. The
most important intention of the table is to formulate simpler the figures /
numbers and to facilitate comparisons.

Types of tabulation :

There are different types of tabulations: simple, complex, double, and three-
way tabulation.
 Simple Tabulation
 Complex Tabulation (including Cross-tabulation)
 Double Tabulation
 Three-way tabulation

1. Simple Tabulation:
Simple or one-way tabulation involves tallying data based on a single
attribute, such as language when analyzing global population statistics.

2. Complex Tabulation:

Complex tabulation is more intricate, involving data tabulation across

multiple variables like religion, language, literacy, and gender for a
comprehensive analysis of the world’s population.
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 3. Double Tabulation:

Double or two-way tabulation combines data from two

characteristics simultaneously. For example, when examining the
population in Indian states, a table might compare the total number
of males and females.

4. Three-way tabulation:

Three-way tabulation goes a step further, presenting data from three

interrelated subjects. In the previous example, it could involve
analyzing literacy rates among men and women in various states.
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 Tabulation of Qualitative Data
Tabulating qualitative data involves organizing and
summarizing the information collected into a structured
format, typically using tables. While qualitative data is non-
numeric and descriptive in nature, it can still be tabulated to
provide an overview of the different categories, frequencies,
and other relevant information. Here’s how you can tabulate
qualitative data:

1.Frequency Distribution:
 Create a table with two columns: one for the
categories or codes and another for the frequency
or count.
 List each category or code in the first column.
 Count the occurrences of each category or code
and record the frequency in the second column.
 Optionally, you can include percentages or
proportions to show the relative distribution.

Example:

Category Frequency
Category A 10
Category B 15
Category C 8
Category D 12
Total 45
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 2. Cross-Tabulation:
 If your qualitative data involves multiple variables,
you can create a cross-tabulation table to
examine the relationship between them.
 Create a table with rows representing one variable
and columns representing another variable.
 Populate the cells of the table with counts or
frequencies of each combination of variables .

Example:

Variable 1: A Variable 1: B Total

Variable 2: X 5 10 15
Variable 2: Y 8 12 20
Variable 2: Z 7 5 12
Total 20 27 47

3. Qualitative Description:
 In addition to numerical counts, you can also
provide qualitative descriptions or explanations for
each category or code.
 This can help provide context and meaning to the
data, especially if it’s being presented to an
audience unfamiliar with the subject matter.
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 Tabulating qualitative data helps to organize and
summarize the information in a structured format, making it
easier to identify patterns, trends, and relationships within the
data.

While tables are the most common form of tabulation for

qualitative data, you can also use other visual aids such as
charts or graphs to represent the information visually.
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 Tabulation of Quantitative Data

Tabulating quantitative data involves organizing numerical

information into a table format for easier interpretation and analysis.
Here’s how you can create a basic tabulation:

1. Identify Variables:

Determine which variables you want to tabulate. For

quantitative data, these variables will involve numerical values.

2. Determine Categories or Classes:

If your data is continuous, you might need to group it into

categories or classes to make it more manageable. This is often
done through the process of binning.

3. Create a Table:

Set up a table with rows and columns to organize your data.

Typically, the rows represent the categories or classes, while the
columns may represent various statistics or attributes.

4. Compute Statistics:
Depending on your objectives, you may want to include statistics such
as frequency, mean, median, mode, standard deviation, etc. These can
help summarize the data and provide insights into its distribution and
central tendencies.
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 5. Fill in the Table:
Populate the table with the computed statistics for each category or
class.

6. Format the Table:

Format the table for clarity and readability. This may involve adding
headers, borders, and emphasizing important values.

7. Interpret the Results:

Once the table is complete, analyze the data to draw conclusions and
insights. Look for patterns, trends, outliers, etc.

For example, let’s say you have collected data on the ages of people in
a certain community. You decide to create a tabulation to summarize
this data:

Age Group Frequency

0-10 25
11-20 45
21-30 60
31-40 40
41-50 35
51-60 20
61-70 15
71-80 5
81-90 3
91-100 2

In this table, the “Age Group” column represents the different age ranges,
and the “Frequency” column shows how many individuals fall into each age
group. This tabulation provides a clear overview of the age distribution within
the community.
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 Graphical Representative of Qualitative
Data
Graphical representation of qualitative data aims to visually
represent non-numerical information, such as categories, labels, or
attributes. Here are some common methods for graphically
representing qualitative data:

1. Bar Chart:
A bar chart is useful for displaying the frequency or proportion
of different categories. Each category is represented by a
separate bar, with the height (or length) of the bar
corresponding to the frequency or proportion.

Bar Charts (Bar Graphs)

• A ‘Bar graph’ is a way to visually represent qualitative data.

• They enable visual comparison of frequencies in the categories.
– The length of each bar is proportional to the frequency to be represented.
Hence a suitable scale is to be used.
– Bars may be vertical or horizontal.
– All the bars in a graph should be of the same width.
– The bars must be separated by appropriate spaces for clarity
• It has been suggested that the spacing between the bars should be half of the
width of the bars
–Bars should preferably be arranged in increasing or decreasing order or in an
order that suits the context e.g. Chronological order
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Type of Bar Charts
Three types of bar charts are commonly used:
1 Simple bar chart
2. Multiple bar chart – Two or more bar charts are grouped together
3. Component bar chart (Proportional bar chart): the bars may be subdivided
into two or more parts, depending upon
– The number of the subgroups.
– The length of each part is in proportion to its magnitude
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• Simple bar chart
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• Multiple bar chart

2.Pie Chart:
A pie chart shows the proportions of different categories as slices of a
circular pie. Each category is represented by a slice, and the size of the
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slice corresponds to the proportion of that category in the total.

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 Pie diagram
• It is a diagram in which the frequencies are depicted as sectors of a circle,
• The degrees and hence the size of each sector is proportional to the
frequency of the variable.
• The sectors should be arranged clockwise in descending order and
• The respective percentage is depicted on the sectors.

Pie diagram is suitable when:

• The number of categories is small
• The frequency of each group can be added to get the total number of
observations (i.e. the responses are mutually exclusive)

Steps of Creating a Pie Diagram

1. Calculate pie chart proportions:

a) Calculate each frequency as proportion of the total (p1, p2 ....pn)

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b) Calculate the angle for each pie slice or sector. The formula is p1
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X 360⁰, p2 X 360⁰,.....pn X360⁰

 2. Draw a circle
3. Draw a radius of the circle
4. Place the protractor on this radius
5. Plot a point on the circle at the first calculated angle
6. Join this with the centre of the circle, the first sector and a new radius
is now obtained.
7. Place the protractor on this new radius and plot a point on the circle at
the next calculated angle
8. Each time you add a section, the radius changes to the line you just
drew; rotate the protractor accordingly
9. Color each segment differently and make the color code key
10. Mention the frequencies and percentages on each sector.

3.Pictogram:
Pictograms use pictures or symbols to represent categories,
with the size or number of symbols representing the
frequency or proportion of each category.
Pie diagram is suitable when:
• The number of categories is small
• The frequency of each group can be added to get the total number of
observations (i.e. the responses are mutually exclusive)

Steps of Creating a Pie Diagram

1. Calculate pie chart proportions:
a) Calculate each frequency as proportion of the total (p1, p2 ....pn)
b) Calculate the angle for each pie slice or sector. The formula is p1 X
360⁰, p2 X 360⁰,.....pn X360⁰
2. Draw a circle
3. Draw a radius of the circle
4. Place the protractor on this radius
5. Plot a point on the circle at the first calculated angle
6. Join this with the centre of the circle, the first sector and a new radius is
now obtained.
7. Place the protractor on this new radius and plot a point on the circle at
the next calculated angle
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8. Each time you add a section, the radius changes to the line you just
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drew; rotate the protractor accordingly.

 9. Color each segment differently and make the color code key
10. Mention the frequencies and percentages on each sector

Pictogram
• Pictograms are a visually engaging way to present information
• These are meant to convey data to the ‘man in the street’ who finds it
difficult to comprehend complex charts
• Small pictures or symbols are used to present the data
• The number of pictures is proportional to the frequency size
• One picture depicts a fixed number
• A fraction of a picture can be used to represent a smaller number
• Pictograms are not effective for visualizing large sets of data.
– In this cases, a bar chart is more effective. But for a few simple data
series
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 1. Histogram:
While histograms are typically used for quantitative data, they can also
be adapted for qualitative data by grouping categories into bins. Each bin
represents a range of categories, and the height of the bar corresponds to
the frequency or proportion of categories within that range
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 Graphical Representation of Quantitative
Data
Graphically representing quantitative data is essential for understanding
patterns, trends, and distributions within the data. Here are some common
methods for graphical representation of quantitative data:

1. Histogram:
Histograms are used to display the frequency distribution of
continuous data. The data is divided into intervals (bins), and the
height of each bar represents the frequency or proportion of data points
in that interval.

2. Line Chart:
Line charts are useful for showing trends over time or across ordered
categories. Each data point is plotted on the chart, and lines are drawn
to connect the points, illustrating the trend.

3. Scatter Plot:
Scatter plots are used to visualize the relationship between two
quantitative variables. Each data point is represented by a dot on the
plot, with one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis.

4. Box Plot (Box-and-Whisker Plot):

Box plots provide a visual summary of the distribution of data along
with measures of central tendency and variability. They show the
median, quartiles, and any outliers in the data.

5. Bar Chart:
While typically used for qualitative data, bar charts can also represent
quantitative data by showing the values of different categories or
groups.
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 6. Pie Chart:
Pie charts are not typically used for quantitative data unless the data
can be divided into categories with proportions that add up to 100%.

7. Area Chart:
Area charts are similar to line charts but represent the area under the
line, which can be useful for visualizing cumulative data or
proportions.

8. Heatmap:
Heatmaps are useful for visualizing data in a matrix format,
with colours representing the magnitude of the data values .

9. Bubble Chart:
Bubble charts are similar to scatter plots but can represent three
variables, with the size of the bubbles indicating the magnitude of the
third variable.

10. Violin Plot:

Violin plots combine elements of box plots and kernel density plots to
show the distribution of data, including its probability density.

Choose the most appropriate graph based on the nature of your data and the
insights you want to convey. Each type of graph has its strengths and
weaknesses, so it’s essential to select the one that best suits your needs.
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 Problem

Construct a histogram of the following marks in a maths test

where the maximum possible mark is

20.2, 4, 14, 14, 16, 17, 13, 16, 7,2, 4, 14, 14, 16, 17, 13, 16, 7,8, 9, 10, 11, 19, 18,
15, 15, 16,8, 9, 10, 11, 19, 18, 15, 15, 16,13, 12, 7, 8, 9, 12, 11, 18.13, 12, 7, 8,
9, 12, 11, 18.

Solution
Firstly order your data so it will make it easier to group.

2, 4, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10, 11,2, 4, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10, 11,11, 12, 12, 13, 13, 14, 14, 1
5, 15, 16,11, 12, 12, 13, 13, 14, 14, 15, 15, 16,16, 16, 17, 18, 18, 19.16, 16, 17,
18, 18, 19.

Next, look at your data and find the minimum and maximum values and choose
a sensible class width. The minimum value is 22 and the maximum value
is 1919, a sensible class width would be anywhere between 33 and 55; for this
example you might choose 44. Your class intervals will
be 0−40−4, 5−85−8, 9−129−12, 13−1613−16 and 17−2017−20.

Now you need to collect your data into a frequency distribution table.

Test Score Frequency

0−40−4 22
5−85−8 44
9−129−12 77
13−1613−16 99
17−2017−20 44

This can now be plotted on a histogram.

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 Conclusion
 Tabulation is a method of organizing data into a table format, making
it easier to summarize and analyze.
 Graphical representation provides visual insights into the data,
allowing for easier interpretation and communication of findings.
 The choice of tabulation and graphical representation methods
depends on the nature of the data (qualitative or quantitative) and the
objectives of the analysis.
 By employing appropriate tabulation and graphical representation
techniques, researchers and analysts can effectively explore,
understand, and communicate insights derived from different types
of data.

Understanding how to tabulate and graphically represent both

qualitative and quantitative data is essential for various fields, including
statistics, research, data analysis, and decision-making processes. These
methods facilitate the exploration and communication of insights derived
from data, leading to informed conclusions and actions.
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 Reference
Classification of data :
https://studyonline.unsw.edu.au/blog/types-of-data

Qualitative data:
https://studyonline.unsw.edu.au/blog/types-of-data

Quantitative data:
https://studyonline.unsw.edu.au/blog/types-of-data

Tabulation of data:
https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/hsp16/chapter/and-tabulation-of-data/

Types of tabulation:
https://www.pw.live/exams/commerce/tabulation-meaning-and-objectives/

Graphical representation of Qualitative data:

https://ihatepsm.com/blog/presentation-qualitative-data

Graphical representation of Quantitative data:

https://chatgpt.com/?oai-dm=1
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