CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Due to the ease with which it can be converted to other forms of energy and have other forms of
energy converted into it, electrical energy has taken the centre stage of the energy industry,
becoming perhaps the most utilized, cleanest and most flexible form of energy available to man.

With the global energy crisis posing an insurmountable challenge, the need for efficient and
clean energy cannot be overemphasized. The power inverter is one of the outlets with great but
under tapped potentials which can be better maximized to reduce the world’s energy crisis.

Power inverters are power electronic devices whose basic function is to take in DC energy from
the input and supply AC energy at the output. The aim of this project is to investigate power
inverters and batteries and their history, development, design, construction and marketability as
good supplementary or even alternatives to other sources of power supply.

Chemical secondary batteries can help store energy for later use and inverters can harness this
energy and convert it to useful form in an efficient way. Inverters and batteries offer a good
source of alternative energy with relatively affordable cost, high efficiency and environmental
friendliness, and must be given keen attention in Nigeria. It is pertinent to reduce the reliance on
fossil fuels in Nigeria, hence the need for scientists, technologists and engineers to make result
oriented research into other energy alternatives like inverters and batteries.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1.1 ELECTRICAL POWER INVERTERS

The electrical power inverter is a power electronic device that can convert direct current to
alternating current. It belongs to the family of power electronic devices called converters which
change electricity from one form to another. An opposite power electronic device which converts
AC electricity to DC is the rectifier, while an electronic device which performs the same function
as the inverter, but works with low current and voltage for processing signals in electronics is the
oscillator. Castro F. (14 May 2019).

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In the early twentieth century, DC to AC power inversion was done with a combination of
motors and generators where the direct current runs the motor which then drives the generator
which generates the AC electricity. The introduction of electronics saw the shift to vacuum tubes
and gas tubes as switches to generate pulsating signals. The birth of solid state semiconductor
electronic devices in the mid twentieth century saw another shift to the use of controlled rectifier
circuits starting with the thyristor in the 1950s. These inverters operated on the principle of using
controlled rectifier circuits in the inversion mode to convert DC to AC. The switching actions of
the thyristor brings about commutation which when controlled can be used in an inversion mode
to generate AC signals. The use of transistors and IGBTs have since overtaken the use of
thyristors for making inverter circuits.

Since the 1970s, the pulse width modulated variable-voltage-variable-frequency (PWM-VVVF)

speed control systems have been used . The improvement of micro processor technology has
made the implementation of various optimization algorithm possible. Since the 21 st century,
domestic inverters have gradually taken over the high end market, especially in the developing
nations like Nigeria where consistent power supply is a challenge. Wainwright K. (14 July
2022).

The origin of the inverter, like most other inventions and discoveries cannot be exactly
established, however, the term ‘‘inverter’’ was probably coined by David Prince. In 1925 Prince
did publish an article in the GE Review titled ‘’The Inverter’’ which contains a lot of the
important elements used in modern day inverters and was the earliest official publication to use
the term in an open literature.

The idea of using grid control in combination with phase retard to modulate AC power was well
known four years earlier, however, Prince seems to have been the one who coined the word
‘’inverter’’ from Alexanderson’s expression ‘’inverted rectification’’ and by 1936, Prince’s
inverter appeared in literature from all parts of the world. Prince defined the inverter as the
inverse of rectifier. The term ‘’rectifier’’ being in common use for well over two decades prior to
1925, was known to mean a stationary device or rotating commutator used for converting
alternating current to direct current.

2
Rotary converters which were manufactured up until the 1950s and later called synchronous
converters, were already in use by 1892 to convert AC power to DC power. When operated to
convert DC power to AC power, rotaries were called ‘’inverted rotaries’’. Prince explained that
an inverter is used to convert direct current to single phase or polyphase alternating current,
explaining how he took the rectifier circuit and inverted it – changing an input direct current at
one end to an output alternating current at the other end. Today the IEEE dictionary clearly
defines the electric power inverter as ‘’a machine, device or system that changes DC power to
AC power’’. (Prince D. 1925).

The types and specifications of inverters may be determined by the following properties:

 INPUT VOLTAGE

Depending on the intended application, the input voltage from the source may take the following
ranges:

(i) 12V for powering computers and vehicle electronic systems.

(ii) 24V-48V for backup domestic power to run low power domestic appliances.

(iii) 200V-400V from solar panels.

(iv) 300V-450V from electric vehicle batteries and

(v) As much as hundreds of thousands of volts when used as part of high voltage DC
transmission systems.

 OUPUT VOLTAGE

This ranges from 120V to 240V and may be designed to cater for variable voltages according to
the intended function.

 OUTPUT FREQUENCY

This is usually 50Hz or 60Hz as found in the grid power system, or variable frequency when
intended for motor drives to maximize the efficiency of the motors and give desirable speed-
torque properties.

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  OUTPUT POWER

This determines the types and number of devices that can be powered by the inverter and
invariably, the types, number and setup of the batteries or DC sources to be used as it important
to note that the inverter does not generate power on its own, rather it converts the power
generated by a DC source to the required output form. It is usually given in Watts or most
commonly in VoltAmperes and may be from 300VA to 3500VA for domestic applications.
Higher values are designed for higher applications.

 OUTPUT WAVEFORM

It is basically of three types namely: pure sine wave, modified sine wave and square wave.

The pure sine wave is the most commonly used especially for domestic and industrial
applications where the inverter is used with appliances, devices and machines that are designed
to operate on the power generated by the grid system. These inverters are designed to have low
total harmonic distortion (THD) of less than 5% as found in the grid power system due to the fact
that the appliances and devices they power may be sensitive to higher distortions and have their
performances affected.

The modified sine wave and square wave have very limited applications. They can only be used
where performance and efficiency are not emphasized, like in some lighting and heating
applications. (Wikipedia 2022).

1.1.2 WORKING PRINCIPLES OF THE ELECTRICAL POWER INVERTER

A simple inverter circuit consists of a DC energy source connected to a transformer through the
centre tap of the primary winding of the transformer, with a switch implemented in the circuit.
The switch is switched back and forth rapidly, allowing current to flow through the circuit
following two alternate paths as provided by the two ends of the primary winding of the
transformer. This alternation in the direction of current flow in the primary winding of the
transformer brings about alternating current in the secondary side of the transformer.

The activity of the switch determines the shape and form of the alternating current produced in
the secondary circuit. The switch may be electromechanical or electronic. The electromechanical

4
switch, also called a vibrator or buzzer, consists of two stationary contacts and a spring
supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary
contacts and a generated electromagnet pulls the pulls the movable contact to the other stationary
contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch allowing the
switch to continually move back and forth.

The growth of the semiconductor devices brought forth the more reliable electronic switches like
thyristors and transistors which can perform multiple switching actions in just a second. Then
came micro processors which brought about controlled switching, leading to better efficiency of
the inverter and the production of better waveforms. The presence of the transformer at the
output ensures the production of sine wave as opposed to just square wave which could have
been gotten without the transformer. Today, there are many circuit designs and topologies for the
various control strategies used in modern power inverters according to the intended function of
the device. (Wikipedia 2022).

1.1.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL SECONDARY CELLS

Chemical energy is associated with chemical bonds. Energy is absorbed from the surrounding
when chemical bonds are broken (endothermicity) and energy is given off to the surrounding
when chemical bonds are formed (exothermicity). The phenomenon of electrolysis is the bridge
which connects chemical energy with electrical energy, generating DC electricity from mere
chemical changes. The chemical cell is a device which operates on these principles to store
chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy when needed. The secondary or storage cells
(accumulators) have since been developed to generate energy one way and recover energy
another way for future generation in an energy cycle.

A battery is an interconnection of two or more cells in series or parallel or both combinations.

Two or more batteries may also be connected in series or parallel arrangement or a combination
of both arrangements. In series arrangement, the positive terminal of one battery is connected to
the negative terminal of the next, resulting in addition of the voltages of the batteries. This means
that when one battery dies, the others will not work as the circuit has become open. Meanwhile
in parallel arrangement, the positive terminals of the batteries are connected and the negative

5
terminals are connected, resulting in addition of the capacities of the batteries. This means that
when one battery dies, it drains the others and may cause excessive current to flow.

The capacity of a battery measured in Amperehours is a measure of how much DC current it can
deliver and how many hours it can deliver it.

P (Watts)
That is, battery capacity ¿ I (Amperes )× t(h ours)=¿ ×t (h ours ) (1.1)
V (Volts)

The chemical cell is not the only device that can generate DC electricity, the photo-voltaic cell is
also capable of absorbing solar energy and converting to electrical energy which can be used by
the inverter or stored in a battery for future use. (Wikipedia 2022).

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of the project is to design and construct:

 A 3.5kVA power inverter.

 Two 200Ah battery bank.

The objectives of the project are to:

 Design energy efficient and highly reliable 3.5kVA power inverter and battery system.

 Construct cost effective 3.5kVA pure sine wave power inverter and battery system in the

most efficient way possible.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

The following are the problems in which this project work is intended to offer relief:

 LIMITED POWER SUPPLY

Nigeria as a developing nation is yet to surmount the problem of inconsistent power

supply. Due to the ever growing population, the pressure on the national grid system

6
 seems to be overwhelming, resulting in regular collapse of the national grid system. With
no hope in sight, individuals and organizations have been left on their own to source for
solutions to their energy needs, hence the popularity of the power inverter in the Nigerian
market.
 HIGH COST OF ALTERNATIVE POWER

These solutions have often times been found to be very expensive and unaffordable to the
average masses who can barely make ends meet, owing to the poor economic situation of
the nation. Hence , the need for cheaper, affordable and cost efficient source of power
supply cannot be overstated.

 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Most alternative sources of energy have come with a price, they release a lot of harmful
pollutants to the environment in the form of green house gasses, noise and radiations.
They take up a lot of land space to install and may cause vibrations to buildings if not
installed far away from the buildings.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The project required extensive research into the various types and designs of power inverters and
their merits in terms of capacity, performance, efficiency and reliability as well as their demerits
in terms of cost, availability of components and materials, difficulty in design and construction,
technical requirements and timing. Invariably, we had to research into fields of study like
electrical power, electronics, power electronics, electrochemistry, programming and control.

As with every project work, high cost due to inflation of prices of components and materials was
the major setback. There were also draw backs due to limited technical knowledge in
electrochemistry, programming and control.

The project was also bound by the specifications given which was 3.5 kVA inverter with two,
200 AH battery banks, as such, the design was made in accordance with the given specifications.
Therefore, the load which can be powered must not exceed the specifications for proper
functioning of the system and for the long lasting of the system.

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1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It is of thought that the project will be helpful in solving the problem of increased energy
demand in the present day reality of limited supply especially in developing areas of the world
like Nigeria. This will provide the average individual with a means of alternative power supply
that he can subscribe to according to their financial strength without incurring too much financial
burden. Small and medium scale enterprises, and in fact big organizations will be given better
options than fossil fuel power plants for their energy needs.

This will also help significantly to reduce the pollution caused by the use of fossil fuel generators
and will be a giant stride in the mission to reduce the emission of green house gases and other
pollutants in order to protect the environment.

1.6 DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Inverter- A power electronic device that converts electrical energy from DC to AC.
 Battery- An electrochemical energy source that stores chemical energy and can
convert it to electrical energy to be released. It consists of cells.
 Power amplifier- An electronic component that can draw out large amount of power
from a source and modify it.
 Primary cell- A cell which cannot be recharged.
 Secondary cell- A cell that can be recharged after being discharged.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

A lot of works have been done on the inverter and chemical secondary battery down the course
of history by prominent, hard working and professional scientists, technologists and engineers at
large which have led to the development of the inverter and battery systems. Countless designs
have been made on inverters and batteries from the earlier times to the present times according to
the functions which were intended to be achieved. As such, there are numerous designs found in
the markets. We aim to review some of such literature works and designs and their properties,
advantages and disadvantages leading to the specifications used in this project work.

The following are the developments of some of the designs and topologies of the power inverter
systems and battery systems, from the earlier designs to the modern ones.

2.1 EARLY CONVERTERS

Charles Bradley invented the rotary converter in 1888. They were used to convert AC power to
DC. Most appliances and machines then ran on DC power, but AC power was becoming more
popular, hence the need to convert the AC power to DC for running the appliances. Rotary
converters and generator sets were used to accomplish this function from the late 19 th century to
the mid 20th century. Nowadays, AC to DC converters are simply called ‘’rectifiers’’. Anene C.
(October 2016).

David Prince was first to use the word ‘’inverter’’ in his article published in the GE Review. He
defined the inverter as an inverted rectifier, ‘’turning in direct current at one end and drawing out
alternating current at the other end.’’

From the late 19th century to the mid 20th century, electromechanical inverters used. These
inverters used a combination of induction or synchronous motors and moto generator sets to
convert AC power to DC power, such that the motor drives the generator which reverses the
electrical connections in the circuit at the right time by the reversed commutator connections.

9
In the basic operation of the motor-generator rotary converter, the AC power is delivered to and
drives the synchronous or induction motor. The motor is connected to the generator and in turn
drives the generator. The commutator of the generator makes reverse connections with the output
circuit at the right time. It is at this point that the AC is converted to DC.

Later designs had the motor and generator windings combined into one armature, with slip rings
at one end and a commutator at the other end. With the correct installation of control apparatus,
the function of the motor-generator converter system can be inverted to make an inverter, taking
in DC power from one end and giving out AC power at the other end. Hence an inverter can be
considered as an inverted converter. This was the concept of David Prince. (Prince D. 1925).

2.2 ELECTRONIC INVERTERS

Starting with the mercury-arc rectifier invented by Peter Hewitt in 1902. This device allowed
current to flow in one direction only, from the anode to the cathode, giving rectification function.
Multi anode tubes with single cathode could be designed to give single phase or multi phase, half
wave, diode rectification with the appropriate transformers connected on the AC side of the
circuit. The rectifier circuit could function as a line-commutated inverter by retarding the firing
angle.

The hot-cathode gas tube rectifier (thyratron) was invented by GE for medium power
applications. This was similar to the grid-controlled mercury-arc tube and later developed into
the thyristor. The invention of transistors by Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley of Bell Laboratories
in 1948 saw the dawn of solid-state semiconductor devices, moving the inverter designs from
being mechanical or electromechanical devices to being strictly electronic devices. These
transistors could achieve more controlled and multiple switching actions in a second with less
use of power and higher efficiency, hence they easily overtook the mechanical converters.

With the regular electronic devices being unable to handle high voltages and currents required
for higher power inverter applications, the field of ‘power electronics’’ sprung up, using high
power transistors called thyristors or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) for higher power
applications. The German company Kaco produced the first thyristor inverter in 1953. They
would then go on to manufacture the first transformerless inverter. (Wikipedia 2022).

10
2.3 TRANSFORMERLESS INVERTERS

The transformerless inverters introduced in 1999 was lighter, cheaper and more efficient.
However, it lacked the galvanic isolation between its DC and AC circuits, which would been
brought about by a transformer, hence, DC faults could be passed to the AC side. Galvanic
isolation seperates the input and output sides of a device, so that energy flows through a field
instead of through electrical connections. This allows power transfer between the two circuits
without them being electrically connected. These inverters resulted in a review of standards
around the world. Kumari S. (March 2018).

2.4 MICRO INVERTERS

American company Enphase introduced their first micro inverters in 2008 which were used with
photo-voltaic cells. These inverters had good optimization and monitoring and are safer due to
their lower DC voltage and less cabling, however, they are expensive, complex to install and
may have higher maintenance costs. (Owen E. L. February 1996).

2.5 HYBRID INVERTERS

These inverters can manage inputs from battery banks, solar panels and utility grid using the
concept of DC coupling. They can make decisions on where to draw power from and when and
how to do it. Though they have been around for a while, they are starting to take the market by
storm. However, they are very expensive and complex. (Wikipedia 2022).

2.6 MULTILEVEL INVERTER DESIGNS

In present times, domestic and industrial applications require higher power for performing higher
tasks. Multilevel power inverter designs have been used since 1975 for high power and medium
voltage functions. They attain high switching voltage using a sequence of step voltages. They
may be classified into:

2.6.1 DIODE-CLAMPED/NEUTRAL POINT INVERTER(NPC)

Presented by Nabae, Takahashi and Akagi in 1981, a 3-level diode clamped inverter has a set of
two switches ON at any time. It is suitable for DC transmission and variable speed motors. In the
figure, output DC voltage is separated in form of capacitors C1 and C2 into 3 levels. Diodes D1

11
and D2 hold the switch voltage to the half level DC bus voltage, so when switches S1 and S2 are
ON, terminal voltage

VAO = VDC and VAN is AC. (Rodriguez, Jose; et al. 2002)

2.6.2 FLYING CAPACITORS MULTILEVEL INVERTER

Presented by Meynard and Foch in 1992, it is capacitor clamped and requires two switches ON
at any time to generate output voltage across the terminals of the output. (Delixi.com 19 April
2018).

2.6.3 CASCADED H-BRIDGE MULTILEVEL INVERTER

In these inverters, for every phase, there are (2n +1) levels of inversion for every (n) number of
SCDCs. (Rodriguez, Jose; et al. 2002).

2.7 EARLY PRIMARY CELLS

Before the dawn of batteries, scientists used an early form of capacitor known as Leyden jars to
store electrical charges. These jars stored their charges physically and would release them all at
once. Though American scientist and inventor Benjamin Franklin was the first to use the term
‘’battery’’ in 1749 when experimenting with electricity using a set of linked capacitors, the first
battery however is believed to have been invented by Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1800.
Volta stacked copper and zinc discs separated by cloth soaked in salt water. The ends of the stack
of discs was connected by wires to an external circuit where they generated continuous direct
current. Each cell of copper and zinc discs generated 0.76 Volts of electricity. Multiple cells
could be connected together to obtain higher voltages. (Alarco J. and Talbot P. 2015).

2.7.1 THE DANIELL CELL

English Chemist John Daniell invented the Daniell cell in 1836. The cell consists of a copper pot
filled with copper sulfate solution and has immersed in it, semi permeable container which is
filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode, and allows ions to pass through without mixing of
the solutions. This cell solved some of the issues posed by Volta’s voltaic cell, like the
polarization issues, and provided longer and more reliable current. Its generated voltage was
about 1.1 Volts and was then the standard for practical use.

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2.7.2 THE BIRD’S CELL

The Daniell cell was later developed further into the Bird’s cell by physician Golding Bird in
1837.

2.7.3 THE POROUS POT CELL

John Dancer invented the porous pot version of the Daniel cell in 1838 which consisted of a
central zinc anode in a porous pot containing zinc sulfate solution. The pot was immersed in a
copper sulfate solution in a copper can acting as the cathode. The porous pot allowed passage of
ions, but prevented the solutions from mixing.

2.7.4 THE GRAVITY CELL

French scientist Callaud invented the gravity cell which was developed from the Daniell cell. It
consisted of a glass jar with a copper cathode sitting in it and a zinc anode suspended beneath the
rim. Copper sulfate crystals are scattered around the copper electrode then the jar is filled with
water. When supplying current, a layer of zinc sulfate solution forms at the top around the anode
and is separated from the lower copper sulfate solution layer due to difference in density and the
polarity of the cell. The battery life could easily be measured due to the difference in the colours
of the solution layers, however the battery could not be moved easily as this could cause the
solutions to mix making its use limited.

2.7.5 THE POGGENDORFF CELL

German scientist Johann Poggendorff improved on the gravity cell by separating the electrolyte
and the depolarizer usin a porous pot in 1842. This cell generated 1.9 Volts and had greater
consistency, with no fuming.

2.7.6 THE GROVE CELL

Grove cell was invented by Welsh scientist William Grove in 1839. It provided high current and
voltage of almost twice the value produced by the Daniell cell, however it gave of fumes of
poisonous nitric oxide when in use.

2.7.7 THE DUN CELL

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The Dun cell was invented by Alfred Dun in 1885. This cell had great depolarizing power and
was consistent, giving high currents and voltage for long period of time.

2.7.8 THE LECLANCHE CELL

George Leclanche invented the leclanche cell in 1866. It had a zinc anode and a manganese
dioxide cathode in a permeable material, dipped in ammonium chloride solution. It generated a
voltage of about 1.4 Volts. However, it was not sustainable and had had lowered voltage due to
its increased internal resistance caused by some chemical actions.

2.7.9 THE ZINC-CARBON CELL

German scientist Carl Gassner in 1886 invented the zinc-carbon cell which was the first dry cell,
and a variant of the Leclanche cell. It was called the dry cell as it had no liquid electrolyte. It had
ammonium chloride mixed with plaster of paris to form a paste, with little amounts of zinc
chloride added for longer shell life. Its manganese dioxide cathode is dipped in the paste and
sealed in a zinc shell which acted as the anode. It generated 1.5 Volts and did not require
maintenance like wet cells.This. (Wikipedia 2022).

2.8 DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY CELLS

Previous batteries to this point could only allow their chemical reactions to occur in one
direction, hence the cell would be drained after a while. They could not allow the chemical
reactions in the reverse direction, meaning that they could not allow current in the reverse
direction, hence they could not be used to take back energy. (Panasonic Energy Co., Ltd. Battery
education).

2.8.1 THE LEAD-ACID ACCUMULATOR

Gaston Plante in 1859 invented the first ever rechargeable battery – the lead-acid battery. It
consisted of lead anode and lead oxide cathode immersed in sulfuric acid. Each electrode react
with the sulfuric acid to give lead sulfate when discharging and charging respectively, in a
reverse chemical process. Though it was too bulky for the amount of energy it generated, it had
the advantage of havin low internal resistance, hence it could generate very high currents in
surges. (Panasonic Energy Co., Ltd. Battery education).

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2.8.2 THE NICKEL-CADMIUM CELL

Invented by Swedish scientist Waldemar Jungner in 1899, this was the first alkaline cell. It had
nickel and cadmium electrodes in a potassium hydroxide solution. It generated much more
energy than lead-acid batteries, but was a lot more expensive.

2.8.3 THE NICKEL-IRON CELL

Also invented by Swedish scientist Waldemar Jungner in 1899, which was the same year he
invented his alkaline cell. However, he found the cell to be inferior to its alkaline counterpart as
it generated a lot more hydrogen when charged and was less efficient in charging. Hence, he
stopped to develop it. Thomas Edison also worked on developing an alkaline cell that would be
light and durable. He produced an alkaline nickel-iron cell, but it had issues of leakage causing it
to have short battery life. He did produce a more reliable and more powerful version years later
which had a lot of applications.

2.8.4 THE COMMON ALKALINE CELL

Invented by Canadian engineer Lewis Urry in 1955 and building on the earlier work done by
Thomas Edison, the common alkaline cell was meant to solve the issues of short life span of
alkaline cells. It had a manganese oxide cathode and a zinc anode with an alkaline electrolyte.

2.8.5 THE NICKEL-HYDROGEN and NICKEL METAL-HYDRIDE CELLS

Then nickel-hydrogen cells were used as energy storage subsystems for commercial
communication satellites.

The nickel-metal hydride cells were used as a variant to the nickel-hydrogen cells. They had
longer lifespan than nickel-cadmium cells and were more environmental friendly.

2.8.6 THE LITHIUM CELLS

Lithium cells began in 1912 with American chemist Gilbert Lewis. American chemist John
Goodenough in 1980 discovered the lithium colbalt oxide (LiCoO 2) cathode, while Japanese
chemists Tokio Yamabe and Shizukuni Yata discovered polyacene to be a very effective anode

15
in liquid electrolyte. This led Japanese chemist Akira Yoshino and his research team to produce
the first lithium-ion cell prototype in 1985, which was a more stable variant of the lithium cell.

The lithium polymer battery wasreleased by Sony and Asahi Kasei in 1997. The electrolytes of
these batteries were in solid polymer composites, instead of in liquid solvent, and the electrodes
and separators were laminated to each other . This allowed the battery to be encased in a flexible
wraps, instead of in rigid metal cases. They could easily be shaped and fitted into electronic
devices, though their energy density is lower than lithium-ion batteries.

John Goodenough, Akira Yoshino and Stanley Whittingham were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for their work on the lithium-ion battery in 2019. (Wikipedia 2022).

16
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

Most of the electrical equipment work with the 220V Ac supply but internally, their circuit work
on DC supply. Hence, the external AC supply is converted into DC supply by the power supply
unit on these equipment. Any device that works on DC supply can be used during the mains
power failure by connecting them to batteries. But batteries have a fixed life and running power,
so, powering equipment using battery could be very expensive (Suleiman, D. 2000). Hence,
rechargeable batteries can be used in this situation to reduce the cost and hence, an inverter is
used to power a device that does not have the facility to connect to a DC power source or device
that requires AC power source for its operation.

This chapter presents the calculation analysis and design of the inverter using semiconductor
power devices such as bipolar transistors, thyristors for voltage amplification, particularly the
MOSFET as the power switches, providing automatic switchover function. This chapter also
presents the step by step design of the complete solar inverter system.

Fig.3.1 Block diagram of an inverter.

3.1 COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS

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For this project to be complete, there is need to know the components used in the design. In
electronics, the power system is designed in such a way that the equipment always has power so
that it can function effectively. These components include:

Components Number Unit price N Price N

Circuit Boards 3 - 25000
Integrated circuit 1 12000 12000
Casing - - 25000
Display screen - - 9500
Transformer (3.5kva) 1 70000 70000
Logistics 30000
RESISTORS
330k 15 10 150
330 15 10 150
2.2k 12 10 120
5.6k 12 10 120
5k 1 20 20
1k 5 10 50
15 2 10 20
4.7k 4 10 40
6.8 4 10 40
CAPACITORS
6800 UF 5 1000 5000
1UF 2 10 20
1000UF 2 50 100
47UF 5 50 250
330UF 3 50 150
OTHERS
74HC575 2 500 1000
2 Pin cable 1 100 100
4 Pin Cable 1 150 150
15 Pin Cable 1 500 500
12 Pin Cable 1 300 300
2N2222 7 50 350
2N2907 2 50 100
BD135 2 100 200
TIP122 2 150 300
Heat zinc 3 1000 3000
TLP250 9 700 6300
LM7812 2 150 300

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 U4007 6 10 60
104 Capacitor 16 20 320
Buzzer 3 100 300
IN4148 2 250 500
FR154 12 20 600
Transformers 2 1500 3000
Relays 2 1000 2000
Mosfets 20 50 1000
fr154 4 50 200
103 Capacitors 2 100 200
Switches 1 100 100
Batteries 4 - 10000
SUM 208,610

Table 3.1 Components and materials

3.2 CALCULATION ANALYSIS

This section deals with the actual calculation used to obtain parameter for the design. All
components used in the construction were sourced locally and adequate adjustments were made
on all available substitute components in order to achieve the best result of the device under
construction.

3.2.1 DETERMINING OF THE OSCILLATING FREQUENCY

By supplying a constant 12V DC through a voltage regulator to the ICSG3524 PWM, the
frequency of the oscillating signal was determined using a 10K𝛺 variable resistor connected in
series with another 56k𝛺 resistor and both connected in parallel with 0.22µF to form RC time
constant network.

This section uses a pulse width modulator PMW ICSG3524 to generate the 50 Hz frequency
required to generate AC supply by the inverter. The relationship between the frequency,
resistance and capacitance has been given as:

1
Frequency , f = (3.1)
1.1× CT RT

Where, Time capacitor (CT) = 0.22µF

19
Fixed Resistor (RF) = 56K𝛺

Variable Resistor (RV) = 10K𝛺

Time Resistor (RT) = 56k𝛺 + 10k𝛺 = 66k𝛺

1
Therefore , f = −6 3
1.1 × 0.22× 10 ×66 ×10

f =62.6 Hz

It should be noted that the variable resistor was varied until the frequency of the signal was
50Hz.

3.2.2 DETERMINATION OF THE TRANSISTOR (MOSFET) SWITCHING

CURRENT

The MOSFET used is the IRF150 in the power switching circuit due to high switching speed. By
using 3.67Volts supplied by the two NPN and the two PNP transistors, the switching time (T) is
determined from the oscillating frequency as well as the gate switching current I G. (Texas
Instruments Inc.)

1 1
T= ¿ (3.2)
f 50 Hz

T =0.02 sec

Cdv −6
3500× 10 ×3.67
I G= ¿ (3.3)
dt 0.02

I G=642.3 mA

3.3 THE DRAIN CURRENT OF THE MOSFET

From the inverter output, total power is 1000Watts,

The battery Voltage = 12V

P
Therefore , the Drain current I D = (3.4)
V

20
 3500
I D= =291.6 A
12

Where the voltage output of theinverter ,V Output =220 V rms, V_Output = 220V

P 3500
Full load outp ut current , I Output= = =15.8 A
V 220

3.4 THE TRANSISTORS USED IN THE BUFFER CIRCUIT

The two NPN C1815 transistors were used as signal buffer circuit connected in the common
emitter mode having the following characteristics.

Characteristics Value

Collector to Base Voltage BVCBO 70

Collector to Emitter Voltage BVCEO 70

Base to Emitter Voltage BVEBO 4

Max Collector Current IC Amps 0.4

Max Device Diss PD Watts 0.6 (TA=25oC)

Frequency in MHz 120min

Current hfe 120min

Table 3.2 C1815 NPN Characteristic

Source: (Texas Instruments Inc.)

3.5 ANALYSIS OF POWER SWITCH CIRCUIT

Inverter power output (P) = 3500VA

Output voltage, V = 220V

21
Inverter Input = Battery output Voltage = 12V

Frequency = 50Hz

Power factor = 0.8

Real power
Apparent power ( S )= (3.5)
P.f

2800
Apparent power ( S )= =3500 VA
0.8

Therefore, the full load current flowing at the transformer primary;

Real power ( P )=Current ×Voltage (3.6)

3500=I ×24

2800
Hence , I = =116.7 A
24

3.6 THE COMPLETE INVERTER CIRCUIT

This circuit uses ICSG3524 PWM which functions as oscillator together with TC4066BP which
functions as switch to generate the oscillating signal that controls the switching ON and OFF of
the gate of a 20-numbered MOSFETS connected in parallel to a center-tapped transformer. This
switches the 24V DC from the battery, across the windings of the transformer to produce a 220V
AC at 50Hz frequency for the use of computers and other domestic appliances with maximum
power rating of 3500VA.

LM393IC(a comparator) and NE555(a timer) incorporated in the circuit function to detect
overloading and low battery in the inverter. Generally, inverter is a combination of a battery, a
charger circuit and an inverting circuit,(Texas Instruments Inc.).

22
Fig. 3.2 The complete Inverter Circuit Diagram

Source: engineerexperience.com

23
3.6.1 THE BATTERY

The battery is a two-terminal device that provides DC supply to the inverter section when the AC
mains is not available. This DC is then converted into 220V AC supply and supplied at the
inverter output socket.

It is pertinent to state that wet tubular batteries used in laboratories and offices are very good for
this purpose as they provide good quality power for a long duration and can be recharged once
the power stored in them are consumed. The back up time provided by the inverter depends on
the battery type and its current capacity (Huggins, R. A. 2008).

3.6.2 THE AC MAINS SUPPLY

The AC input supplies a 220V AC, 50Hz from the public grid supply. This is connected to the
charger circuit where it is rectified to DC voltage and through the relay switch to the output of
the inverter to by pass the inverter when there is public electric power supply while the battery is
charging.

This inverter uses a 0-48V/5Amp triggering transformer and a regulator to sense the AC mains
supply. When the AC mains supply is available, this supply is given to the primary winding of
the triggering transformer to give 48V AC supply at the secondary winding. It is then rectified by
bridge rectifier and input to filter capacitors which convert the 48V supply to 24V DC supply.
The 24V supply stays constant even when there is a change in the AC mains supply and the
inverter is informed about the availability of the AC mains supply whenever there is.

3.6.3 THE DRIVER AND THE OUTPUT AMPLIFIER

The MOS drive signals are given to the base of MOS driver transistor which results in the MOS
drive signal getting separated into two different channels. The transistors amplify the 50Hz MOS
drive signal at their base to a sufficient level and output them from the emitter.

The 50Hz signal from the emitter of each of the transistor is connected to the gate G of all the
MOSFETS in each of the MOSFET channel, through the appropriate resistance (Nelson,J.C,
1986).

24
3.6.4 THE INVERTER TRANSFORMER

The transformer used for this project has a center-tapping which divides the primary into two
equal sections. This center-tapping is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. Two ends
of the primary are connected to the negative terminal of the battery through switches S1 and S2.
These switches S1 and S2 are turned ON/OFF alternatively to generate current in the primary
coil. When the switch S1 is closed and S2 is opened, the current flows in the first part of the
primary winding and the EMF is induced in the secondary winding. When the switch S2 is
closed and S1 is opened, the current flows in the second part of the primary winding and the
EMF of opposite polarity is induced in the secondary winding. Thus, if the switches S1 and S2
are alternatively opened and closed at constant rate, then the output from the secondary winding
is a square wave of the frequency at which the switches S1 and S2 are opened and closed
(Theraja, A. K. and Theraja, B. L. 1997).

3.6.5 THE BATTERY CHARGER

When the inverter section receives AC mains supply, it stops operation but the charger section in
the inverter starts its operation. In this mode, the inverter transformer works as a step down
transformer and output 12V at its secondary winding. During the charging, MOSFET transistors
at the output section works as rectifiers with the drain working as the cathode while the source
works as the anode. The center-tapping of the transformer receives positive supply and the
MOSFET source 'S' receives negative supply from the battery. The center-tapping is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery and the MOSFET source S is connected to the negative
terminal with a shunt resistance. Thus, when the inverter receives AC mains supply, inverter
transformer and MOSFET, together work as a charger and charge the battery.

3.6.6 THE CHANGEOVER

This section is used to switch ON the inverter when the AC mains supply is OFF and to switch
OFF the inverter when the AC mains supply returns(ON). During changeover, when the inverter
receives AC mains supply, it stops drawing the battery supply and the AC mains supply at the
inverter input is directly sent to the inverter output socket. This is done using a one, two-pole
relay.

25
3.6.7 INVERTER AC OUTPUT

The AC output gives a 220V AC, 50Hz either directly from the input when the AC mains supply
is available or from the inverter circuit action on the battery when the AC mains supply is not
available. Computers and other household appliances are connected to this output.

3.6.8 PROTECTIONS

The AC input to this device was fused with a 5 Amp fuse to protect the transformer as well as the
rectifying circuit in case of over voltage, and high current which could flow into the transformer.

3.6.9 INDICATORS

A seven segment display is connected to the front of the inverter to display information on the
state of the inverter at every instance in time. This information include the ON/OFF state of the
inverter, the percentage of the battery, the amount of power drawn out of the inverter, the output
frequency, the input voltage, the output voltage and the charging status of the inverter..

3.6.10 SWITCH

A switch is connected to the front of the inverter. This red switch controls the AC voltage input
and output of the inverter.

26
 CHAPTER 4

TESTING AND RESULTS

The construction process generally entails mounting and assembling all the selected components
in their appropriate position and soldering them permanently on the printed circuit board. The
soldering of the wired components is only carried out after the initial assembly on the printed
circuit board has been confirmed to be in good working condition.

4.1 PROGRAMMING AND SIMULATIONS ON PROTEUS

The circuit in figure 3.6 was first programmed on Proteus software circuit simulator. This was
done so as to ascertain the workability of each of the stages before they were transferred to the
printed circuit board. After the functioning of the separate units was ascertained on the software,
the units were linked together.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION ON THE PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

The circuit in figure 3 was constructed on the printed circuit board using a 60W soldering iron,
soldering lead, printed circuit board, and digital voltmeter. The electronic components involved
include (BC557, SG3524, LM 339 Relays, transformer, diodes, resistors, jumper wires,
capacitor).

The following details shows that construction procedures followed in this project to construct the
battery inverter based on the circuit designed as shown in the circuit diagram in chapter three.

i. As per the circuit schematic, first complete the assembly of the oscillator section
consisting of smaller parts and the IC. It is done by interconnecting the component leads
and soldering the joints.

ii. Next, fit the MOSFETS into the well drilled aluminum heat sinks. These are made by
cutting an aluminum sheet into the given sizes and bending them at the edges so that it
can be clamped.

iii. Do not fit the transistors directly on to heat sinks. Use mica isolation kit to avoid direct
contact and short circuiting of the transistors with each other and the ground.

27
 iv. Clamp the heat sink assembly to the base of a well ventilated, sturdy, thick gauge
metallic enclosure.

v. Also fix the power transformer beside the heat sinks using nuts and bolts.

vi. Now connect the appropriate points of the assembled circuit board to power transistors on
the heat sinks.

vii. Finally join the power transistor’s outputs to the secondary winding of the power
transformer.

viii. Finish the construction by fitting and interconnecting the external electrical fittings like
fuses, sockets, switches, mains chord and the battery inputs.

4.3 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

The inverter was tested on a section by section basis. The output voltage of the oscillator was
obtained to be 4.24 volts on each side with frequency set to approximately 50Hz. The other unit
could not be tested until the final coupling had been done. The battery over charging protection
unit, low battery cut off unit, low and high voltage surge protection as well as the time delay
units, feedback unit and the over load and short circuit protection unit were all tested by varying
the potentiometer associated with each of them and observing the response through the displays.
The list of various settings that were made is listed overleaf.

Inverter output voltage 220 Volts

Inverter frequency 50Hz

Minimum battery voltage 10.0 Volts

Maximum loading capacity 2800 Watts

Minimum A.C input voltage 180 Volts

Maximum A.C input voltage 250 Volts

28
Table 4.1: Settings on the Inverter

After all the settings were done, the effect of loading was carried out on the inverter system and
the load test results are as follows.

Power (Watts) Voltage (Volts)

400 225

800 220

1200 220

1600 220

2000 220

2400 220

2800 215

Table 4.2: Load Test.

It was discovered that when the inverter was loaded, the output voltage initially dropped and then
regulated itself back to 220V. This is due to the feedback action (automatic regulation action) of
the IC, SG3524, used as the oscillator.

4.4 MAINTENANCE, SAFETY AND PRECAUTION

The following maintenance practices and safety precautions are suggested to improve the life
span of the system and prevent hazards to the users.

i. Dead batteries should not be used with the inverter.

ii. The battery terminals should not be removed too often. When it is removed, replacement
of correct polarity must be ensured.

iii. The inverter must be put in a moderate temperature environment.

29
iv. The inverter should always be shut down when not in use.

v. The inverter should always be partially loaded (not more than 80% of its maximum
capacity will be enough).

vi. The use of inductive loads like refrigerator, induction machine e.t.c. on the inverter
should be avoided.

vii. The input plug of the inverter should be plugged to a three-pin, properly earthed socket.

30
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The project work as shown in the previous chapter meets the required specifications and
functions it was intended for and has a great performance, so long as it is operated within its
stated ratings and capacity. It has good efficiency and is cost effective. It is also easy to
undertake and implement and can be found to be a valuable backup power source. It should be
noted however, that the project is not to be operated beyond its capacity and is by no means a
direct substitute to grid power, and should not be treated as such.

5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

As clearly highlighted in this project, the benefits associated with inverters and batteries are just
too enormous to ignore, hence it is highly recommended for individuals and groups to undertake
this project or similar projects. Be it for just the sake of knowledge, as personal DIY domestic
power projects, industrial power projects or for commercialization purposes, those who
undertake this project will find the adventure to be worthwhile.

5.2 FUTURE WORK

With the recent trends of the market, it is very obvious that there is a great future for inverters
and batteries. With innovations constantly taking place in the designs and functions of inverters
and batteries, the rise of electric vehicles, the gradual shift from fossil fuel generated energy to
more environment friendly, more sustainable and more renewable energy sources, it would be a
good idea to undergo future research works on inverters and batteries.

31
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