Assessment in Learning I

Basic Concepts of Assessment

Assessment (Grading)
• collection of data to describe or better understand an issue, it measures where
we are in relation as to where we should be;
• it is a process where information is obtained relevant to some known
objective or role;
• it is the teacher's way of gathering information about what students have
learned and use such to make decisions about students' grades, the content of
future lessons, and revisions of the structure or content of a course;
• refers to the collecting, organizing, and analysing data using statistical tools to
arrive at valid results.
Measurement (Scoring)
• the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical objects
are determined;
• it is a process of measuring the individual's intelligence, personality, attitudes,
and values, achievement, and anything that can be expressed quantitatively;
• it answers the question "How much...?"
• assigns a numerical value to a given trait
Evaluation (Passing/Failing)
• determines how well did we do what we set out to do as stated in the goals
and objectives
• refers to the process of determining the extent to which instructional
objectives are attained
• refers to the comparison of data to the standard for the purposes of judging
worth or quality
• gives meaning to the numerical value of a trait
• interpreting and attaching value to data collected

Test/Testing (Tool)
• an instrument designed to measure any quality, ability, skill, or knowledge
• the method of measuring the achievement of performance a learner
• refers to the administration, the scoring, and the interpretation of an
instrument, or the procedure designed to illicit information about performance in
a sample of a particular area of behaviour

Various Roles in Assessment

Modes of Assessment
A. Traditional Assessment (Standardized Testing)
B. Performance Assessment (Skill and Applied Knowledge)
C. Portfolio Assessment (Multiple Indicators of Progress)
a. Placement Assessment
- performance at beginning of instruction
- determines the most beneficial mode of evaluation
b. Diagnostic Assessment
- determines level of competence
- given at the start to measure the mastery of the prerequisite learning
c. Formative Assessment
- given to monitor learning progress
- aims to provide feedback on both learners and instructors
d. Summative Assessment
- given at the unit to determined if the objectives were achieved
Types/Purposes of Assessment
Assessment for learning
- occurs when inferences are used about student progress to inform one's
teaching (formative)
Assessment of learning
- occurs when evidence of learning is used to make judgements on student
achievement against goals and standards (summative)
Assessment as learning
- occurs when students reflect on and monitor their progress to inform their
future learning goals (self assessment)

Constructive Alignment: What Is It and Why Is It So Important?

What is Constructive Alignment?
Constructive alignment means aligning the
predetermined competencies, the learning and
teaching activities, and the assessment types. It is
one of the most influential principles in higher
education.
When creating a course or unit, there are three questions to consider:
1. What should students know or master after the course or course unit? i.e.
what are the objectives or learning outcomes that the students are supposed to
reach?
2. Which teaching activities are required to help students reach this
competencies?
3. How can you evaluate if these students have truly mastered these
competencies?
Learning Competencies
A general statement that describes the use of desired knowledge, skills,
behaviors, and abilities that often define specific skills and knowledge that
enables people to successfully perform specific functions in a work or
educational setting.
Types:

Functional Competencies - skills that are required to use on a daily or regular

basis (cognitive, methodological, technical, logical, and linguistic abilities)

Interpersonal Competencies - oral, written, and visual communication skills, as

well as the ability to work effectively with diverse teams

Critical Thinking Competencies - ability to reason effectively, use systems of

thinking, and make judgements or decisions toward solving complex problems
Key Differences with Objectives or Outcomes
Objectives refer to a specific abilities necessary to accomplish learning
competencies. This is a statement that describes what a faculty member will
cover in a course and what a course will have provided students. This is a
specific statement that clearly describes what the course intends the
participants to be able to do as a result of instruction and activities. It
identifies what behaviors a participant must demonstrate in order to confirm
the intended learning took place.
Outcomes refer to a specific statement that outlines the overalls purpose or
goal from participation in an educational activity.
Learning Goals
Broad statement of competence about the intended outcome of the learning
session. its purpose is to provide an overall direction to learning and help keep
instruction focused on the targeted content. Also, an achievable result, but not
necessarily measurable or observable.

*Goals and objectives are similar in that they describe the

intended purposes and expected results of teaching activities.
Goals are statements about the general purpose of the course
and are broad, long-range intended outcomes. However,
learning objectives are more specific and are derived from the
learning goal. Learning objectives describe what an instructor
will cover in a course to meet that goal.
Learning Goals = generally what is intended for the participant to
learn

Learning Objectives = specifically what is intended for the participant to learn

Learning Outcomes = what the participant actually learned

The 7 Steps to Setting S.M.A.R.T.E.R. Goals

Specific
Meaningful
Achievable
Relevant
Time Bound
Evaluate
Readjust
The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be ignited. (Plutarch)
Overview
- Bloom’s Taxonomy and higher-order thinking
- Investigate the Revised Taxonomy
- New terms
- New emphasis
- Explore each of the six levels
- See how questioning plays an important role
within the framework (oral language)
(Based on Pohl, 2000, Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn, p. 8)
BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY

*Higher Order Thinking*

Creating
Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things
Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.
*The learner creates new ideas and information using what has been previously
learned (putting together ideas or elements to develop a original idea or engage in
creative thinking.)

- Designing
- Constructing
- Planning
- Producing
- Inventing
- Devising
- Making

Other Key Words

Products include:

Evaluating
Justifying a decision or course of action
Checking, hypothesizing, critiquing, experimenting, judging
*The learner makes decisions based on in-depth reflection, criticism and
assessment (judging the value of ideas, materials and methods by developing and
applying standards and criteria.)

- Checking
- Hypothesizing
- Critiquing
- Experimenting
- Judging
- Testing
- Detecting
- Monitoring

Other Key Words:

Products include:

Potential Activities and Products:

- Write a letter to the editor
- Prepare and conduct a debate
- Prepare a list of criteria to judge…
- Write a persuasive speech arguing for/against…
- Make a booklet about five rules you see as important. Convince others.
- Form a panel to discuss viewpoints on….
- Write a letter to. ..advising on changes needed.
- Write a half-yearly report.
- Prepare a case to present your view about...
- Complete a PMI on…
- Evaluate the character’s actions in the story

Analyzing
Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships
Comparing, organizing, deconstructing, interrogating, finding

*The learner breaks learned information into its parts to best understand that
information (breaking information down into its component elements)

- Comparing
- Organizing
- Deconstructing
- Attributing
- Outlining
- Finding
- Structuring
- Integrating

Other Key Words:

Products include:

Potential Activities and Products:

- Use a Venn Diagram to show how two topics are the same and different
- Design a questionnaire to gather information.
- Survey classmates to find out what they think about a particular topic. Analyze
the results.
- Make a flow chart to show the critical stages.
- Classify the actions of the characters in the book
- Create a sociogram from the narrative
- Construct a graph to illustrate selected information.
- Make a family tree showing relationships.
- Devise a roleplay about the study area.
- Write a biography of a person studied.
- Prepare a report about the area of study.
- Conduct an investigation to produce information to support a view.
- Review a work of art in terms of form, color and texture.
- Draw a graph
- Complete a Decision Making Matrix to help you decide which breakfast cereal to
purchase

*Lower Order Thinking*

Applying
Using information in another familiar situation
Implementing, carrying out, using, executing

*The learner makes use of information in a context different from the one in
which it was learned (using strategies, concepts, principles and theories in new
situations)
- Implementing
- Carrying out
- Using
- Executing

Other Key Words:

Products include:

Potential Activities and Products:

- Construct a model to demonstrate how it looks or works
- Practice a play and perform it for the class
- Make a diorama to illustrate an event
- Write a diary entry
- Make a scrapbook about the area of study.
- Prepare invitations for a character’s birthday party
- Make a topographic map
- Take and display a collection of photographs on a particular topic.
- Make up a puzzle or a game about the topic.
- Write an explanation about this topic for others.
- Dress a doll in national costume.
- Make a clay model…
- Paint a mural using the same materials.
- Continue the story…

Understanding
Explaining ideas or concepts
Interpreting, summarizing, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining

*The learner grasps the meaning of information by interpreting and translating

what has been learned.

- Interpreting
- Exemplifying
- Summarizing
- Inferring
- Paraphrasing
- Classifying
- Comparing
- Explaining

Other Key Words:

Products include:

Potential Activities and Products:

- Write in your own words…
- Cut out, or draw pictures to illustrate a particular event in the story.
- Report to the class…
- Illustrate what you think the main idea may have been.
- Make a cartoon strip showing the sequence of events in the story.
- Write and perform a play based on the story.
- Write a brief outline to explain this story to someone else
- Explain why the character solved the problem in this particular way
- Write a summary report of the event.
- Prepare a flow chart to illustrate the sequence of events.
- Make a coloring book.
- Paraphrase this chapter in the book.
- Retell in your own words.
- Outline the main points.
Remembering
Recalling information
Recognizing, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding

*The learner is able to recall, restate and

remember learned information (recognition of specific information)

- Recognizing
- Listing
- Describing
- Identifying
- Retrieving
- Naming
- Locating
- Finding

Other key words:

Products include:

Potential Activities and Products:

- Make a story map showing the main events of the story.
- Make a time line of your typical day.
- Make a concept map of the topic.
- Write a list of keywords you know about….
- What characters were in the story?
- Make a chart showing…
- Make an acrostic poem about…
- Recite a poem you have learnt.
Blooming Questions

• Questioning should be used purposefully to achieve well-defines goals.

• Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of thinking organized by level of
complexity. It gives teachers and students an opportunity to learn and practice a
range of thinking and provides a simple structure for many different kinds of
questions and thinking.
• The taxonomy involves all categories of questions.
• Typically a teacher would vary the level of questions within a single lesson.

Lower and Higher Order Questions

• Lower level questions are those at the remembering, understanding and lower
level application levels of the taxonomy.
• Usually questions at the lower levels are appropriate for:
• Evaluating students’ preparation and comprehension
• Diagnosing students’ strengths and weaknesses
• Reviewing and/or summarizing content
• Higher level questions are those requiring complex application, analysis,
evaluation or creation skills.
• Questions at higher levels of the taxonomy are usually most appropriate for:
• Encouraging students to think more deeply and critically
• Problem solving
• Encouraging discussions
• Stimulating students to seek information on their own

Questions for Remembering

▪ What happened after...?

▪ How many...?
▪ What is...?
▪ Who was it that...?
▪ Can you name ...?
▪ Find the definition of…
▪ Describe what happened after…
▪ Who spoke to...?
▪ Which is true or false...?

Questions for Understanding

▪ Can you explain why…?

▪ Can you write in your own words?
▪ How would you explain…?
▪ Can you write a brief outline...?
▪ What do you think could have happened next...?
▪ Who do you think...?
▪ What was the main idea...?
▪ Can you clarify…?
▪ Can you illustrate…?
▪ Does everyone act in the way that …….. does?

Questions for Applying

▪ Do you know of another instance where…?

▪ Can you group by characteristics such as…?
▪ Which factors would you change if…?
▪ What questions would you ask of…?
▪ From the information given, can you develop a set of instructions about…?

Question for Analysing

▪ Which events could not have happened?
▪ If. ..happened, what might the ending have been?
▪ How is...similar to...?
▪ What do you see as other possible outcomes?
▪ Why did...changes occur?
▪ Can you explain what must have happened when...?
▪ What are some or the problems of...?
▪ Can you distinguish between...?
▪ What were some of the motives behind..?
▪ What was the turning point?
▪ What was the problem with...?
Questions for Evaluating
▪ Is there a better solution to...?
▪ Judge the value of... What do you think about...?
▪ Can you defend your position about...?
▪ Do you think...is a good or bad thing?
▪ How would you have handled...?
▪ What changes to.. would you recommend?
▪ Do you believe...? How would you feel if. ..?
▪ How effective are. ..?
▪ What are the consequences..?
▪ What influence will....have on our lives?
▪ What are the pros and cons of....?
▪ Why is ....of value?
▪ What are the alternatives?
▪ Who will gain and who will loose?

Questions for Creating

▪ Can you design a...to...?

▪ Can you see a possible solution to...?
▪ If you had access to all resources, how would you deal with...?
▪ Why don't you devise your own way to...?
▪ What would happen if ...?
▪ How many ways can you...?
▪ Can you create new and unusual uses for...?
▪ Can you develop a proposal which would...?
Standardized Tests
• Constructed by Experts w/ Explicit Instructions for Administrations.
• Standard Scoring Procedures.
• Tables of Norms for Interpretation.
• Measure Individual Performance on a Group-Administered and Group-Normed
Test.
• Examinees Attempt the Same Questions Under Same Conditions—Directions,
Time Limit, and Results are Scored w/Same Detailed Procedure.

Standardized Tests are Constructed as follows:

• Experts write a Test for a Subject Field Answerable by the Average,
• Well-informed Student at the Targeted Grade Level.
• Test is Tried Out on a Representative Sample of Students from all Schools at
the Targeted Grade Level.
• Test is Revised Based on the Feedback from this Test Administration.
• Test is Administered to a Larger Sample—this becomes the Norming Group
which Subsequent Scores will be Compared.
• Test Manual is Written that Provides Clear Directions for Administration ,
Scoring and Information about Test Characteristics and its Interpretation.

Purpose of Standardized Tests is to Compare:

— The Performance of One Individual w/Another.
— An Individual Against a Group.
— One Group with Another Group.
Types of Standardized Tests are:

Achievement Tests
— Test Batteries and Single-Subject Tests.
— Personality Assessment.
— Specific Subject Tests (English, social studies or chemistry)

Measure Aptitudes for Performing/Potential for Certain Activities

Examples: Journalism, Mathematics, Law, Teaching/Auto Mechanics.

These Tests are Called: General Ability Tests, Intelligence Tests/Scholastic
Aptitude Tests.

Standardized Test Results Include:

Percentile Norm.
Age Norm.
Grade Level Norm.
Combination of Norms.

Standardized Tests are Used to Make Decisions about:

— Placement in Differentiated Tracks.
— Individualized Instruction.
— Diagnosing Strength and Weakness.
— Determining Effectiveness Curriculums.
— Evaluating the Extent of Student Progress.
— Determining Teaching Emphasis and Effectiveness.

• Limitations of Standardized Tests:

Questionable Validity.
— Social and Cultural Bias.
— Discriminates Against Certain Social and Cultural Groups.

• Standardized Tests vs. Teacher-Made Tests:

— Standardized Tests Cover Broader Range of Content Area.
— Teacher-Made Tests Designed to Measure Achievement of a Particular Unit
of Work.

Teacher-Made Tests
Three Reasons for Teacher-Made Tests:
l. They are consistent w/ classroom goals and objectives.
2. They present same questions to all students under nearly identical conditions.
3. They generate a product that can be evaluated and stored for later use—for
example, parent conferences.

Three Alternatives/ Types of Teacher-Made Tests:

l. Objective Test—alternative, multiple choice, matching, and completion test.
2. Essay Test—brief or extended.
3. Combination of the Two.

Points to Consider about Testing:

− Tests should be Written at the Taxonomical Level Taxonomical Levelof the
Objectives Covered by the Exam.
− Instructional Objectives Suggest the best Type of Test Item.
− Purpose of Tests is Check Student Mastery of Stated Objectives.
− Every Test Item Should Separate those who have Mastered the Objectives
from those who have not—prevent Guessing/Offset test wiseness.

1. Alternate-Choice Items are:

− True/False.
− Yes/No.
− Right/Wrong.
− Agree/Disagree.

• Key Points about Alternative-Choice Items:

− Use Simple Declarative Sentences.
− Must be Stated Clearly to Avoid Ambiguity.
− Have Low Reliability and Validity.
• Guidelines for Creating Alternate Guidelines for Creating Alternate-Choice
Items: Choice Items:
− Avoid Using Negative Statement and Double Negatives.
− Ask Something Important and Worth Remembering.
− Don’t Make False Items Longer than True Items.
− Watch for Item Response Patterns.
− Be Clear and Concise.
− Limit Each Statement to Only One Central Idea.
− Avoid using words—all, none, sometimes and usually—that Can Divulge the
Correct Response.
− Don’t Use Exact Quotes from Textbooks—can have different meaning when
Taken out of Context.

2. Multiple-Choice Items:
− Can Cover Many Objectives.
− Measures Different Cognitive Behaviors—factual to the analysis of complex
data.
− Extremely Versatile and Easy to Score.
− Must be Written in a Straightforward, Clear and Concise way.
− Can be Modified after being Adminsitered.
− Relatively Insensitive to Guessing—BUT more sensitive to Guessing than
Supply Items.

• Parts of a Multiple Parts of a Multiple-Choice Item Choice Item:

1. Who was president of the United States during the Civil War?
Stem—Central Issue
A. Jefferson Davis
B. Abraham Lincoln
C. Ulysses S.
Grant Alternatives—on
D. George Washington Same
Page w/Stem

• Guidelines for Creating Multiple-Choice Items:

− Avoid Providing Grammatical/Contextual Clues to the Correct Answer.
− Utilize Language that Even Most Unskilled Readers will Understand—write
concise stems and precise choices.
− Avoid Absolute Terms—always, never, and none—in the Stem and
Alternatives.
− Stem should Contain the Central Issue.
− Alternatives Should be Grammatically Correct
− Avoid the Use of Negatives.
− Avoid Giving Structural Clues.
− Use all of the above and none of the above with care.
− Avoid Pulling Statements Directly from the Textbook.
− Alternatives Should be Plausible to Less Knowledgeable Students.

3. Matching:
− Designed to Measure Students’ Ability to Recall a Recall
Large Amount of Factual Information—verbal, Factual associative knowledge.
− Two Lines of Items are Presented and Students to Select an Item from One
List that Closely Relates to an Item from the Second List.
− Intended for Lower-Level Learning.

• Guidelines for Creating Matching Columns:

− Indicate Basis for Matching the Premises w/the Responses.

− Matching Columns should be Contained on One Page.
− Keep the Number of Items to be Matched Short.
− Put Premises and Responses in Logical Order.
− Premises and Responses should Fall in the Same General Topic/Category.
− Make the Length of Statements Consistent.
− Use Complete Names if Names are to be Matched.

4. Completions:
−Require that Students Write Responses in their Own Handwriting Supplying a
Recalled Word/Phrase.
−Difficult to Write.
−Excellent for Subjects that Require the Recall of Unambiguous Facts/Perform
Certain Calculations.
• Guidelines for Creating Completions:
− Give Clear Directions.
− Be Definite Enough so that Only One Correct Answer is Possible.
− Do Not Utilize Direct Statements from Textbooks (it might Encourage
Memorization)
− Ensure that that all Blanks are of Equal Length and Correspond to the Lengths
of Desired Responses.
− Items should be Completed w/a Single Word/Brief Phrase.

5. Essay:
− Permits Students to Formulate Answers to Questions in their Own Words.
− Measure what Students Know because They Utilize their Own Storehouse of
Knowledge to answer a Question.
− Determines Students’ ability to: analyze, Synthesize, Evaluate
and Solve Problems.

Two Basic Forms are:

− Brief (requires a Short Answer Solution of a Problem.)
− Extended Extended (requires several paragraphs of Writing.)

• Guidelines for Creating Essays:

− Make Directions Clear and Specific.
− Allow Ample Time for the Completion of Essays (suggest a time allotment for
each question.)
− Provide a Choice of Questions.
− The Worth of Each Question should be Identified in the Test Instructions.
− Explain Scoring Technique to Students Before the Exam (it makes Explicit
what you are Looking for)

• Guidelines for Offsetting Low Reliability and Validity of Essays:

− Before Exam (write a sample answer and assign points to the various
components of the answer.)
− Skim the Exam and Identify a Model Paper (the anchor paper for grading.)
− Grade Each Question for All Students before proceeding to the Next
Question.
− Grade Papers Blindly.
− Establish Page Limit and Time Limit for Each Essay Item.
− If possible (Read Student Responses Several Times)

Authentic Assessment Requires Students to:

− Demonstrate Skills and Competencies Replicate Real-World Problems/
Situations.
− Integrate Knowledge and Complete Tasks that have
Real-Life Applications.
− Examples Examples: exhibitions, oral presentations, role-
playing/oral readings recorded and portfolios.
− Portfolios: documented history of learning &
Documented and Organized History of Learning
Accomplishment.

• Guidelines for the Development of Authentic Assessment:

− Design Programs and Tasks that Match Outcomes and Content of Instruction.
− Tasks Should Have Real-Life Applicability.
− Emphasize Process and Product.
− Provide Time for Student Reflection/Self-Evaluation.
− Develop Scoring Procedures and their Application (rubrics can be utilized for
this purpose.)

Quizzes:
− Evaluates Student Progress.
− Check Homework.
− Measure whether Content from Immediate/Preceding Lessons was
Understood.
− Short in Length—three to five questions.
− Limited to Material Taught in Immediate/Preceding Lessons.
− Encourage Students to Keep w/their Work.
− Provide Feedback for Teachers Related to their Effectiveness.
− Serve as Warning Signal of Teaching/Learning Problems.

Publishers Provide Test Banks Test Banks for Teachers:

− Geared to Factual Information.
− Might Not Cover the Objectives Developed by the Teacher.
− Test Bank Databases Allow Teachers to Order Customize Tests from a
Publisher’s Data Bank.
− Test Bank Data Bases Require that Teachers Complete Advanced Planning.

Grading Systems
• Teachers Collect Relevant Data and then Must Interpret it and Assign Grades.
• There is No Way to Assign Grades that is Fair to All Students.
• There are Two Grading Systems:
1. Absolute Grading Standards.
2. Relative Grading Standards.

Absolute Grading Standards:

− Grades Given Relative to Performance Against an Established Set of Grading
Criteria.
− Each Student has the Potential to Achieve any Grade.
− Students Can Achieve High Grades in this System if they Put Forth the
Effort—control of test scores is in the hands of students.
− Student Either Does Get an Established Percentage of the Responses
Correct/Does Not.

• Weaknesses of the Absolute Grading Standard are:

−Establishment of a Standard for each Grade is Difficult.
−Standard Established for Each Grade May Vary from Time to Time Based on
Content Emphasized and Changes in Curriculum.
−Level of Examination Difficulty May Vary.

Relative Grading Standards Grade Using Curves.

• There are Two Types of Methods Using Curves:

1. Ranking System Ranking System—the Teacher Establishes a Fixed Percentage
for Each Grade.
2. Inspection Method Inspection Method—the Teacher Sets a Frequency
Distribution of Raw Scores on a Vertical/Horizontal Line − Grades are Assigned
According to Natural Breaks in the Distribution.
• Relative Grading Standard Does Not Does Not Take into Account Differences
in Overall Ability of Students.

The Three Ways Three Ways to Assign Grades after Examining Students’ Work
are:
1. Point Grading System—the Importance of Each Assignment,
Quiz/Test is Reflected in the Points Allocated.
2. Weighted Grading System—every Assignment is Given a Letter Grade and All
Grades are Then Weighted to Arrive at a Final Grade.
3. Percentage Grading System—relies on the Calculation of the
Percentage Correct of the Responses Corrected.
− Widely Used because of its Simplicity and Familiarity to Most Caregivers.
− Weakness w/this System is All Exercises Carry the Same Weight.
• Contract System:
− Teacher Promises to Award a Specific Grade for Specified Performance.
− Students Know What they Must Accomplish to Receive a Certain Grade.

• Procedures for a Contract System:

− Develop Sets of Objectives that Correspond to Specific Letter Grades.
− Decide the Activities and Assignments that are Required at Each Level.
− Students Receive a Copy of the Objectives, Corresponding Letter Grades and
Requirements.
− Students Study this Copy and Decide on the Contract Grade.

Teacher Made Test: Meaning, Features and Uses

Meaning of Teacher Made Test:

Carefully constructed teacher-made tests and standardized tests are similar in
many ways. Both are constructed on the basis of carefully planned table of
specifications, both have the same type of test items, and both provide clear
directions to the students.

Still the two differ. They differ in the quality of test items, the reliability of
test measures, the procedures for administering and scoring and the
interpretation of scores. No doubt, standardized tests are good and better in
quality, more reliable and valid.
But a classroom teacher cannot always depend on standardized tests. These may
not suit to his local needs, may not be readily available, may be costly, and may
have different objectives. In order to fulfill the immediate requirements, the
teacher has to prepare his own tests which are usually objective type in nature.

Teacher-made tests are normally prepared and administered for testing

classroom achievement of students, evaluating the method of teaching adopted
by the teacher and other curricular programs of the school.

Teacher-made test is one of the most valuable instrument in the hands of the
teacher to solve his purpose. It is designed to solve the problem or
requirements of the class for which it is prepared.

It is prepared to measure the outcomes and content of local curriculum. It is

very much flexible so that, it can be adopted to any procedure and material. It
does not require any sophisticated technique for preparation.

Features of Teacher-Made Tests:

l. The items of the tests are arranged in order of difficulty.
2. These are prepared by the teachers which can be used for prognosis and
diagnosis purposes.
3. The test covers the whole content area and includes a large number of items.
4. The preparation of the items conforms to the blueprint.
5. Test construction is not a single man's business, rather it is a co-operative
endeavor.
6. A teacher-made test does not cover all the steps of a standardized test.
7. Teacher-made tests may also be employed as a tool for formative evaluation.
8. Preparation and administration of these tests are economical.
9. The test is developed by the teacher to ascertain the student's achievement
and proficiency in a given subject.
10. Teacher-made tests are least used for research purposes.
11. They do not have norms whereas providing norms is quite essential for
standardized tests.

Steps/Principles of Construction of Teacher-made Test:

A teacher-made test does not require a well-planned preparation. Even then, to

make it more efficient and effective tool of evaluation, careful considerations
arc needed to be given while constructing such tests.

The following steps may be followed for the preparation of teacher-made test:

l. Planning:
Planning of a teacher-made test includes:
a. Determining the purpose and objectives of the test, 'as what to measure and
why to measure'.
b. Deciding the length of the test and portion of the syllabus to be covered.
c. Specifying the objectives in behavioral terms. If needed, a table can even be
prepared for specifications and weightage given to the objectives to be
measured.
d. Deciding the number and forms of items (questions) according to blueprint.
e. Having a clear knowledge and understanding of the principles of constructing
essay type, short answer type and objective type questions.
f. Deciding date of testing much in advance in order to give time to teachers
for test preparation and administration.
g. Seeking the co-operation and suggestion of co-teachers, experienced teachers
of other schools and test experts.
2. Preparation of the Test:
Planning is the philosophical aspect and preparation is the practical aspect of test
construction. All the practical aspects to be taken into consideration while one
constructs the tests. It is an art, a technique. One is to have it or to acquire it.
It requires much thinking, rethinking and reading before constructing test items.

Different types of objective test items viz., multiple choice, short-answer type
and matching type can be constructed. After construction, test items should be
given 10 others for review and for seeking their opinions on it.

The suggestions may be sought even from others on languages, modalities of the
items, statements given, correct answers supplied and on other possible errors
anticipated. The suggestions and views thus sought will help a test constructor
in modifying and verifying his items afresh to make it more acceptable and
usable.

After construction of the test, items should be arranged in a simple to complex

order. For arranging the items, a teacher can adopt so many methods viz., group-
wise, unit-wise, topic wise etc. Scoring key should also be prepared forthwith
to avoid further delay in scoring.

Direction is an important part of a test construction. Without giving a proper

direction or instruction, there will be a probability of losing the authenticity of
the test reliability. It may create a misunderstanding in the students also.
Thus, the direction should be simple and adequate to enable the students to
know:
(i) The time for completion of test,
(ii) The marks allotted to each item,
(iii) Required number of items to be attempted,
(iv) How and where to record the answer? and
(v) The materials, like graph papers or logarithmic table to be used.

Uses of Teacher-Made Tests:

1. To help a teacher to know whether the class in normal, average, above
average or below average.
2. To help him in formulating new strategies for teaching and learning.
3. A teacher-made test may be used as a full-fledged achievement test which
covers the entire course of a subject.
4. To measure students' academic achievement in a given course.
5. To assess how far specified instructional objectives have been achieved.
6. To know the efficacy of learning experiences.
7. To diagnose students learning difficulties and to suggest necessary remedial
measures.
8. To certify, classify or grade the students on the basis of resulting scores.
9. Skillfully prepared teacher-made tests can serve the purpose of standardized
test.
10. Teacher-made tests can help a teacher to render guidance and counseling.
11. Good teacher-made tests can be exchanged among neighboring schools.
12. These tests can be used as a tool for formative, diagnostic and summative
evaluation.
13. To assess pupils' growth in different areas.

When creating a test or selecting a test, you need to think about these three
characteristics: reliability, validity, and usability.

RELIABILITY: A reliable test is one that will give the same results over and
over again. It's consistent, dependable, and stable. It's important that a test is
reliable so that you can count on the results. For example, if you give the same
test to the same group of students three times in a row in a short period of
time, the results should not
fluctuate widely. If you use a different form of the test, the results should also
remain consistent. If they don't, the test is not reliable. For example, if you have
two test items to measure one objective, do the students who get one right
also get the other right and the students who get one wrong get the other one
wrong too? You want a test to be reliable so that you can count on it to test
for the same things no matter who you give it to and when you give it. To
improve reliability, you can increase the number of test items, give the test to a
mixed student group, include test items that are of moderate difficulty rather
than of mainly easy or hard questions, double check to make sure all test items
are clear and understandable, and use test items that can be scored objectively
rather than subjectively.

Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and

consistent results.

Types of Reliability
l. Test-retest reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by administering the
same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. The scores
from Time I and Time 2 can then be correlated in order to evaluate the test for
stability over time.
Example: A test designed to assess student learning in psychology could be given
to a group of students twice, with the second administration perhaps coming a
week after the first. The obtained correlation coefficient would indicate the
stability of the scores.

2. Parallel forms reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by

administering different versions of an assessment tool (both versions must
contain items that probe the same construct, skill, knowledge base, etc.) to the
same group of individuals. The scores from the two versions can then be
correlated in order to evaluate the consistency of results across alternate
versions.

Example: If you wanted to evaluate the reliability of a critical thinking

assessment, you might create a large set of items that all pertain to critical
thinking and then randomly split the questions up into two sets, which would
represent the parallel forms.

3. Inter-rater reliability is a measure of reliability used to assess the degree to

which different judges or raters agree in their assessment decisions. Inter-
rater reliability is useful because human observers will not necessarily interpret
answers the same way; raters may disagree as to how well certain responses or
material demonstrate knowledge of the construct or skill being
assessed.

Example: Inter-rater reliability might be employed when different judges are

evaluating the degree to which art portfolios meet certain standards. Inter-rater
reliability is especially useful when judgments can be considered relatively
subjective. Thus, the use of this type of reliability would probably be more likely
when evaluating artwork as opposed to math problems.
4. Internal consistency reliability is a measure of reliability used to evaluate the
degree to which different test items that probe the same construct produce
similar results.

A. Average inter-item correlation is a subtype of internal consistency reliability.

It is obtained by taking all of the items on a test that probe the same construct
(e.g., reading comprehension), determining the correlation coefficient for each
pair of items, and finally taking the average of all of these correlation
coefficients. This final step yields the average inter-item correlation.
B. Split-half reliability is another subtype of internal consistency reliability. The
process of obtaining split-half reliability is begun by "splitting in half" all items of
a test that are intended to probe the same area of knowledge (e.g., World War
Il) in order to form two "sets" of items. The entire test is administered to a
group of individuals, the total score for each "set" is computed, and finally the
split-half reliability is obtained by determining the correlation between the two
total "set" scores.

VALIDITY: When a test is valid, it measures what it's designed to measure. For
example, if you are trying to test if your students have achieved the following
objective "Given a plow, students will be able to plow on the contour to help
prevent soil erosion" but test by using a test item that asks why it's important
to plow on the contour, your test will not provide a valid measure of this
objective.

To test for that objective, you need to actually see the students plow. Or if
your objective is to have students' list three causes of reef destruction, but
the test question has students list three causes of ocean pollution, the test item
doesn't match the objective.
If the test question were to ask students to list three causes of reef
destruction, the question would be valid.

One way to make sure your test is valid is to double check each test item and
make sure each is measuring your pre-determined objectives. You can also ask
your colleagues to rate your questions against your objectives to make sure
they match.

Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.

Why is it necessary?

While reliability is necessary, it alone is not sufficient. For a test to be reliable, it

also needs to be valid. For example, if your scale is off by 5 lbs, it reads your
weight every day with an excess of 51bs. The scale is reliable because it
consistently reports the same weight every day, but it is not valid because it
adds 51bs to your true weight. It is not a valid measure of your weight.

Types of Validity
I. Face Validity ascertains that the measure appears to be assessing the intended
construct under study. The stakeholders can easily assess face validity.
Although this is not a very "scientific" type of validity, it may be an essential
component in enlisting motivation of stakeholders. If the stakeholders do not
believe the measure is an accurate assessment of the ability, they may become
disengaged with the task.

Example: If a measure of art appreciation is created all of the items should be

related to the different components and types of art. If the questions are
regarding historical time periods, with no reference to any artistic movement,
stakeholders may not be motivated to give their best effort or invest in this
measure because they do not
believe it is a true assessment of art appreciation.

2. Construct Validity is used to ensure that the measure is actually measure what
it is intended to measure (i.e. the construct), and not other variables. Using a
panel of "experts" familiar with the construct is a way in which this type of
validity can be assessed. The experts can examine the items and decide what that
specific item is intended to measure. Students can be involved in this process
to obtain their
feedback.

Example: A women's studies program may design a cumulative assessment of

learning throughout the major. The questions are written with complicated
wording and phrasing. This can cause the test inadvertently becoming a test of
reading comprehension, rather than a test of women's studies. It is important
that the measure is actually assessing the intended construct, rather than an
extraneous
factor.

3. Criterion-Related Validity is used to predict future or current performance -

it correlates test results with another criterion of interest.

Example: If a physics program designed a measure to assess cumulative student

learning throughout the major. The new measure could be correlated with a
standardized measure of ability in this discipline, such as an ETS field test or the
GRE subject test. The higher the correlation between the established measure
and new
measure, the more faith stakeholders can have in the new assessment tool.
4. Formative Validity when applied to outcomes assessment it is used to assess
how well a measure is able to provide information to help improve the program
under study.

Example: When designing a rubric for history one could assess student's
knowledge across the discipline. If the measure can provide information that
students are lacking knowledge in a certain area, for instance the Civil Rights
Movement, then that assessment tool is providing meaningful information that
can be used to improve the course or program requirements.

5. Sampling Validity (similar to content validity) ensures that the measure

covers the broad range of areas within the concept under study. Not
everything can be covered, so items need to be sampled from all of the domains.
This may need to be completed using a panel of "experts" to ensure that the
content area is adequately sampled.

Additionally, a panel can help limit "expert" bias (i.e. a test reflecting
What an individual personally feels are the most important or relevant areas).

Example: When designing an assessment of learning in the theatre department, it

would not be sufficient to only cover issues related to acting. Other areas of
theatre such as lighting, sound, functions of stage managers should all be
included. The assessment should reflect the content area in its entirety.

What are some ways to improve validity?

1. Make sure your goals and objectives are clearly defined and operationalized.
Expectations of students should be written down.
2. Match your assessment measure to your goals and objectives.
3. Additionally, have the test reviewed by faculty at other schools to obtain
feedback from an outside party who is less invested in the instrument.
4. Get students involved; have the students look over the assessment for
troublesome wording, or other difficulties.
5. If possible, compare your measure with other measures, or data that may be
available.

USABILITY: You should also select tests based on how easy the test is to use.
In addition to reliability and validity, you need to think about how much time you
have to create a test, grade it, and administer it -You need to think about how
you will interpret and use the scores from the tests. And you need to check to
make sure the
test questions and directions are written clearly, the test itself is short enough
not to overwhelm the students, the questions don't includes stereotypes or
personal biases, and that they are interesting and make the students think.