Balance of System Equipment

Site: NewEnergyAcademy Printed by: Melecio Jesus Leano Jr.

Course: Balance of System Date: Monday, 15 January 2024, 6:51 AM
Book: Balance of System Equipment
 Table of contents

1. Before You Start

2. Cabling
2.1. DC Cables
2.2. AC Cables
2.3. Accessories

3. Electrical Protection
3.1. Protection Devices: Fuses and Circuit Breakers
3.2. DC Overcurrent Protection Devices
3.3. DC Disconnection Devices
3.4. AC Disconnection Devices
3.5. Earthing
3.6. Lightning Protection

4. String and Array Combiner Boxes

5. Metering
5.1. Types of Meters: Simple versus Smart
5.2. Types of Metering: Net versus Gross

6. System Monitoring

7. What's Next?
 1. Before You Start

A PV system comprises more equipment than just the modules, inverter and mounting frame. The additional equipment is known as Balance of
System (BoS).

This course will explore cabling, electrical protection, string and array combiner boxes, metering, and system monitoring. In your Grid-
Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation (First International Version) resource book, there is also extension material on polarised and non-
polarised DC circuit breakers.

The following video explains some BoS involved with a grid-connected PV system.

Safety Equipment + DC cables

The list below denotes the time within the video that each subject appears.

Harnesses and the Ladder: 0:00 - 2:08

Tools: 2:08 - 5:10
Modules and Inverter: 5:10 - 5:30
Mounting Rail, Fixings and Clamps: 5:30 - 6:40
Isolating Equipment: 6:40 - 7:00
Dektite: 7:00 - 7:22
Conduit: 7:22 - 7:46
MC4 Leads and Connectors: 7:46 - 7:58
DC cabling: 7:58 - 8:25
Winches: 8:25 - 8:47

This course correlates to chapter 9 in your Grid-Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation (First International Version) resource book.
 2. Cabling

Grid-connected PV systems require both DC and AC cabling to connect the relevant components together. DC and AC cables are specifically
designed for the electrical characteristics of their respective form of electricity and should not be interchanged.

The DC cables found in a grid-connected PV system are:

PV module cables: These are typically pre-connected to the module and connect a set of PV modules in series, forming a string.
PV string cables: These connect a string of modules to the PV string combiner box.
PV sub-array cables: In larger systems, these connect the PV string combiner box to the PV array combiner box.
PV array cables: These connect the PV string combiner box (or the PV array combiner box in larger systems) to the PV array DC switch-
disconnectors.
Inverter DC cables: These connect the PV array DC switch-disconnectors to the DC side of the inverter. This cabling may also be referred to
as PV array cabling, but it has been separated in this course to provide an extra description.

The AC cables found in a grid-connected PV system are AC supply cables. These connect the inverter to the inverter AC disconnector (at the
inverter, if necessary) and then to the point of connection to the grid (the PV array main switch) in the switchboard.

The array’s earthing cables are also an important part of a grid-connected PV system. They are needed to protect both the system equipment
and people from dangerous fault conditions, and may be required for the operation of some systems.

PV system wiring should comply with IEC 62548:2016 and IEC 60364, or with local standards and regulations.
 2.1. DC Cables

DC cables are used between the PV modules and the DC side of the inverter.

It is important to ensure that the DC cabling used is correctly labelled in accordance with applicable standards.

Module Cables

Modules usually come with a positive and a negative cable hardwired into the module’s junction box at the back of the module. These are
used to connect the modules together to form a string.

String, Sub-Array, Array and Inverter DC Cables

String cables connect the strings of modules to the PV string combiner box. In larger systems, sub-array cables are used to connect the PV
string combiner box to the PV array combiner box. Array cables are used to connect the PV string combiner box (or the PV array combiner box
in larger systems) to the PV array DC switch-disconnectors. Finally, DC cables are used between the PV array DC switch-disconnectors and the
inverter.

Note: Because the cable connectors are manufacturer- and model-specific, it is important that the appropriate tools are available for use to
connect the plugs and their fittings onto the cables. Consult the module manufacturer’s installation guidelines.

Interconnectors Used for DC Cables

There are numerous brands of DC cable interconnectors and accessories available for use with PV modules. These interconnection products
offer the ability to series or parallel the interconnection of PV modules by the use of various adaptors.

It is essential that DC cable connectors are only interconnected with connectors of the same brand and model. 'Compatible' connectors of
different brands may cause internal arcing and risk of fire, due to poor fit.

Multi-Contact MC4 male (above) and female (below) connectors. (Source: Multi-Contact AG.)
 2.2. AC Cables

AC cables are used between the AC side of the inverter and the connection point to the grid: connecting together the inverter, the inverter AC
disconnector (if required) and the connection point to the grid (the PV array main switch) within the switchboard.

The voltage from the inverter is typically the same as the consumer mains, and so the cables required are the same as those used in general
household electrical installations.

Single-phase inverters will typically use three core cables: active (A), neutral (N) and earth (E), known as ‘2C + E’. Three-phase inverters will
typically use either five core cables (A1, A2, A3, N and E; known as ‘4C + E’) or four core cables (A1, A2, A3 and N) plus a separate earth cable.

All AC wiring must follow the relevant local or international standards.

 2.3. Accessories

To ensure that the cabling is installed in a safe and tidy manner, accessories such as conduit, cable ties, cable clips and/or clamps and conduit
clamps will be required. Larger PV systems, such as commercial systems, may also use ducting, tray and ladder arrangements for cable
installation.

Ancillary products such as conduit, cable trays and cable ties, facilitate safe cabling installation.
 3. Electrical Protection

Electrical protection is essential to ensure the safe operation of a grid-connected PV system and includes:

Overcurrent protection devices: These devices automatically disconnect during a fault and are designed to prevent damage to components
and cables due to overload currents or short circuits.
Disconnection devices: These devices allow parts of the system to be electrically isolated. A grid-connected PV system requires means of
disconnection for both the DC and the AC circuits.
Earthing: This protects both the system equipment and people from dangerous fault conditions. Earthing can also be used to improve the
performance in some systems.
Lightning protection: This involves a combination of earthing and overvoltage protection for direct and indirect lightning strikes.

All applicable standards and guidelines should be known and met.

Further details about electrical protection devices are provided below and in Chapter 13 in your resource book.
 3.1. Protection Devices: Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Fuses and circuit breakers are types of overcurrent protection devices. Currents in excess of their rating will cause the device to operate,
creating an open circuit.

Fuses

A fuse is generally made up of a short section of conductor material within an insulating enclosure. They are sized so that they will carry the
load current but will create an open circuit under a fault condition – the conductor material melts under excessive current, breaking the circuit.
Fuses are single-use protection devices and so must be replaced after they operate. Fuses used in grid-connected PV systems should be rated
according to international standards.

A cylindrical cartridge-style fuse.

Circuit Breakers

A circuit breaker is a mechanical device installed to protect a circuit and it will open that circuit under fault conditions; it can be reset when the
fault is removed and so can be used repeatedly, unlike a fuse. In many cases, circuit breakers may also be used as disconnection devices, as
long as a suitable circuit breaker has been selected.

Circuit breakers have a number of ‘poles’. A pole in this context is a switch-controlled segment that can break the circuit when switched. Each
pole has two terminals, one below the switch and one above the switch, into which the conductors (i.e. the cables from other components) are
wired.

When a circuit breaker is switched off, the metal contacts between the two terminals of each pole are disconnected. As this happens, a
transient DC arc is generated, which can cause a fire if not contained. Circuit breakers are designed with arc-interruption mechanisms to reduce
the risk of fire.

Single-pole (a) and double-pole (b) non-polarised circuit breakers.

DC circuit breakers can be categorised into non-polarised and polarised breakers:

Non-polarised: These DC circuit breakers should always be used. They are circuit breakers that can operate effectively when installed in
either direction.
Polarised: These DC circuit breakers should no longer be used according to the relevant International standards. More information on
polarised circuit breakers is given in the Extension Material at the end of the chapter in the resource book.

For more information, see section 9.2.1 in your Grid-Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation (First International Version) resource book.
 3.2. DC Overcurrent Protection Devices

PV systems are susceptible to electrical faults, such as short circuits. All overcurrent protection devices are designed to protect the components
and cables within that circuit from damage that could caused by excessive currents or short circuits.

Overcurrent protection may or may not be required for each string, for each sub-array and for the array as a whole, depending on the size and
configuration of the PV system. The size of the overcurrent protection device depends on the maximum current that can be safely passed
through all the elements of that circuit. For a residential installation, string overcurrent protection is generally the only overcurrent protection
needed. However, the array disconnection device is always mandatory.

Overcurrent protection may also be known as fault current protection. 'Isolator' is another name for a disconnection switch. This term has been
phased out of use in the standards except in labelling; however, it is still in common use across the industry. 'Switch disconnector' is a specific
term for a load-breaking disconnection device.

Requirements for, and design of, overcurrent protection are detailed in Chapter 13 in your resource book.
 3.3. DC Disconnection Devices

DC disconnection devices are manual switches that break the DC circuit to isolate components; they can be categorised into two groups: load-
breaking devices and non-load-breaking devices.

IEC 62548:2016 contains requirements and information on DC disconnection devices.

The DC disconnection devices installed in a grid-connected PV system are:

String disconnectors - For both LV (120–1,500 V DC) and ELV (<120 V DC) systems, it is recommended that each string cable has a form of
non-load-breaking disconnection.
Sub-array disconnectors - For LV and ELV systems, it is usually a requirement that each sub-array cable possesses a disconnection device for
isolation.
PV array DC disconnectors - PV array DC disconnectors (also known as isolators) are DC disconnection devices installed between the PV
array and the DC side of the inverter. A PV array DC disconnector should be a load-breaking, DC-rated disconnection switch that is readily
available and breaks all poles simultaneously. If the array is LV, this DC disconnection device must also be lockable in the off position.

Two types of rotary PV array DC disconnector. Note that they are labelled ‘isolator’.
 3.4. AC Disconnection Devices

The ‘PV array main switch’ is an AC disconnection device installed on the switchboard. It should be a suitably rated AC circuit breaker so that it
is load-breaking, operates on all of the active conductors and incorporates the circuit overcurrent protection, as is the case for all circuits at the
switchboard.

An additional load-breaking AC disconnection device may be required adjacent to the inverter on the AC side (this is known as the ‘inverter AC
isolator’ or the ‘solar array AC isolator’). Depending on prevailing requirements, this is required if the inverter is not within line of sight of the
PV array main switch within the switchboard. This will be explored in Chapter 13 of your resource book.

An AC circuit breaker (inside an enclosure) being used as a PV array isolator next to an inverter.
 3.5. Earthing

System earthing protects equipment and people from dangerous overcurrent conditions by directing fault currents to the earth. Equipotential
bonding is used between the exposed conductive parts of the PV array and earth, such that there is no voltage (potential) difference between
any two components.

An aluminium module frame can be bonded to the mounting frame by the use of suitable products, such as seen in the figure below.

Various WEEB washers for earthing the module frame.

Some PV systems may also require functional earthing, which will be explored in chapter 13 in your resource book.

Standards applicable to PV installations usually require that the earthing of a PV array always maintains the continuity of the earthing or
bonding connections: meaning that, in the event that one module is removed, the earthing continuity of the system is not affected.

Earthing requirements can be found in IEC 62548:2016.

For more information, see section 9.2.5 in your Grid-Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation (First International Version) resource book.
 3.6. Lightning Protection

Lightning can damage the components of a PV system whether it strikes the array or part of the grid. Lightning protection may be required for
systems located where there is a significant risk of being struck by lightning, as determined by the relevant standards. The international
standard for lightning protection is IEC 62305.

Lightning protection involves a combination of earthing (e.g. lightning rods) and surge protection. Connecting to the earthing system affects
the requirements of the earthing cable sizing so that these cables are able to ground a lightning strike.

Surge-protection devices (SPDs) protect equipment from the overvoltage created by a direct or indirect lightning strike. They could be
required on the DC side of the inverter (protecting from strikes on the array) and/or on the AC side of the inverter (protecting from strikes on
the AC power grid).
 4. String and Array Combiner Boxes

A string combiner box (or junction box) is commonly used to interconnect the string cables of the array to the array cable going to the inverter.
It is also used to house overcurrent protection and disconnection devices. In larger systems with sub-arrays, there could be both string
combiner boxes and array combiner boxes.

If there is no overcurrent protection required, a ‘y-connector’ could be used instead to combine array strings or array sub-arrays.

(a) An example of an array combiner box. The multiple positive and negative string cables go through the base (i) and are combined in their
respective circuit breakers (string overcurrent protection; ii). The array cables then go through the surge protection (iii) and the array DC
disconnector (iv) before going out of the base to the inverter (v). b) An example of a junction box containing string overcurrent protection (fuses).

Y-connectors, which can be used instead of a combiner box when no overprotection is required.
 5. Metering

An electricity meter records the amount of electrical energy that passes through it, traditionally measuring the amount of electricity used by a
property from the grid. Electrical energy is generally measured in kWh, although commercial meters often record the electrical demand in kW
as well.

A grid-connected PV system needs a metering system able to record the electricity generated by the PV system and for net metering, the
amount of electricity that is fed into the grid.
 5.1. Types of Meters: Simple versus Smart

Meters come in many different types, ranging from simple mechanical meters to advanced ‘smart’ meters. These meters can be used in
different ways to capture the electricity generated by the PV system.

Mechanical meters: The simplest meter is a mechanical device with a calibrated rotating disk that spins when electricity passes through it,
such as when electricity is being consumed.

Advanced interval meters: More advanced digital meters can measure how much electricity passes through them during particular time
intervals.

Smart meters: A ‘smart’ meter is an advanced interval meter that has remote communications functionality.

a) A simple mechanical meter. b) A smart meter. Both meters show the amount of electricity used (in kWh).

For more information, see section 9.4.1 in your Grid-Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation (First International Version) resource book.
 5.2. Types of Metering: Net versus Gross

The metering for a grid-connected PV system can be arranged as either net or gross.

Net metering: Net metering systems are designed so that the customer can use the electricity generated by the PV system directly. Any excess
electricity that is generated is exported to the grid. When the PV system is not generating sufficient energy, the meter also measures the
amount of energy imported from the grid. Thus, the measured ‘net’ amounts of energy exported and imported are not the same as the total
amounts of energy generated and consumed, respectively.

Net metering can be set up in two ways:

1. Two mechanical meters, one for import and one for export.

2. An electronic meter that can record electricity in both directions, i.e. bi-directional.

a) two separate mechanical meters or b) a single bi-directional meter than can record electricity in both directions.

Gross metering: Gross metering systems are designed so that all electricity generated by the PV array is exported to the grid. All electricity
used on-site is supplied by the grid. Therefore, the measured amount of exported electricity is the same as the total amount generated by the
PV system and the measured amount of imported electricity is the same as the total amount consumed by the customer.

Gross metering can be set up in the two same ways as net metering.

(a) two separate mechanical meters or (b) a single electronic meter than can record the generation and the consumption separately.

For more information, diagrams and examples, see section 9.4.2 in your Grid-Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation (First International
Version) resource book.
 6. System Monitoring

System monitoring provides information about the operation and performance of the PV system. Monitoring can be achieved using the
inverter or a separate monitoring device.

The information provided by system monitoring can include:

Yield: The amount of energy generated over a period of time.

Voltage: The operating output voltage of the system at different points in time.
Power: The operating power of the system at different points of time.
Temperature: The operating temperature of the system at different points of time.
Credit: The total amount of money saved or earned by the system

Graphical output of a monitoring system, showing instantaneous PV generation (power) and PV generation over time (energy yield).
 7. What's Next?

You have now completed the Learning Material and can proceed with the Practice Exercise questions.