The Different Hypotheses Explaining the Origin of the Universe

Origin of the Universe

-scientific thought

-non-scientific thought

Non-Scientific Thought

1. Ancient Egyptians believed in many Gods and myths which narrate that the world arose from
an infinite sea at the first rising of the sun.

2. The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator Mbombo who alone in a dark
and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the stars, sun and
moon.

3. In India, there is a narrative that Gods sacrificed Purusha, a primal man whose head, feet,
eyes and mind became sky, earth, sun and moon respectively.

4. The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam claim that a supreme being
created the universe, including man and other living organisms.

Oscillating Universe by Hindu text Rigveda

-Cosmic Egg (Brahmanda) containing the whole universe expanded out of a single concentrated
point.

-It is said that God, wishing to create the world, produced an egg as big as the cosmos. God
meditated for a thousand years sitting inside the egg and when the egg burst, it created the
solar system and the Lord himself was born out of the egg as the Progenitor of the universe
(“He made Himself by Himself.”, Taitiriya Upanishad: 2.7.

Oscillating Universe

 States that the universe undergoes periods of expansion and contraction. Eventually,
all the matter in the universe would get hotter and brighter and eventually collapse
together in an event called the “Big Crunch,” then a new Big Bang would occur
resulting in a new universe.


Postulates of different Astronomers explaining the origin of the Universe (Scientific Thought)

Leucippus and Democritus - ATOMIC UNIVERSE

 Universe was composed of very small indivisible and indestructible atoms.

Isaac Newton - STATIC, STEADY-STATE

 infinite universe matter on a large scale is uniformly distributed and the universe is
gravitationally balanced but essentially unstable.
Rene Descartes - CARTESIAN VORTEX MODEL

- the space was not empty at all but filled with matter that swirled around in large and
small vortices. His model involved a system of a huge swirling whirlpools of fine matter.
(gravitational effect)

Albert Einstein - STATIC DYNAMICALLY STABLE

Assumed that the universe was no different from Newton that the universe was static
dynamically stable universe which neither expanding nor contracting. He would later abandon
this theory when in 1929, American astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was
not static.

Aristotle’s and Ptolemy’s Universe - GEOCENTRIC THEORY (earth-centered)

The Earth is still, motionless, and at the center of the Universe.

 Celestial bodies move in perfect circles at uniform speeds.

 Stars were set in a rotating sphere that turned E to W once a day.
 Planets, moon, sun also set in separate spheres that moved slower.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543, Poland) - HELIOCENTRIC THEORY (SUN-CENTERED

 Sun at the center of universe

 Planets orbit sun in perfect circles
 Stars on a huge, fixed sphere (the firmament)

Tycho Brahe (Teeko Bra-hay) (1546 - 1600)

 Believed in geocentric model of solar system.

 Designed and built accurate and powerful instruments to observe the stars.
 Built an observatory financed by the king of Denmark.
 Assisted by mathematician Johannes Kepler

Galileo Galilei (1609, Italy)

 He proved the Copernican hypothesis.

 The sun is the center (heliocentric) of our solar system.
 Our solar system is a part of a larger universe.
 Using an invention, the telescope, Galileo was able to view parts of our Solar System
in motion.

Isaac Newton (1687, England)

 Proposed that gravity is the main source that holds our solar system together.
 The sun's gravitational pull holds the Earth and other planets in their orbits.
 Things on or near the Earth are pulled toward it by the Earth's gravity.

Johannes Kepler (1609)

  Used the planet data of Tycho Brahe and developed Kepler’s: Three Laws of Planetary
Motion.

Kepler’s 1st Law of Planetary Motion

 The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the sun at one focus.

 Each planet's orbit about the Sun is an ellipse. The Sun's center is always located at
one focus of the orbital ellipse. The Sun is at one focus. The planet follows the ellipse
in its orbit, meaning that the planet to Sun distance is constantly changing as the
planet goes around its orbit.

Kepler’s 2nd Law of Planetary Motion

 When a planet is nearer the sun in its orbit (perihelion), it moves faster. When it’s
farther from the sun (aphelion), it moves slower.

Kepler’s 3rd Law of Planetary Motion

• The larger the planet’s orbit, the longer it takes.

THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS

A rogue star passed close to the sun and stripped materials (hot gases) from both the sun and
the rogue star. The hot gases continued to spin in the same direction as the sun and coalesced
into smaller lumps which formed the planets. It explains why planets revolve in the same
direction and why inner planets are denser than the outer ones.

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS

States that the entire solar system started as a large cloud of gas that contracted due to self-
gravity. Conservation of angular momentum requires that a rotating disk form with a large
concentration at the center, which would start as the protosun, while planets would begin
forming within the disk.

PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS

It is built on the main concepts of the nebular hypothesis and concepts based on new
knowledge on fluids and states of matter.

The solar system began with fragment from an interstellar cloud composed mainly of H,He, O,
CO2, NH4. The inner disk is closer to protosun. The warm temperature is enough to vaporize
lighter compounds (H2, O, CO2, NH4) metals and silicates stay as solids. Small planetesimal
form the terrestrial planets.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH NECESSARY TO SUPPORT LIFE

TEMPERATURE

 Influences how quick atoms, molecules or organisms move.

 In Earth’s condition, temperature is just right to support life.

Low Temperature

 Slows down chemical reaction causes bond to break.

High Temperature

 Can cause breakdown of bio molecules.

WATER

 Is one of the most important ingredients in the different biological processes.

Absence of this will interfere reactions necessary for life.
 Water on earth has different forms. It is solid (ice) in the two poles.
 And liquid along the equator which allows living organisms to consume it.

ATMOSPHERE

 It provides significant insulation or shielding from the sun and impact of small to
medium size meteorites.
 Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (co2) and methane (CH4) trap heat and
protects our planet from freezing.

ENERGY

 Earth has available energy- rich sunlight to support lie. Living Organisms like plants,
and photosynthesis bacteria use light as the source of their energy. Some
chemosynthetic organisms rely on chemical energy to support various biological
processes.
 Earth is at right position from the sun that enables it to harness enough amount of
sunlight.

NUTRIENTS

 It is an essential factor used to build and maintain organisms body structures.

insufficient or absence of nutrients can impede synthesis of the different biological
molecules.

EARTH’S SUBSYSTEM AND THE FLOW OF MATTER AND ENERGY

 Earth is a complex system of interrelating physical, chemical and biological processes.

It is a system in which sets of interconnected components are interacting to form a
unified whole. Earth is comprised of four major smaller systems known as
 subsystems. There are also called as spheres of the earth. These are the atmosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

ECOSYSTEM

 System is a set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a unified

whole.
 Matter energy flows and cycles between the four subsystems to sustain each
subsystem.

SPHERE INTERACTION

 Process that moves matter and energy from one sphere to another.

EARTH AS CLOSED SYSTEM

 There is only an exchange of heat or energy and no exchange of matter.

 The earth receives energy from the sun and return some of this energy to space.

EARTH SUBSYSTEM

GEOSPHERE

 Outer most layer

 Light and very thin outer skin of the earth
 Layers of earth – crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, inner core

Mantle

 less dense layer

 made up of iron, magnesium, oxygen and silicon.

Core

 Denser layer
 The earth’s magnetic field
 Outer core is liquid or molten.

HYDROSPHERE

 Cryosphere
 Water Cycle; Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff

How is water distributed on earth?

97% ocean water

2% frozen in icecaps and glaciers

0.5% non-consumable water on land

0.5% freshwater is available for consumption.

BIOSPHERE

 Zone of earth where all form of life exist

 The largest ecosystem
 Each organism plays an important role in food web
 Photosynthesis
 Biogeochemical process

Biochemical Cycle

 Substance move through biotic and abiotic components of earth.

ATMOSPHERE

 Serves as earth’s blanket

Oxygen 21%

Nitrogen 78%

Argon 1% - Argon – Water vapor – Carbon Dioxide

Traces – Helium – Neon – nitrous oxide

Troposphere – balloon

Stratosphere – airplane

Mesosphere – meteor

Ionosphere – radio communication possible

Thermosphere – satellite

Exosphere – outer most layer of earth

Oxygen produced by:

 Rainforest 28%
 Marine plants 50-85%
 Other Source
 68% of freshwater ice and glaciers
 30% ground

Atmosphere affects by gravity

 Air near ground is denser than higher elevation.

ROCK FORMING MINERALS

MINERALS

 naturally occurring
 inorganic
 solid
 definite chemical composition
 Ordered internal structure.

ROCKS

 made up of one or more kinds of minerals.

SILICATES

 Composed of Silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons (SO42-)

 Major rock forming minerals.
 Olivine and Quartz

OXIDES

 Consists of metal cations bonded to oxygen anions.

Common oxide minerals are magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3)
Magnetite and Hematite

SULFIDES

 Consist of metal cation bonded to Sulfide (S2-)

 Common ore minerals along with oxides.
 Galena and Pyrite

SULFATES

 Consists of metal cation bonded to (SO42-) anionic group.

 Usually precipitate out of water near Earth’s surface.
 Gypsum, Halides, Halites (Fluorite)

CARBONATES

 Characterized by the presence of carbonic ion (CO32-) which bonds elements such as
calcium and magnesium.
 Calcite and Dolomite

NATIVE METALS

 Consist of single metal

 Copper and Gold.
 Physical Properties of Minerals

CRYSTAL FORM

 Minerals have definite chemical

composition; they form definite
structure. LUSTER

HABIT  The appearance of light as it is

reflected off its surface.
 The outward appearance of the  Metallic
mineral’s crystal form.  Nonmetallic
 Cubes  Vitreous
 Octahedra  Resinous
 Blades  Pearlescent
 Hexagonal Prism  Silky
Dodecahedra  Greasy
 Compound Forms  Earthy
 Rhombohedra  Dull
 Tetragonal Prism
COLOR
CLEAVAGE
 Most obvious mineral property
 Tendency of a mineral to break but not reliable in identifying
along planes of weakness. minerals.

FRACTURE STREAK

 Minerals that do not have  The color of a mineral in its

cleavage will fracture either in powdered form.
an irregular manner or
conchoidal fracture. HARDNESS
 Fracture is the tendency of a
 Measurement of the strength of
mineral to break along curved
the chemical bonds in its
surfaces without a definite
structure.
shape.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

 Is a measure of the density of a

mineral.
 ROCK CYCLE

 Model that describes how rocks formed, modified, transported, decomposed,

melted, and reformed.

IGNEOUS ROCKS - formed from melted rock deep inside the Earth.

FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

 Formed from cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

 Igneous means fire

WAYS HOW IGNEOUS ROCKS FORM

SLOW COOLING MAGMA

 Intrusive or Plutonic - cool underneath the surface of plutons.

 Granite, Diorite, Syenite

RAPIDLY COOLING MAGMA

 Extrusive or Volcanic - When igneous rocks extrude during volcanic eruption.

 Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite

From the consolidation of particle erupted by volcanic activity.

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1.PYROCLASTIC - Made of consolidated eruption products like volcanic ash.

 Pyro means fire. Klastos means shattered.

 distinguished from each other by size and color of its particle components.

A.FELSIC COMPOSITION

 Light colors
 Rich in silica (SO2)
 White, gray, tan, light gray and pink
 Rhyolite, Granite

B.INTERMEDIATE COMPOSITION

 Gray or consisting of equal part of dark and light material.

 Andesite

C.MAFIC COMPOSITION

 Dark colors
 Black and Brown
 Poor in silica but rich in Fe and Mg.
  Basalt

2.CRYSTALLINE

 Form from cooled magma or crystallization of magma.

A.INTRUSIVE / PLUTONIC

 Formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust.
 Form from slowly cooled magma.
 Can be seen without using lens.

a. PHANERITIC

 Slow cooling
 Large crystals
 Coarse-grained texture
 Intrusive Rock
 Granite

b. PEGMATITIC

 Formed as coarse-grained igneous rocks of granitic composition.

 Larger than 2 to 3cm
 Corundum

B.EXTRUSIVE / VOLCANIC

 Formed on the surface of the Earth from lava.

 Form from rapidly cooled magma.
 May not be visible without using lens.
 Basalt, Rhyolite, Granite

a.APHANITIC

 Rapid cooling
 Small Crystals
Fine-grained texture
Extrusive rock

b. VESICULAR

 Gases escaping while the volcanic rock is being formed.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - formed from layers of sand, silt, dead plants, and animal skeletons.

FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 Product of lithification of particles produced by the weathering of other pre-existing

rocks.
 Sedentarius means sitting.
 Sediments will eventually be deposited and settled until transformed into
sedimentary rocks.

CLASTIC

 From the cementation of sediments that have been deposited, buried, and
compacted over a long period of time.

CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 Rocks are exposed to water and oxygen.

 Oxidation, Hydrolysis

BIOCLAST

 Compaction and cementation of plant and/or animal remains.

 Coquina, Limestone

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1.CRYSTALLINE

 Precipitate out solution.

 Dolomite, Calcite, Halite, Gypsum

2.CLASTIC

 Form from lithification of rock and mineral fragments

 Quartz, Feldspar, Clay

3.BIOCLASTIC

 Formed from the accumulation of organic material or biological activity.

 Plants, corals, shells, or fossils.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS - formed from other rocks that are changed by heat and pressure
underground.

FORMATION METAMORPHIC ROCKS

METAMORPHISM

 Pre-existing rocks are altered by heat, pressure, and chemical activity of fluids.
  Occurs underneath the Earth’s surface but not as deep as the igneous environment.

FOLIATION

 Layered or banded appearance in the rocks

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM

 As tectonic process involved in this process are regional scale produces mountain
chains.
 Slate, Schist, Gneiss

CONTACT METAMORPHISM

 Parent rocks may undergo a fundamental change in texture due to recrystallization.

CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

1.FOLIATED

 When the dominant agent of metamorphic is pressure or crystalline when the

dominant agent is heat.

A.SLATY

 Separate along parallel planes.

B.PHYLLITIC

 The alignment is obvious but not clearly defined foliation.

C.SCHISTOSE

 Layering is more distinct.

 Composed of platy mineral.

D.GNEISSIC

 Minerals are visible and elongated and exhibit a coarsely branded appearance due to
alignment of minerals.

2.NON-FOLIATED

 do not have a platy or sheet-like structure.

 No matter how much pressure you apply, the grains will not align.
 ORES

 naturally-occurring that can be profitably mined.

Rock or mineral considered an ore:

1.Overall chemical composition.

2.Market value of the resource

3.Percentage of extractable resource with its total volume.

LOCATING ORES

HYDROTHERMAL FLUID CIRCULATION

 Form when underground water or seawater is heated by magma.

METAMORPHIC PROCESS

 Lead to alteration and crystallization of minerals and aids in the formation and
localization of economically important material.

MAGMATIC PROCESS

 Concentrated due to their premature recrystallization and separation from magma.

 Chromite is sometimes first to crystallize from basaltic magma

SPECIAL TYPE OF MAGMA (Kimberlite magma)

 Originate deep within the mantle.

 Source of diamond.
 Crystallize at depths greater than 150km.

CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY PROCESS

 Form evaporates deposits from the precipitation of saltwater minerals and

evaporation of lake water.

ACTION OF CURRENTS

 Flowing surface water tends to take sediments along.

 Placer Deposit - If the wave action and strength is constant, it causes a selective
sifting effect.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

 Chemical changes in mineral components result in the alteration into mineral and
into the formation of residual ore depos
MINING ORES

Mining - Set of processes in which useful resources are withdrawn from a stock of any
nonrenewable resources.

Prospecting or Exploration

 Looking for the ore body.

 A deposit that can yield a large amount of the required ore mineral.

Drilling

 Extracting a part of the ore to determine the resulting ore, its quality and the amount
of ore minerals.

Modeling

 Determining Ore size, shape, and grade.

 Mining method
 Blast
 Dig pattern designs
 Safety precautions
 Efficiency and processing method.

Identifying and Assessing the Potential Impacts

 Considering the social and environmental aspects and ways to mitigate the
consequence of mining operation.

Designing and Constructing the Mine

 Create the appropriate mine and operational design and proceeding with the
construction.

Ore Extraction

 Separation of high-grade ores from the rest of the deposit.

Milling

 Crushing and concentration of ores.

 Waste materials are released.

Mine Site Decommissioning

 Closure of the depleted mine

 Cleaning up
 Reclaimed
 Rehabilitated
POSSIBLE METHOD FOR EXTRACTION

1.Sand and gravel extraction - Very little waste rock is left behind after the milling process.

2.Extraction from buried ore bodies - Huge quantities of rock often need to remove and
discarded.

3.Ore Processing - Ore minerals are produced from ores through crushing, separating, and
purifying.

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

 Recycling and resisting the urge acquire new commodities which are not necessary.
 Conservation, protection, and rehabilitation of ecosystem.
 ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable Resources - can be replenished or regenerated on human time scale.

Renewable

 Solar
 Wind
 Hydroelectric
 Geothermal
 Biomass

Non-renewable Resources - cannot be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale.

Non-Renewable

 Fossil Fuel
 Natural Gas
 Petroleum Coal
 Nuclear

FOSSIL FUEL

 worlds primary energy sources

 derived from the remains of prehistoric plants and animals
 the process of burning the fuel is called combustion

COAL

 black combustible rock made up of elemental C,H,O,N, and varying amounts of S.

Coal - continuous burial and compaction transform decaying vegetation into peat

Lignite -is a soft, dark-brown, low-rank coal composed of 70% carbon.

The bituminous coal is transformed into shiny, black, high-rank anthracite coal with 90%
carbon.

 Peat has low carbon content (30-40%) - high moisture.

 Lignite has more carbon content (70%) - less moisture.
 Bituminous has higher carbon content (90%)
 Anthracite has the highest carbon content (>80%)

PETROLEUM

 petra - “rock”
 oleum – “oil”
 derived from large quantities of microscopic aquatic organisms.
Organisms transform into a waxy material kerogen and eventually into hydrocarbons through
the process of catagenesis.

Oil Window - petroleum forms within a specific depth, pressure and temperature range.

Thermal cracking - if the temperature increases beyond oil window, oil is converted into
natural gas.

METHANE

 lighter than air

 highly flammable.

PRO’S: CON’S:

 Cheap source of energy.  Contributes to global warming.

 Reservoir are easy to detect.  Mining
 Relatively independent to  Destruction of habitats.
weather condition.  Biodiversity loss
 Waste product can be used for  Pollution
plastic production.  Acid rain
 Fossil power plants are easy to  Public health issue.
set up.  Health workers in this industry is
 Only small surface areas threatened.
required.  Non-renewable
 Mature technology.  Dependence on other countries
 Relatively safe  Large amount of water needed.
 No high upfront cost  Hazardous waste.
 Easily to transport  Risk of increasing world market
 Local jobs prices
 Machines and vehicles need  Accidents can cause oil spills
fossil fuel.  Pipelines maybe target for
terroristic attacks
 Geothermal Energy

 energy from the Earth’s internal  raising plants for ghg, drying
heat. crops

Geothermal reservoirs When the hot groundwater is pumped

out, it expands and generate steams
 Geyser
 Boiling Mud Point California – largest group of geothermal
 Volcano power plant.
 Hot Springs
Philippines - second highest producer
Uses of Geothermal Energy
Impact:
 Hot springs use as spas.
It only produce small amount of carbon
 heating water at fish farm
dioxide and sulfur compounds but are far
 provide heat for buildings
smaller than those created by fossil fuel
power plants.

PRO’S: CON’S:

 Environmentally friendly.  GPP can cause earthquake.

 Naturally replenished.  Heavy upfront costs associated
 Excellent for meeting the base with both GPP and Geothermal
load energy demand heating/cooling system.
 Great for cooling and heating  Can sustain if the reservoirs are
 Harnessing geothermal energy properly manage
does not involve any fuel.

Hydroelectric Energy

Hydropower - the power generated by the  Rainfall renews the reservoir

energy from falling water or fast running water making hydroelectric
water. energy renewable.
 Reduces ghg.
Hydroelectricity - hydropower was used
to generate electricity. CON’S

PRO’S  Alters the natural landscape.

 Depends on precipitation
 Minimal pollution.  Disrupts marine life habitats and
migration patterns
 Water as Resource

 Generate Hydroelectric Power

Plant
Water Quality  Maintain Ecological Health
 describes the condition of the
water including Physical,
chemical and biological Water
characteristic.
 substance that forms water
resources.
Physical Attributes of Water  ocean, lakes & rivers

 temperature
 odor
 taste Earth’s Water
 turbidity
 Fresh
 color
 Saltwater
Water with good quality is good for
human use.
The total amount of water in the planet.
Water availability is defined as the
Earth’s water budget.
quantity of water that can be used for
human purposes without significant harm 97.5 % saline water
to ecosystem or other users.
2.5 % fresh water
Water resource face a host of serious
threats. 40% of the world’s population (68.7% glaciers, 30.1% groundwater, 0.8%
lives in water-stressed areas. permafrost)

Importance of Water Resource Residence Time

 Drinking water  the average length of time

 Agricultural Production spent by water molecule in a
 Support Industrial reservoir.

Hydrologic Cycle
Water Cycle Channel - passageway of stream.

 the movement of water around Tributaries - Smaller streams

Earth’s surface and its
subsystem. Drainage Basin / Watershed - land area in
which water flow into a particular stream
Reservoir - places where water resides for
varying amount of time. Drainage Divine - separates individual
drainage basin
Pathways - allow water to move between
reservoirs and subsystem. Interfluve - narrow, elongated landform
separating individual streams within a
Saltwater Reservoir basin.

 Ocean is a vast body of saline Overland Flow - during heavy rain, water
water. moves downhill.
 it covers 71% of Earth’s surface.
 Atlantic Ocean Streamflow - in short distance, the water
enters the channel.
 Pacific Ocean
 Indian Ocean Lakes - large inland bodies of fresh or
 Arctic Ocean saline water.
Freshwater Reservoir Ponds - small and shallow lakes.
 stored in glaciers. Dams - barriers constructed along streams
 surface water to contain the flow of water.
 groundwater
Wetlands - land areas where water covers
Glaciers - permanent body of ice. the surface for significant periods.
Ice sheet - mass of glacial land ice Marsh - shallow wetland around lakes,
extending more than 50,000km stream and ocean where grasses and
reeds are the dominant vegetation.
Permafrost - soil, rock or sediments that is
frozen for more than two consecutive Swamp - a wetland with lush trees and
years. vegetation found in low-lying areas beside
slow-moving rivers.
Surface Water Reservoir
Estuary - partly enclosed coastal body if
 Stream
water where freshwater from stream
 Lakes meets the saltwater from the sea.
 Wetlands
 Floods Floods - area that is usually dry is
 Groundwater submerge under water.
 Aquifers, Artesian Wells,
Springs

Stream - moving body of surface water

that flows downslope toward sea level
because of gravity.
 Pedosphere

Soil – essential component of Earth that has enabled life to exist on the planet and continue to
support it.

 “Pedon” means soil and “sfaira” means sphere.

 Components – 45% mineral (gravel, sand, silt and clay), 25% air, 25% water, 5%
organic matter.
 Soil Texture – relative proportion of the particle sizes in the soil – sand, slit and clay.

Factor that affects soil formation

1.Parent Material – the chemistry and type will determine the soil that will be formed.

2.Climate – Temperature, rainfall and moisture affects the pattern and intensity of soil-forming
processes such as weathering, leaching, transportation, and distribution.

3.Topography – the slope affects water flow and erosion.

4.Biological Factors – Organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans affect
soil formation.

5.Time – formation of soil is continuous process which may take hundreds to thousands of
years depending on the climate and environment.

Soil Profile

O Horizon - On the surface. Composed of loose or partly decayed organic matter.

A Horizon – Surface Horizon. Composed of mineral matter mixed with some dark organic
humus.

E Horizon – significant loss of minerals (eluviation) and leaching.

B Horizon – Subsoil. Accumulated clay and other nutrients from the layers above it.

C Horizon – Substratum. Composed f partially altered parent material.

R Horizon – Hard bedrock. Not a soil while the layer of loose, heterogenous and superficial
material covering the bedrock is collectively called regolith.

Soil and Soil Quality

1. Arable Land for Agriculture

2. Regulating water and filtering potential pollutants

3. Nutrient Cycling

4. Foundation and Support

5. Mineral Deposit

Human Activities Degrade Soil Quality

1. Soil erosion

2 .Soil Compaction

3. Desertification

4. Intensive Agriculture

5. Urbanization

Conservation of Soil Resource

1 .Increasing soil organic matter

2. Keeping the soil covered and vegetated.

3. Avoiding excessive tillage

4. Managing pests and nutrient efficiently

5. Promoting crop rotation

6. Reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction