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BIOLOGY Outer area:

less granular
I. Cell and hard
• Basis of Nuclear structure
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Other parts:
Nucleus is not well Well-organized • Plastid: largest in size among the
organized nucleus organelles, are not present in cytoplasm
Nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane
• Leucoplast: Are colorless, and can be
and nucleolus are and nucleolus are
absent present converted into chromoplasts
Chromosome Chromosome has • Chromatoplast: are green or other color,
contains DNA DNA, proteins, when green it is called as chloroplast,
chloroplast, and when other it is called as
Mitochondria and chromoplast
other organelles
Cell division is Cell division is mitosis Structure of chloroplasts:
amitosis • Bi-layered semipermeable
• Basis of function membrane
o Somatic cells: construct the • A matrix known as stroma
living body, Haploid, one set of • Stroma lamelli- granum discs of two
chromosomes are present. adjacent grana connected by minute
o Reproductive cells: Haploid, tubular
sperm and ovum
• Quantosome, which are crystallin
o Size: Spherical, oval, bodies arranged in the membrane of
rectangular, barrel shaped
grana disc.
• Structure of a cell
o Cell wall: Non-living and hard Part Structure Function
wall that constructs only plant Endoplasmi Double- Skeleton of
cell c reticulum layered protoplasm,
semipermeabl protein
▪ Components:
e membrane. synthesis in
cellulose,
Consists of rough ER.
hemicellulose, lipoproteins. Lipid in
pectose, lignin, smooth ER
suberin, and chitin Ribosome Spherical and Synthesizes
▪ Function: shape of bounded by proteins
cell, protect cell from double layered
external injury membrane.
They are made
Part Structure Function by protein.
Plasma Bi-layered Transportation Golgi bodies Tubular, small Synthesis of
membrane Growth of of different vesicle, and lysosome and
finger-like materials are vacuolar non-protein
projections: inside and bounded by substances
Microvilli outside of the double-layered
cell membrane.
Cytoplasm Composed of Hold different Lysosome Bounded by a Phagocytosis
different organelles and membrane
organic and perform some Centrosome Has a fluid hat Directs the
inorganic organic is composed poles of
compounds functions called as spindle
centrosphere apparatus
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Vacuole thin
membrane
that covers
the
vacuole is
called
tonoplast.
The internal
fluid of the
vacuole is
called cell
sap.
Nucleus Denser and Controls the
clearer organ total activity
found in the of the cell
protoplasm is
Nucleus.
Nucleus The denser and Are made of
clearer organ nucleic acid
found in the and protein II. Cell Division: Cell cycle
protoplasm • Unicellular: bacteria, amoeba,
Nuclear Double layered keep the
plasmodium
membrane transparent nucleoplasm,
membrane, chromosome III. Types of cell division
which makes and the
the outer nucleus • Amitosis- type of cell division occurs in
covering of the distinct from unicellular prokaryotic
nucleus cytoplasm. • organisms like Bacteria, Yeast etc.
Nucleolus Denser, small To synthesize • Mitosis- the nucleus and chromosome
and round various types are divided once and the number,
body found in of DNA and structure and properties of chromosome
the nucleus protein and in the newly formed cell remains just
preserve
alike the mother.
them.
Chromosome • Meiosis- type of cell division by which a
: Eukaryotic cell divides into four cells by
a special method. In this process the
nucleus divides twice but the
chromosome divides once.
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IV. Events of Somatic cell cycle Metaphase Centromeres of
chromatid pairs line
up at metaphase
plate
Anaphase Centromeres of
chromatid pairs line
up at metaphase
plate
Telophase Nuclear envelopes
and nucleoli
reappear;
chromosomes
resume chromatin
form; mitotic
spindle disappears
Cytokinesis Cytoplasmic
division; contractile
PHASE ACTIVITY ring forms cleavage
Interphase Period between cell furrow around
divisions, center of cell,
chromosome not dividing cytoplasm
visible under light into separate and
microscope equal portions.
G1 phase Metabolically active
cell duplicates most
of its organelles Meiosis I and II summary
S phase Replication of DNA 1. 2 cell divisions
and centrosomes 2. Start with 2 copies of each
G2 phase Cell growth,
chromosome, each with 2
enzyme and protein
synthesis continue; chromatids
replication of 3. In meiosis 1, crossing over in
centrosomes prophase mixes alleles between the
complete homologues
Mitotic phase Parent cell 4. In metaphase of meiosis 1,
produces identical homologues pair up, and in
cells with identical anaphase the homologues are
chromosomes; separated into 2 cells
chromosomes 5. Meiosis 2 is just like mitosis, the
visible under light centromeres divide in anaphase,
microscope
giving rise to a total of 4 cells, each
Mitosis Nuclear division;
distribution of two with 1 copy of each chromosome,
sets of and each chromosome with only 1
chromosomes into chromatid.
separate nuclei
Prophase Chromatin fibers
condense into
paired chromatids;
nucleolus and
nuclear envelope
disappear; each
centrosome moves
to an opposite pole
V. Cell transport system
of the cel
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• Simple diffusion
o Net movement of particles from VI. Energy transformation
greater concentration to an area
of lesser concentration

• Osmosis
o Passage of water from high
water concentration to a region
of low water concentration.
o Hypertonic: Solution>solute in
the cells
o Isotonic: solute=solution
o Hypotonic= solution<solute in
the cells
• Facilitated diffusion
o Diffusion with the help of
transports proteins
• Active transport
o Involves either a pump or a
vesicle
• Passive transport
o Simple diffusion
o Osmosis
o Facilitated diffusion
VII. Cell membrane chemical components
• Membrane lipids
o Phospholipids
▪ 75% of the membrane
lipids
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▪ Occur as two layers
▪ Composition:
Hydrophilic head;
glycerol and phosphate
unit: Hydrophobic tail
with two fatty acid
chains
o Cholesterol
▪ 20% of the membrane
lipids
▪ Gives fluidity to the cell
membrane
o Glycolipids
▪ 5% of the membrane
lipids
▪ 2 fatty acids and short
carbohydrate

▪ Notes
o Thylakoid- third internal
membrane system
o Stroma0 fluid portion of
chloroplast
o Etioplasts- chloroplasts that
have not been exposed to light
VIII. Membrane proteins
o Leucoplast- colorless plastids\
• 2 kinds: o Statoliths- special type of
o Integral proteins amyloplast
▪ Pass all the way through o Elaioplast- store large amounts
the cell membrane of oil
o Peripheral proteins ▪ Ribosomes
▪ Adhere to the surface of
the cell membrane
• Functions of membrane proteins
o Transporter
o Receptor
o Enzyme
o Anchor
IX. Properties of membranes
▪ Endocytosis- materials inside the cell
▪ Phagocytosis- solid substances
▪ Pinocytosis- liquid substances
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Cotransporters can be classified as

3 kinds of protein filaments ▪ Symporters
▪ Microfilaments o Both molecules are transported
o Thinnest protein filaments in the same direction
▪ Intermediate filaments ▪ Antiporters
o Thicker than microfilaments o Two ion or solutes are pumped in
▪ Microtubules opposite directions across a
o Largest of the cytoskeleton membrane
o Forms flagella for cell
movement
Diffusion through phospholipid bilayer

PROTEIN PUMPS

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS
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• CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

• DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

o Matter is composed of small
particle called atoms
o An element consists of only one
type of atom
▪ Taxonomy o Atoms of one element differ in
o Naming of organisms and their properties from atoms of all
categorization other element
▪ Classification o A compound consists of atoms of
o Arrangement of organisms into two or more elements combined
groups based on similarity in a small, whole number ratio
o Atoms are neither created nor
▪ Systematics
o Clustering of groups or destroyed curing a chemical
change.
organisms based on a unifying
set of principles • DALTONS LAW OF MULTIPLE
PROPORTIONS
CHEMISTRY o When 2 elements react to form
more than one compound, a
• Matter
fixed mass of one element will
o Anything that occupies space
react with masses of the other
and has mass
element in a ratio of small,
o Solid- rigid and possess a
whole numbers.
definite shape
o Liquid-flows and takes the • Empirical vs Molecular formula
shape of a container
o Gas-takes both the shape and
volume of its container
o Plasma- gaseous state of matter
which contains appreciable
number of electrically charged
particles
o Mass-is the measure of the
amount of matter in it.
o Weight- refers to the force that
gravity exerts on an object.
o Law of conservation of matter-
the mass is still the same even if
it is converted
• Atom
o Smallest particle of an element
that has the properties of that
element
1. ACIDS AND BASES
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o Acid
▪ any hydrogen- containing
substances that is capable
of donating a proton ▪ Single-replacement reaction
(hydrogen ion) to another o a reaction in which one element
substance. replaces a similar element in a
▪ Turns blue litmus to red compound.
o Bases
▪ Bitter taste and a slipper
texture
▪ Turns red litmus blue
o According to the Lowry-Bronsted ▪ Double-replacement reaction
definition, an acid is a proton donor o a reaction in which the positive
and a base is a proton acceptor. and negative ions of two ionic
o THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES compounds exchange places to
▪ Arrhenius theory- an acid form two new compounds.
generates H+
▪ Bronsted-lowry- acid as a
proton donor and a base as
a proton acceptor ▪ Combustion reaction
▪ Lewis definition- acid as o a reaction in which a substance
electron-pair acceptors reacts with oxygen gas,
releasing energy in the form of
light and heat.

SOLUBILITY
▪ Solubility is defined as the upper limit
of solute that can be dissolved in a given
amount of solvent at equilibrium
▪ The common-ion effect is a term that
describes the decrease in solubility of
an ionic compound when a salt that
contains an ion that already exists in the
chemical equilibrium is added to the
mixture.
▪ Le Chatelier's principle
o predicts that the system shifts
Types of Chemical Reaction toward the product side in
▪ Combination reaction
order to alleviate this stress
o Synthesis reaction
▪ Exothermic vs Endothermic
o reaction in which two or more
o Exothermic
substances combine to form a
▪ System shifts toward
single new substance.
the reactant side
o Endothermic
▪ system shifts toward the
product side
▪ Decomposition reaction
o a reaction in which a compound
breaks down into two or more Solubility
simpler substances ▪ degree to which a substance dissolves in
a solvent to make a solution
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▪ Charles law
o At constant pressure the
volume of a fixed mass of an
ideal gas is directly
proportional to the Kelvin
temperature

▪ Gay-Lussac’s law
o The pressure of a fixed mass of
an ideal gas, at constant
volume, is directly proportional
to the Kelvin temperature

▪ Recrystallization
o the process of dissolved solute
returning to the solid state
▪ Combined gas law
▪ Saturated solution
o A combination of Boyle’s and
o a solution that contains the
Charle’s law. It may be used
maximum amount of solute that
whenever the mass of an ideal
is capable of being dissolved.
gas remains constant and the
▪ Unsaturated solution
Kelvin temperature is used.
o a solution that contains less
than the maximum amount of
solute that is capable of being
dissolved.

Gas Laws ▪ Avogadro’s gas law

▪ Boyle’s law o Under the standard temp and
o At constant temperature, the pressure conditions, the volume
volume of gas is inversely of one mole of an ideal gas will
proportional to the pressure. occupy 22.414 liters.
▪ Ideal gas law

▪ Dalton’s law of partial pressure

o The partial pressure of a gas in
a mixture of gases is the
portion of the total pressure
that one gas contributes.
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▪ Entropy and the second law of
thermodynamics
Factors affecting solubility
o a state function whose value
▪ Temperature increases with an increase in the
▪ Pressure number of available
o Gas solubility increases as microstates.
the partial pressure of a gas ▪ Gibbs free energy
above the liquid increases. o We can predict whether a
▪ Henry’s law reaction will occur
o states that the solubility of spontaneously by combining the
a gas in a liquid is directly entropy, enthalpy, and
proportional to the partial temperature of a system in a
pressure of the gas above new state function called Gibbs
the liquid. free energy (G). The change in
free energy (ΔG) is the
difference between the heat
released during a process and
Stoichiometry the heat released for the same
▪ a section of chemistry that involves process occurring in a reversible
using relationships between manner. If a system is at
reactants and/or products in a equilibrium, ΔG = 0. If the
chemical reaction to determine process is spontaneous, ΔG < 0.
desired quantitative data. If the process is not spontaneous
▪ Law of conservation of Mass as written.
o Matter is neither created ▪ Free energy and temperature
nor destroyed in a chemical o We can predict if a reaction will
reaction occur spontaneously by
▪ Molar mass combining the entropy,
enthalpy, and temperature of a
system in a new state function
called Gibbs free energy (G).
▪ Density= m/v The change in free energy (ΔG)
▪ Sample problem is the difference between the
heat released during a process
and the heat released for the
same process occurring in a
reversible manner. If a system is
at equilibrium, ΔG = 0. If the
Thermodynamics process is spontaneous, ΔG < 0.
▪ tells chemists whether a particular
If the process is spontaneous in
reaction is energetically possible in the
the reverse direction, ΔG > 0.
direction in which it is written, and it
▪ Free energy and the equilibrium
gives the composition of the reaction
constant
system at equilibrium.
o For a reversible process (with no
▪ Spontaneous processes
external work), the change in
o A spontaneous process occurs
free energy can be expressed in
without the need for a continual
terms of volume, pressure,
input of energy from some
entropy, and temperature. If the
external source, while a
products and reactants are in
nonspontaneous process
their standard states and ΔG° <
requires such.
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0, then K > 1, and products are ▪ Zeroth law
favored over reactants at o Two thermodynamic
equilibrium. If ΔG° > 0, then K < systems are in thermal
1, and reactants are favored equilibrium with a third
over products at equilibrium. If system separately, then
ΔG° = 0, then K=1, and neither they are in thermal
reactants nor products are equilibrium with each
favored at equilibrium. We can other.
use the measured equilibrium
→ Entropy is the measure of the number of
constant
possible arrangements the atoms in a system can
have.
→ Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a
thermodynamic system.

Quantum Theory
▪ There is only certain allowed energy
state for an electron
▪ No two electrons, in the same
system, can occupy the same energy
state, and that all the energy states
Laws of Thermodynamics are filled from the lowest levels to
▪ First law the highest levels.
o known as the law of
conservation of energy,
states that energy can
neither be created nor
destroyed, but it can be
changed from one form
to another.
▪ Second law
o Second law of
thermodynamics states
that the entropy in an
isolated system always
increases. Any isolated
system spontaneously
evolves towards
thermal equilibrium—
the state of maximum
entropy of the system.
▪ Third law
o Third law of
thermodynamics states
that the entropy of a
system approaches a
constant value as the
temperature
approaches absolute
zero.
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• Ionization energy: the energy required
to remove an electron from a neutral
atom.
• Electron affinity: the energy change
when a neutral atom attracts an
electron to become a negative ion.
• Electronegativity: the ability of an atom
in a molecule to draw bonding electrons
to itself.

PHYSICS
▪ Motion
o change in position of an object
with respect to its surroundings
in a given interval of time.
Types of Motion in Physics
The motion of an object depends on the
type of force acting on the body. Examples of
• Isotope
different kinds of motion are given below.
o Atoms with the same number of
protons but different numbers ▪ Translational – It is the type, where an
of neutrons object moves along a path in any of the
o Example: isotopes of hydrogen three dimensions.
are protium, deuterium, tritium ▪ Rotational – It is the type, where an
• Allotrope object moves along a circular path about
o Different structural forms of the a fixed axis.
same element but can exhibit ▪ Linear – It is a type of translational
similar different physical and motion where the body moves in a single
chemical properties direction along a single dimension.
o Example: Diamond, Graphite, ▪ Periodic – It is the type of motion that
Graphene repeats itself after certain intervals of
• Isomer time
o Molecules with same molecular ▪ Simple Harmonic – It is the type of
formula but different chemical motion like that of a simple pendulum
structures where a restoring force acts in the
direction opposite to the direction of
motion of the object. This restoring
force is proportional to the
displacement of the object from the
mean position.
▪ Projectile – It is the type of motion
which has a horizontal displacement as
well as vertical displacement.
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▪ Oscillatory – It is the type of motion
which is repetitive in nature within a
time frame. If it is mechanical it is
called vibration.
Laws of Motion
1st law: object will remain in its existing
state of motion or rest unless a net external
force act on it.
2nd law: object has a certain mass, the
greater the mass of this object, the greater will
the force required to be to accelerate the object
3rd law: For every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction
Projectile motion

Formulas
Kinematics

Friction
▪ Defined as the resistance offered by
the surfaces that are in contact
when they move past each other

Work energy and power formula Types of friction

▪ Static friction
o Acts on objects when they
are resting on a surface
▪ Sliding friction
o Acts on objects when they
are sliding over a surface
▪ Rolling friction
o Acts on objects when they
are rolling over a surface
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▪ Fluid friction o Impulse
o Acts on objects that are
moving through a fluid

Energy
o Kinetic energy of an object is – K.E = ½
mv²
o Potential energy of an object is – P.E = Gravitational force
mgh o The force of attraction between any two
o Gravitational Potential Energy: bodies is directly proportional to the
energy possessed by an object product of their masses and is inversely
due to its position in a proportional to the square of the
gravitational field. The equation distance between them.
for gravitational potential
energy is PE = mgh, where PE is
the potential energy, m is the
mass of the object, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and
h is the height or vertical
distance.
o Elastic Potential Energy: This is
the energy stored in an elastic
material when it is stretched or
compressed. The equation for
elastic potential energy is PE = Kepler’s law
(1/2)kx², where PE is the Three laws of planetary motions
potential energy, k is the spring
o All planets move about
constant, and x is the
the Sun in elliptical orbits, having the
displacement from the
Sun as one of the foci.
equilibrium position
o A radius vector joining any planet to the
o Power
Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
o relates the amount of work done
lengths of time.
or energy transferred to the rate
o The squares of the sidereal periods (of
at which it is done, P=W/t
revolution) of the planets are directly
proportional to the cubes of their mean
Momentum distances from the Sun.
o can be defined as "mass in
motion." All objects have mass;
so, if an object is moving, then
Density
▪ mass of a unit volume of a material
it has momentum - it has its
substance
mass in motion

Fluids
▪ a substance that cannot maintain its
own shape but takes the shape of its
container
▪ Pascal principle
o pressure applied at one point in
an enclosed fluid under
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equilibrium conditions is
transmitted equally to all parts of
the fluid
▪ Archimedes principle
o the magnitude of a buoyant
force on a completely or
partially submerged object
always equals the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object

Waves
• Transfers energy.
• Usually involves a periodic,
repetitive movement. Wave speed= distance/time taken
Properties of Waves
• Does not result in a net movement of
the medium or particles in the The prime properties of waves are as follows:
medium (mechanical wave)
▪ Amplitude – Wave is an energy transport
phenomenon. Amplitude is the height of
the wave, usually measured in metres.
It is directly related to the amount of
energy carried by a wave.
▪ Wavelength – The distance between
identical points in the adjacent cycles of
crests of a wave is called a wavelength.
It is also measured in metres.
▪ Period – The period of a wave is the time
for a particle on a medium to make one
complete vibrational cycle. As the
period is time, hence is measured in
TYPES OF WAVES units of time such as seconds or minutes.
▪ Transverse waves ▪ Frequency – Frequency of a wave is the
▪ Waves in which the medium number of waves passing a point in a
moves at right angles to the certain time. The unit of frequency is
direction of the wave hertz (Hz) which is equal to one wave
▪ Longitudinal waves per second.
▪ has the movement of the
particles in the medium in
the same dimension as the
Sounds
▪ are produced by a vibrating body. The
direction of movement of
vibrating object moves in one direction
the wave.
and compresses the air directly in front
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES of it.
▪ Pitch- depends on the frequency of the
tone that the ear receives. High notes
are produced by an object that is
vibrating a greater number of times per
second than for a low note.
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intensity- amount of energy crossing a
▪
unit area in unit time or the power
Mirror Optics
Law of the direction of the reflected light
flowing through the unit area.
▪ First, the incident ray, reflected ray, and
the normal to the interface must lie in
OHM’S LAW the same plane. In this plane of
incidence, the angle of incidence (θi)
is always equal to the angle of
reflection (θrfl).
CONCAVE VS CONVEX
Focus of the concave mirror.
1. Position: It lies in front of the mirror.
2. Nature: It is a real focus because the
light rays after reflection from a
concave mirror converge at the principal
focus.
Focus of the convex mirror.
1. Position: It lies behind the mirror.
2. Nature: It is a virtual focus because the
light rays after reflection from a convex
mirror appear to come from the
principal focus.
CONCAVE MIRROR
Resistance mnemonics
B.B Roy of Great Britain Veto Getting wed
Black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
violet, grey white; 0,12,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Examples
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more the capacitance
value

Propagation of light
▪ process by which an electromagnetic
wave transfers energy from one point
to another is referred to as light
propagation.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. First Law: According to the first law of
reflection; when a ray of light strikes a
Capacitors mirror and gets reflected back then the
▪ a two-terminal electrical device that angle of incidence is equal to the angle
can store energy in the form of an of reflection, I=R
electric charge.
where,
▪ The main difference between a
capacitor and a battery lies in the I: Angle of incidence
technique they employ to store energy.
R: Angle of reflection
Unlike batteries, the capacitor’s ability
to store energy doesn’t come from 2. Second Law: According to the second
chemical reactions but from the law of reflection the incident ray, reflected ray,
physical design that allows it to hold and the normal lie on the same plane on the
negative and positive charges apart surface of reflection.
Light Refraction
Refraction of light is the phenomenon of
bending a wave when it enters a medium with a
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE
different speed. When light passes from a fast
▪ Dielectric medium to a slow medium, the light ray bends
o the greater the toward the normal to the boundary between
permittivity of the the two media. Snell's Law describes the
dielectric, the greater amount of bending as a function of the indices
the capacitance, of refraction of the two media.
likewise lesser the
Index of refraction
permittivity of the
dielectric the lesser is index of refraction (refractive index) is
the capacitance. defined as the difference between the speed of
▪ Plate spacing light in a vacuum and the speed of light in the
o The effect of spacing medium.
on the capacitance is
that it is inversely
proportional to the Earth Science
distance between the ROCKS
plates. Types of Rocks
▪ Area of the plates
o the capacitance is
directly proportional to
the area. The larger
the plate area, the
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3. Chemical weathering
o Change in chemical composition
o Dissolution
▪ Rock cavities
HISTORY OF THE EARTH

1. Pre-Cambrian
▪ Dominated by microorganisms
▪ Earth started to cool down
▪ 6 hrs. a day
2. Paleozoic
▪ Amphibians reside near water
▪ 550 million years ago
3. Mesozoic
▪ Age of dinosaurs
4. Cenozoic
▪ Modern ages
▪ Appearance of hominids
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

II. Exogenic processes

-process that happens on the surface of
the earth
1. Weathering
o Breakdown of rocks
Physical weathering
o No change in chemical composition
o Joints
▪ Cracks on the surface of a
rock
Frost wedging • The evidence for continental drift
o Freezing of water in joints included the fit of the continents; the
2. Abrasion distribution of ancient fossils, rocks,
o Water:smoothened by water and mountain ranges; and the locations
of ancient climatic zones.
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MINERALS
▪ Described by a certain chemical
formula that repeats itself throughout
the entire mineral structure called the
crystal.
Mohs scale of mineral hardness
Softest-hardest
▪ Tall Girls Can Fight And Other Queer
Things Can Do
o Talc, gypsum, calcite, fluorite,
Apatite, Orthoclase, quarts,
topaz, corundum, diamond
ROCK DEFORMATION
▪ Pure elements vs Elemental compounds
▪ Pure elements • Compression
o Consist of one type of chemical o Occurs as tectonic
element, such as gold, copper, plates are pushed
and diamond together and the crust
▪ Elemental compounds becomes shorter and
o Consist of more than one thicker, building
element mountains ranges like
▪ Properties of Minerals the Alps or Himalayas
o Hardness o Rock is folded and
o Density metamorphosed at
o Cleavage depth. They may be
o Colour faulted nearer the
o Crystallography surface
o Electrical • Tension
o Conductivity o Occurs as tectonic
o Magnetism pates are pulled apart
o Radioactivity and the crust becomes
o Fluorescence thinner. They form rift
valleys
VOLCANOES
Earthquakes

Richter scale
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Factors that affect soil formation

Parent material: bedrock determines
the composition
Climate: temperature and precipitation
influence how fast parent materials weather
and, thus, soil properties such as mineral
composition and organic matter content
Organism: decomposition, aeration,
moisture, erosion prevention
Time: more time= more soil
Topography: slope determines
erosion/deposition

HISTORY OF EARTH