Unit-1

Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information
over the web. Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers
across the world with each other and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard
internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of computer users
worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as optical fibers and other wireless
and networking technologies. At present, internet is the fastest mean of
sending or exchanging information and data between computers across the
world. However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:

• Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected

computer networks.
• Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
• Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
• IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114)
which identifies a computer location.
 • A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name
to the IP Address so that user can locate a computer by a name.
• Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

It is believed that the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects

Agency" (DARPA) department of the United States. And, it was first connected
in1969.

Internet is called a network as it creates a network by connecting computers and

servers across the world using routers, switches and telephone lines, and other
communication devices and channels. So, it can be considered a global network
of physical cables such as copper telephone wires, fiber optic cables, tv cables,
etc.
 Working of Internet

• The actual working of the internet takes place with the help of clients and
servers.
• Here the client is a laptop that is directly connected to the internet and
servers are the computers connected indirectly to the Internet and they are
having all the websites stored in those large computers.
• These servers are connected to the internet with the help of ISP (Internet
Service Providers) and will be identified with the IP address.
 Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several
technological & Infrastructural changes as discussed below:

• The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced

Research Project Agency Network (ARPANET).
• ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
• Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among
the various bodies of government.
• Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
• In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located
at different countries and thus became known as Internet.
• By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP
protocols, DNS, WWW, browsers, scripting languages etc.,
Internet provided a medium to publish and access information over
the web.
 World Wide Web(WWW)
• The worldwide web is a collection of all the web pages, web documents
that you can see on the Internet by searching their URLs (Uniform
Resource Locator) on the Internet.
• For example, www.piet.co.in is a URL of the PIET website and all the
content of this site like web pages and all the web documents are stored
on the worldwide web. Or in other words, the world wide web is an
information retrieval service of the web.
Anatomy of the Internet
The Internet is a vast collection of computers linked by cable and satellites, not
controlled by any one authority, but all operating under common network
protocols. The term 'Internet' includes both the hardware (satellites, cable, routing
devices and computers) and the software (programs and network protocols) that
enable computers to communicate with each other.
When information is sent across the Internet, the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP: the networking-language computers use when communicating over the
Internet) first breaks the information up into packets of data. The client computer
sends those packets to the local network, Internet service provider (ISP), or online
service. From here, the packets travel through many levels of networks,
computers, and communications lines until they reach their final destinations.
Many types of hardware help the packets on their way. These are:
Hubs, which link groups of computers together and let them intercommunicate
through multiple ports
Bridges, which link local area networks (LANs) with each another.
Gateways, which act like bridges, but also convey data between dissimilar
networks.
Repeaters, which amplify the data at intervals so that the signal doesn't weaken.
Routers, which ensure packets of data arrive at their proper destination across
different technologies, media, and frame formats.
Servers, which deliver web pages and other services as requested.
Client computers, which make the initial request for Internet services, and run
applications to handle those services.
Cables and/or satellite communications, which make the hardware connections.
All hardware units need common operating methods, basic instructions called
protocols that specify to all parties how the data will be handled.
Basic Terminology of Internet:

Internet
One of the most important and basic internet terminologies is the Internet itself. The Internet is a
worldwide network of computers, which provides a wide array of information that follows a standard
communication protocol. This communication protocol is what we call as TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) or IP (Internet Protocol).
In 1969, the internet was known as ARPANET. It is coined by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of
the United States of America. During that time, the Department of Defense was only using four computers to
connect with each other. Today ARPANET is widely termed as the Internet.

World Wide Web

Another one of the basic Internet terminologies is the World Wide Web. World Wide Web or www is a
collection of data stored and shared in the digital space. This collection of information form and connect into
websites and divides into web pages. Tim Bernes-Lee in the CERN laboratory invented it in 1989.
The World Wide Web is accessible anywhere as long as there’s an internet connection. You can use a
wireless router, Wi-Fi or Ethernet cable to access www through the internet

Host (Network)
A Network Host is usually a computer or any device that connects to a computer network. It provides
information and facilities to other computers and their users. In addition, you can use the term host when
there’s two or more computer system that connects through a modem or other internet connection channels.
Domain Name
This is a friendly naming system for giving addresses to web pages and servers. It is a description of a
computer’s location on the Internet. Usually, a dot separates a domain name, for
example, www.google.com or www.slashdigit.com.
In addition, Domain Names are part of the DNS (Domain Name System, a database of domain names and
their corresponding IP addresses). Also, a domain name follows certain rules and algorithms in the DNS.

Web Browser
A web browser or browser is a software program that can access websites. Popular web browsers include
Google Chrome, Apple’s Safari, Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. Each web browser has its own
settings and works separately from each other. However, they have the same function and that is to serve as
portals to the World Wide Web.
Moreover, web browsers allow you to surf, search any information from various websites on the internet.
You also have a choice to pick your own web browser preference. If you like Chrome, you can stick with
chrome or if you’re an Apple user, Safari is the best browser for you.

IP Address
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique set of numbers assigned to a computing device that uses the
internet protocol. Also, IP address identifies a device on the Internet communication network. Furthermore, it
allows a system to be acknowledged by other systems.
Homepage
A Homepage is the main page of a particular website. Usually, this is the first page you see when you open a
website. Additionally, a home page can have one of several different filenames.

URL
URL or short for “Universal Resource Locator.” From the name itself, it provides a way of locating a
resource on the web. It also serves as a method of retrieving location on a computer network.

Search Engine
Search Engine is a software system that works to search information on the World Wide Web. Common
examples of online search engines are Google, Yahoo, and Bing. These programs allow you to search
keywords and phrases to locate information on the Internet.
 Difference between
Worldwide Web and
Internet
• All the web pages and web documents are stored there on the World wide
web and to find all that stuff you will have a specific URL for each
website. Whereas the internet is a global network of computers that is
accessed by the World wide web.
• World wide web is a service whereas the internet is an infrastructure.
• World wide web is a subset of the internet whereas the internet is
the superset of the world wide web.
• World wide web is software-oriented whereas the internet is
hardware- oriented.
• World wide web uses HTTP whereas the internet uses IP addresses.
• The Internet can be considered as a Library whereas all the kinds of
stuff like books from different topics present over there can be
considered as World wide web.
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Advantages of Internet:
Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will
discuss some of the advantages of Internet:
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Communication is also one of the most used applications of the Internet

because today it is very easy to talk through the Internet and today almost
everyone is communicating with each other through the Internet.

Today it is very cheap to communicate through the Internet, as compared to

other mediums, so people today are using Internet applications to
communicate.

Today, there are thousands of such Internet applications for communication,

through which you can communicate with someone else. But we will tell you
about some popular communication applications. Internet allows us to
communicate with the people sitting at remote locations. There are various
apps available on the web that uses Internet as a medium for communication.
One can find various social networking sites such as:
• Facebook
• Twitter
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• Yahoo
• Google+
• Flickr
• Orkut

Job Search:
In today's digital world it is very easy to find the job of your choice, yes you have
read it right. Today you can easily find jobs related to your skills through the
internet and give a direct interview to HR.
Online Shopping:
Everything is possible in today's era, in earlier times people could not even
imagine that without going to the market, anything could be bought, but in today's
time, it is possible. We and you know that we can buy anything without going to
the market without going to the shop.
Today the whole world is doing online shopping through the internet, that too
sitting at home and you can also shop online from home through the internet.
Today there are many such applications on the Internet, through which you can
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buy anything online. Such as - Mobile, Tablet PC, Computers, Watch, Smart
Watch, Television, Fan, Table Fan, LED Bulb, Glasses, Ring, Jewellers, Camera,
Home Appliances, clothes, etc.

Stock Market Updates:

In the earlier times, no one knew about the stock market, what is the stock
market, but today everyone knows about the stock market, what is the stock
market and how to invest money in it.

Today many people are earning a lot of money from the stock market, today
people know which stock to invest in and when to sell which stock so that more
money can be earned.

Travel:

Due to the Covid epidemic all over the world, people have stopped traveling,
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and as the effect of the Covid epidemic is working, people are now starting to
leave their homes.
But before saying anything, there are many questions in your mind. Like - how
to go there, where will they stay, which places they should visit, etc.

But if you have to travel this way, now you have no need to worry, because you
can get all the information about your journey through the internet.

Research
Research means to do deep research about a subject or to know everything about
that subject. Doing research is no small task, it takes a lot of time and effort to
do research about anything. Research is not done by common people, but by
scientists or Ph.D. students.If you are a Ph.D. student and you have to do
research on any topic, then you do not need to worry, because with the use of
the internet you can do your research very easily, but you will have to work
hard.
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E-Commerce

E-commerce is also a good applications of internet platforms. Today e-

commerce is in full swing all over the world. Today, at present, millions of
merchants around the world are selling their products through e-commerce.
E-commerce means putting your shop online and selling any of your items
online. By doing this, your business becomes local to global, that is, you can sell
your goods to the people of other cities as well.You can do your shop online
through the internet, but you must have an internet connection to sell your goods
online.

Today there are many such Internet applications that help you to sell your goods
online and in return charge you a small commission. On these internet
applications, you have to register your business and upload your product on
these applications.
We have given below the names of some applications, using which you can sell
your goods
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online and earn more profit.

 Amazon

 Flipkart

 Meesho

 Shopify

 Paytm Mall

 Dukaan

Online Payments
You can make online payments only through the internet, without an internet
connection you cannot make an online payment.
There are many benefits of online payment. For example - you do not need to
carry cash, there is no need to spare money in taking any item.
You can pay any bill through an online payment. For example, electricity bill,
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mobile bill, telephone bill, water bill, cylinder bill, movie bill, hotel bill,
restaurant bill, shopping bill, etc.

Social Networking

Social networking is also a good platform, through which you talk to people.
Today millions of people around the world are using social networking sites.
Through social networking sites, you can make connections with friends, family,
classmates, customers, and clients.You can also promote your business through
social networking sites. Today, there are many such Internet networking
applications that you can use to do your kind of work.

Entertainment
If you are getting bored alone, then there is no need for you to worry, because
today you can be entertained through the medium of the internet.Today there are
many such internet applications that can entertain you. You can watch anything
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on these entertainment applications. Like - Movies, Web series, Cartoons, Serials,

Cricket, News, Comedy, etc.
 Advantages
• One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information
regarding various topics such as Technology, Health & Science, Social
Studies, Geographical Information, Information Technology, Products etc
can be surfed with help of a search engine.
• Apart from communication and source of information, internet also serves
a medium for entertainment. Following are the various modes for
entertainment over internet.
• Online Television
• Online Games
• Songs
• Videos
• Social Networking Apps
 Advantages
• Internet allows us to use many services
like: Internet Banking
Matrimonial Services
Online Shopping
Online Ticket Booking
Online Bill Payment
Data Sharing
E-mail
• Internet provides concept of electronic commerce, that allows the
business deals to be conducted on electronic systems
 Disadvantages
However, Internet has proved to be a powerful source of information in almost
every field, yet there exists many disadvantages discussed below:
• There are always chances to loose personal information such as name,
address, credit card number. Therefore, one should be very careful while
sharing such information. One should use credit cards only through
authenticated sites.
• Another disadvantage is the Spamming. Spamming corresponds to the
unwanted e-mails in bulk. These e-mails serve no purpose and lead to
obstruction of entire system.
• Virus can easily be spread to the computers connected to internet. Such
virus attacks may cause your system to crash or your important data may
get deleted.
• There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated
information. This leads to misconception among many people.
Information Architect and its role:

Information Architect: 1) the individual who organizes the patterns inherent in data, making the complex clear; 2) a
person who creates the structure or map of information which allows others to find their personal paths to knowledge;
3) the emerging 21st century professional occupation addressing the needs of the age focused upon clarity, human
understanding and the science of the organization of information.

An information architect is an individual who works to make information attractive and accessible to an
audience.
This type of role can include elements of technical writing or written format creation, as well as graphic
design and Web development.
Generally, information architecture means developing a better presentation for given data.
Many information architects have experience in writing or design.
They often use Web development tools like HTML and CSS to help to construct specific presentations for
text and associated elements of a Web page or site.
They may also work on a written or digital blueprint that outlines multilevel goals for a project,
constructing specific digital presentations from these meta-directives.
The role of an information architect in a given project can be broad, and these professionals may work
with multiple departments to make sure that the presentation of information to the audience is as good as it
can be.
Example:
Now that you know right from wrong from the web consumer's perspective, you're in a much better position to
develop a web site. But besides needing a sophisticated knowledge of what works for consumers of the Web, what's
actually involved in creating a web site?
That's the main job of the information architect, who:
 Clarifies the mission and vision for the site, balancing the needs of its sponsoring organization and the needs of
its audiences.
 Determines what content and functionality the site will contain.
 Specifies how users will find information in the site by defining its organization, navigation, labeling, and
searching systems.
 Maps out how the site will accommodate change and growth over time.
Who Should Be the Information Architect?
The information architect of a large, complex web site should be two things: someone who can think as an outsider
and be sensitive to the needs of the site's users, and at the same time is enough of an insider to understand the site's
sponsoring organization, its mission, goals, content, audiences, and inner workings.
In terms of disciplinary background, the information architect should combine the generalist's ability to understand the
perspectives of other disciplines with specialized skills in visualizing, organizing, and labeling information.
As it's very difficult for someone to retain all of these characteristics, you'll have to make some compromises, but it's
important to consider them as you search for that elusive information architect.
Collaboration and Communication:
The information architect must communicate effectively with the web site development team. This is challenging, since
an information architecture is highly abstract and intangible. Besides communicating the architecture verbally,
documents (such as blueprint diagrams) must be created in ways that can be understood by the rest of the team regardless
of their own disciplinary backgrounds.

In the early days of the Web, web sites were often designed, built, and managed by a single individual through sheer
force of will. This webmaster was responsible for assembling and organizing the content, designing the graphics, and
hacking together any necessary CGI scripts. The only prerequisites were a familiarity with HTML and a willingness to
learn on the job. People with an amazing diversity of backgrounds suddenly became webmasters overnight, and soon
found themselves torn in many directions at once. One minute they were information architects, then graphic designers,
then editors, then programmers.
Increasingly, webmasters and their employers began to realize that the successful design and production of complex web
sites requires an interdisciplinary team approach. An individual cannot be an expert in all facets of the process. Rather, a
team of individuals with complementary areas of expertise must work together. The composition of this team will vary,
depending upon the needs of a particular project, available budget, and the availability of expertise. However, most
projects will require expertise in marketing, information architecture, graphic design, writing and editing, programming,
and project management.

Marketing The marketing team focuses on the intended purposes and audiences for the web site. They must understand
what will bring the right people to the web site and what will bring them back again.
Information Architecture The information architects focus on the design of organization, indexing, labeling, and
navigation systems to support browsing and searching throughout the web site.
Graphic Design The designers are responsible for the graphic design and page layout that defines the graphic identity or
look of the web site. They strive to create and implement a design philosophy that balances form and function.
Editorial Editors focus on the use of language throughout the web site. Their tasks may involve proofreading and
editing copy, massaging content to ensure a common voice for the site, and creating new copy.
Technical The technical designers and programmers are responsible for server administration and the development or
integration of site production tools and web site applications. They advise the other teams regarding technology-related
opportunities and limitations.

Project Management The project manager keeps the project on schedule and within budget. He or she facilitates
communication between the other teams and the clients or internal stakeholders. The success of a web site design and
production project depends on successful communication and collaboration between these specialized team members. A
linear, black-box, throw-it-over-the-wall methodology just won't work. Everyone needs to understand the goals,
perspectives, and approaches of the other members of the team. For example, while the marketing specialist may lead the
audience analysis process, he or she needs to anticipate the types of questions about the audience that the specialists will
have. Otherwise, each will need to start from scratch in learning about that audience, wasting substantial time and
resources.

Organizing Information:
As information architects, we organize information so that people can find the right answers to their questions. We strive
to support casual browsing and directed searching. Our aim is to apply organization and labeling systems that make sense
to users. The Web provides us with a wonderfully flexible environment in which to organize. We can apply multiple
organization systems to the same content and escape the physical limitations of the print world. So why are many large
web sites so difficult to navigate? Why can't the people who design these sites make it easy to find information? These
common questions focus attention on the very real challenge of organizing information.
Organizational Challenges are there:
Ambiguity :
Classification systems are built upon the foundation of language, and language is often ambiguous.
Heterogeneity :
Heterogeneity refers to an object or collection of objects composed of unrelated or unlike parts.
Differences in Perspectives:
web sites are designed for multiple users, and all users will have different perspectives or ways of understanding the
information. Their levels of familiarity with your company and your web site will vary.
Organizing Web Sites and Intranets
The organization of information in web sites and intranets is a major factor in determining success, and yet many web
development teams lack the understanding necessary to do the job well.
Organization systems are composed of organization schemes and organization structures .
An organization scheme defines the shared characteristics of content items and influences the logical grouping of those
items.
An organization structure defines the types of relationships between content items and groups.

Organization is closely related to navigation, labeling, and indexing. The hierarchical organization structures of web
sites often play the part of primary navigation system.
The labels of categories play a significant role in defining the contents of those categories. Manual indexing is ultimately
a tool for organizing content items into groups at a very detailed level.

Organization Schemes :
We navigate through organization schemes every day. Phone books, supermarkets, and television programming guides
all use organization schemes to facilitate access. Some schemes are easy to use. We rarely have difficulty finding a
friend's phone number in the alphabetical organization scheme.Different types of organizing schemes are there:

Exact organization schemes: Exact organization schemes divide information into well defined and mutually exclusive
sections.
 Alphabetical
 Chronological
 Geographical :Place is often an important characteristic of information. We travel from one place to another. We
care about the news and weather that affects us in our location.
Organization Structures:
The structure of information defines the primary ways in which users can navigate. Major organization structures that
apply to web site and intranet architectures include the hierarchy, the database-oriented model, and hypertext. Each
organization structure possesses unique strengths and weaknesses. In some cases, it makes sense to use one or the
other. In many cases, it makes sense to use all three in a complementary manner.
 The hierarchy: A top-down approach

Because hierarchies provide a simple and familiar way to organize information, they are usually a good place
to start the information architecture process. The top-down approach allows you to quickly get a handle on the
scope of the web site without going through an extensive content inventory process. You can begin identifying
the major content areas and exploring possible organization schemes that will provide access to that content.

 Designing hierarchies:
It is important to consider the balance between breadth and depth in your information hierarchy. Breadth refers
to the number of options at each level of the hierarchy. Depth refers to the number of levels in the hierarchy. If
a hierarchy is too narrow and deep, users have to click through an inordinate number of levels to find what they
are looking forIf a hierarchy is too broad and shallow, users are faced with too many options on the main menu
and are unpleasantly surprised by the lack of content once they select an option.
 Hypertext:
It is a relatively new and highly nonlinear way of structuring information. A hypertext system involves two
primary types of components: the items or chunks of information which are to be linked, and the links
between those chunks. These components can form hypermedia systems that connect text, data, image, video,
and chunks. Hypertext chunks can be connected hierarchically, non-hierarchically, or both.
 The relational database model: A bottom-up approach
Most of us are familiar with databases. In fact, our names, addresses, and other personal information are
included in more databases than we care to imagine. A database is a collection of records. Each record has a
number of associated fields. For example, a customer database may have one record per customer. Each
record may include fields such as customer name, street address, city, state, ZIP code, and phone number. The
database enables users to search for a particular customer or to search for all users with a specific ZIP code.
This powerful field-specific searching is a major advantage of the database model. Additionally, content
management is substantially easier with a database than without.
Databases can be designed to support time-saving features such as global search and replace and data
validation.
Finally, databases enable you to repurpose the same content in multiple forms and formats for different
audiences.
However, the database model has limitations. The records must follow rigid rules. Within a particular record
type, each record must have the same fields, and within each field, the formatting rules must be applied
consistently across records. This highly structured approach does not work well with the heterogeneous
content of many web sites.
For these reasons, the database model is best applied to subsites or collections of structured, homogeneous
information within a broader web site. For example, staff directories, news release archives, and product
catalogs are excellent candidates for the database model.

Creating Cohesive Organization Systems :

You need to consider a variety of exact and ambiguous organization schemes. Should you organize by topic,
by task, or by audience? How about a chronological or geographical scheme? What about using multiple
organization schemes?
In considering which organization schemes to use, remember the distinction between exact and ambiguous
schemes. Exact schemes are best for known-item searching, when users know precisely what they are looking
for.
Ambiguous schemes are best for browsing and associative learning, when users have a vaguely defined
information need. Whenever possible, use both types of schemes
Also, be aware of the challenges of organizing information on the Web. Language is ambiguous, content is
heterogeneous, people have different perspectives, and politics can rear its ugly head.
When thinking about which organization structures to use, keep in mind that large web sites and intranets
typically require all three types of structure. The top-level, umbrella architecture for the site will almost
certainly be hierarchical.
As you are designing this hierarchy, keep a lookout for collections of structured, homogeneous information.
These potential subsites are excellent candidates for the database model.
Finally, remember that less structured, creative relationships between content items can be handled through
hypertext. In this way, all three organization structures together can create a cohesive organization system.

Navigation System:
Enable users to navigate between pages within an app or a website to achieve their goal —
whatever that may be. Navigation systems can be designed to support associative learning. For example, a
page that describes a product may include see also links to related products and services (this type of
navigation can also support a company's marketing goals).
Any page on a web site may have numerous opportunities for interesting see also connections to other areas of the site.
The constant challenge in navigation system design is to balance this flexibility of movement.

Types of Navigation Systems:

A complex web site often includes several types of navigation systems. To design a successful site, it is essential to
understand the types of systems and how they work together to provide flexibility and context.Under embedded
navigation system there are three types of Navigation system.

Global navigation system:

Global navigation system is presented on every page throughout an interface, it is what we commonly called the ‘site-
wide navigation bar’. It typically sits at the top of the page, consisting a set of links that allow users to access the top-

level pages of a site, and a link to the homepage (presented as the logo).

Global navigation may come in different forms, in the recent years, mega menus and fat footers have became
popular.
Local navigation systems:

A local navigation systems help users to explore what is nearby. It is also known as sub-navigation or
page navigation. We can view it as ‘an extension’ of the global navigation.

There are 3 common ways to arrange the global and the local navigation — inverted-L, horizontal and
embedded vertical.
Inverted-L:

Local navigation is presented as a vertical link list and is placed below the global navigation, aligned along
the left, forming an inverted-L shape.

Horizontal:

Local navigation is placed directly below the horizontal global navigation and is presented as a row, providing
more options.

Embedded vertical
When the main navigation is presented in a vertical menu, it’s common to see the local navigation being
embedded between the main navigation options.

Contextual navigation:

When the information can’t be fitted neatly into the structure of global and local navigation, we can make use
of contextual navigation to point users to related pages, supporting associative learning.

On an e-commerce website, this could be “related products” or “you may also like” links, typically use for
cross-selling.
Supplementary navigation systems:

Supplementary systems provide alternatives for the users to complete their task. There are many types of
supplementary navigation, let’s go through some examples:

Sitemap

A sitemap presents the top few levels of the information hierarchy, allowing users to understand how a
website is being structured from a broader perspective.

Indexes

Indexes work well for users who already know the exact name of the information they are looking for. For
example, Mayo Clinic organised the name of the diseases in a flat and alphabetical structure.
Guide

The intend of using a guide is to introduce a process, product or a service that is new to the user. It can be
designed in the form tutorials, guided tours or a walk throughs that focus around a specific audience, task, or
topic.
Search

Search is also a form of supplementary navigation that allows user to enter a specific search term that is
unlikely to be represented in a sitemap or index.
Integrated Navigation Elements :
s users move through the site or sub-site, these are the elements they see and use again and again. Most integrated
navigation elements fit into one of two categories: navigation bars and pull-down menus.
Navigation Bars
In simplest form, a navigation bar is a collection of hypertext links grouped together on a page. Alternatively, the
navigation bar may be graphical in nature, implemented as an image map or as graphic images within a table structure.
Graphic navigation bars tend to look nicer but can significantly slow down the page loading speed.
It is usually much easier to add options to a text menu than a graphic-based menu. If you anticipate substantial growth or
change in a particular area, it may make sense to employ a textual navigation bar, Cost is also an issue, since graphic
navigation bars require more work to create and change than text-based bars.
Text-based navigation system

It is often best to place the navigation bar towards the top and/or bottom of the page, rather than at the side. Placement at
the top provides immediate access to the navigation system as well as an instant sense of context within the site.

Graphical navigation bars may employ several techniques for conveying content and context, including textual labels and
icons. Textual labels are the easiest to create and by far most clearly indicate the contents of each option. Icons, on the
other hand, are relatively difficult to create and often fail to indicate the contents of each option.
Graphical navigation bars

Pull-Down Menus :
Pull-down menus compactly provide for many navigation options. The user can expand what appears as a single-line
menu to present dozens of options
Users must choose an option from the menu and then hit a Go or Submit button to move to that destination.
Pull-down menu
You can implement a more sophisticated version of the pull-down menu (also know as the pop-up menu ) on the Web by
using a programming language such as Java or JavaScript.
Search system:
A search engine is a software system designed to carry out web searches. They search the World Wide Web in a
systematic way for particular information specified in a textual web search query.Searching system is used in
information architecture to help users search for the data within the digital product like a website or an app. The
searching system is effective only for the products with loads of information when the users risk getting lost there.
Known-item searching
When some users' information needs are clearly defined and have a single, correct answers.
Existence searching
some users know what they want but don't know how to describe it or whether the answer exists at all.
Exploratory searching
Some users know how to phrase their question, but don't know exactly what they're hoping to find, and are really just
exploring and trying to learn more.
Comprehensive searching
Some users want everything available on a given topic. Scientific researchers, patent lawyers, doctoral students trying to
find unique and original dissertation topics, and fans of any sort fit into this category.

Designing the Search Interface :

With so much variation among users to account for, there can be no single ideal search interface.
Although the literature of information retrieval includes many studies of search interface design, many variables.
 The level of searching expertise users have.
 The kind of information the user wants.
 The type of information being searched.
 How much information is being searched.
There are some variable we should consider when design user interface.
 Support Different Modes of Searching.
 Searching and Browsing Systems Should Be Closely Integrated.
 Searching Should Conform to the Site's Look and Feel.
 Search Options Should Be Clear.
 Choose a Search Engine That Fits Users' Needs.
 Display Search Results Sensibly.