Critical Systems Thinking

Current Research and Practice

Critical Systems Thinking
Current Research and Practice

Edited by
Robert L. Flood and
Norma R. A. Romm
University of Hull
Hull, England

Plenunfi Press • New York and London

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublIcatIon Data

Critical systems thinking : current research and practice / edited by

Robert L. Flood and Norma R.A. Romm.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-306-45451-3
1. Critical thinking. 2. Critical theory. 3. System analysis.
4. Problem solving. I. Flood, Robert L. II. Romm, Norma, R. A.
BC177.C7555 1997
003—dc21 96-37111
CIP

ISBN 0-306-45451-3

© 1996 Plenum Press, New York

A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
233 Spring Street, New York, N. Y. 10013

All rights reserved

10987654321

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or othenA/ise,
without written permission from the Publisher

Printed in the United States of America

 Contents

Overview: A Taste for Research and Practice 1

Part I. Theory
Commentary 7

Chapter 1
What Is This Thing Called CST? 11
Gerald Midgley
1.1. Introduction 11
1.2. Methodological Pluralism 12
1.3. Emancipation 14
1.4. Critical Awareness 14
1.5. Critical Issues 15
1.6. The Ethical Critique of Boundary Judgements 17
1.7. The Implications for Critical Systems Thinking 19
1.8. Conclusion 20
References 22

Chapter 2
The Ideal of Unity and the Practice of Pluralism in Systems Science 25
Gerald Midgley
2.1. Introduction 25
2.2. The Ideal of the Unity of Science 26
2.2.1. Early Calls for the Unification of Science 27
2.2.2. Toward an Ideal of Unification 28
2.2.3. Some Initial Conclusions 28
2.3. Manifestations of Isolationism 28
2.3.1. The "Natural" and "Social" Sciences 29
2.3.2. Isolationism and Subject Matter 30
2.3.3. Isolationism in Systems Science 31
2.3.4. Intermediate Conclusions 31
2.4. Toward Pluralism 32
2.5. The Theory of Three Worlds 33
vi Contents

2.6. Conclusion 34
References 35

Chapter 3
Dealing with Diversity 37
Wendy Gregory
3.1. Introduction 37
3.2. Strategies for Underpinning Critical Systems Thinking 39
3.2.1. Isolationism 40
3.2.2. Imperialism 40
3.2.3. Pragmatism 41
3.2.4. Pluralism 42
3.3. A Critique of Complementarism Using a "Force Field" Metaphor 45
3.4. Pluralism and the Social Sciences 48
3.5. The "Constellation" Metaphor 49
3.6. Discordant Pluralism 51
3.6.1. The Historical, Local, and Contingent Nature of Discordant
Pluralism 52
3.6.2. Discordant Pluralism and Communication 53
3.6.3. Discordant Pluralism and Ethical Judgements 54
3.7. Comparing Complementarism and Discordant Pluralism 56
3.8. Conclusion 58
References 59

Chapter 4
A Foucauldian Reflection on Critical Systems Thinking 63
Nestor Valero-Silva
4.1. Introduction 63
4.2. Foucault and the Frankfurt School 64
4.3. Power-Knowledge and the "Critical Ontology of Ourselves" 66
4.3.1. "What is Enlightenment?" 66
4.3.2. Foucault's Project: The "Critical Ontology of Ourselves" 67
4.3.3. Power-Knowledge 71
4.4. Foucault and Critical Systems Thinking 73
4.4.1. Critical Awareness or "How We Came to Be What We Are" 73
4.4.2. Complementarism: "Critique and Methodology" 74
4.4.3. Emancipation and Improvement 75
4.5. Final Remark 76
References 78

Chapter 5
Diversity Management: Theory in Action 81
Robert L. Flood and Norma R. A. Romm
5.1. Introduction 81
Contents vil

5.2. A Proposal for Complementarism 82

5.3. Ideology-Critique without Absolutes 87
5.4. Addressing Choices 89
5.5. Conclusion 90
References 91

Part II. Methodology

Commentary 93

Chapter 6
Total Systems Intervention: Local Systemic Intervention 95
Robert L. Flood
6.1. Introduction 95
6.2. Ideal Systemic Model of Organisational Dynamics 97
6.3. Principles of LSI 100
6.4. Process of LSI 102
6.4.1. Introduction 102
6.4.2. Critical Review Mode 102
6.4.3. Problem Solving Mode 103
6.4.4. Critical Reflection Mode 112
6.4.5. Three Modes of LSI Revisited 112
6.4.6. Concluding Comments on the Process of LSI 114
6.5. Summary and Conclusion 114
References 115

Chapter 7
TSI as Critique: The Critical Review Mode 117
Jennifer Wilby
7.1. Introduction 117
7.2. Summary of TSI 118
7.3. Developing the Critical Review Mode 120
7.3.1. Introduction 120
7.3.2. A Generic Step Model for the Critical Review Mode 121
7.3.3. History of the Six Steps of the Critical Review Mode 123
7.3.4. The Creativity, Choice, and Implementation Subgroups 124
7.4. The Six Steps of the Critical Review Mode 125
7.4.1. Subgroup 1: Creativity/Understanding 126
7.4.2. Subgroup 2: Choice/Categorising 129
7.4.3. Subgroup 3: Implementation/Analysis 132
7.5. Discussion of the Models and the TSI Framework 135
7.6. Discussion 136
References 138
viii Contents

Chapter 8
Critical Creativity and Total Systems Intervention 141
Gillian Ragsdell
8.1. Introduction 141
8.2. Overview 141
8.3. What Is Creativity? 142
8.4. Problem-Solving Approaches and Creativity 150
8.4.1. Introduction 150
8.4.2. Ideahsed Design 150
8.4.3. Imaginization 151
8.4.4. Nominal Group Technique 152
8.4.5. Informal Creativity 153
8.4.6. Comparison of Approaches 154
8.5. Critical Creativity 156
8.5.1. Introduction 156
8.5.2. Nature of Critical Creativity 157
8.5.3. Principles of Critical Creativity 158
8.6. Principles for Operationalization of Critical Creativity 159
8.6.1. Introduction 159
8.6.2. Critical Review Mode 159
8.6.3. Problem Solving Mode 160
8.6.4. Critical Reflection Mode 160
8.7. Summary 161
References 162

Chapter 9
Critical Systems Thinking for Citizens 165
Werner Ulrich
9.1. Introduction 165
9.2. What Does It Mean to "Pragmatize" Critical Systems Thinking? 166
9.2.1. Pragmatizing Critical Systems Ideas: For Whom and with What
Practical Difference in Mind? 166
9.2.2. Some Preliminary Conjectures on the Target Group "Citizens" 168
9.3. What Core Ideas Offer Themselves for Pragmatization? 170
9.4. In What Kind of Context Might Critical Systems Thinking for Citizens
Make a Difference? 173
9.4.1. The Importance of the Public Sphere 174
9.4.2. Does Critical Systems Thinking for Citizens Imply an Advocacy
Stance? The Methodological Importance (and Ambiguity) of the
Emancipatory Interest 175
9.4.3. The Importance and Limitation of Methodology 176
References 177
Contents ix

Chapter 10
Systems Methodologies and Intervention: The Issue of Researcher
Responsibihty 179
Norma R. A. Romm
10.1. Introduction 179
10.2. Methodology 181
10.3. An Ethic of Responsibility 182
10.4. Three Systems Methodologies: Location of Threats to Responsibility 186
10.4.1. Beer's Cybernetic Approach 186
10.4.2. Checkland and Scholes: Soft Systems Methodology 188
10.4.3. Ulrich's Critical Systems Heuristics 190
10.5. Conclusion 192
References 193

Chapter 11
A Framework for Assessing Participation 195
Mandy Brown
11.1. Introduction 195
11.2. Participative Framework 195
11.2.1. Introduction 195
11.2.2. Purpose of Incorporating Participation 196
11.2.3. Structure and Process of Participation 197
11.2.4. Facilitation of Participation 198
11.2.5. Summary of the Framework 199
11.3. Analysis of Methodologies 199
11.3.1. The Viable System Model 199
11.3.2. Soft Systems Methodology 203
11.3.3. Critical Systems Heuristics 207
11.4. Conclusion 212
References 212

Part III. Practice

Commentary 215

Chapter 12
TSI in North Yorkshire Police: Implementation and Evaluation 217
Robert L. Flood and Philip Green
12.1. Introduction 217
12.2. Context 217
12.3. Procedure 218
12.4. Evaluation of Implementation of LAP 220
12.5. A TSI Appraisal of the Process 223
X Contents

12.5.1. The LAP Implementation Process in TSI Terms 223

12.5.2. Were the Principles of TSI Upheld? 224
12.6. Conclusion 225
Appendix 1. SAST Exercise with the LAP Steering Committee 225
Appendix 2. Handout Worksheet for Implementation Days 227
Appendix 3. Issues for the Management Team 229
Appendix 4. Evaluation Survey Sheet (for LAP Officers) 232
References 234

Chapter 13
Two Perspectives in a Voluntary Organization 235
Claire Cohen
13.1. Introduction 235
13.2. The Well Woman Centre and Its Environment 235
13.3. Low Morale and Training 236
13.4. The Two Perspectives 238
13.4.1. The "Cultural Feminist" Perspective 238
13.4.2. The "Bureaucratic" Perspective 240
13.5. Training at the WWC 241
13.6. Searching for a Way Forward: Parameters of a Proposal 242
13.6.1. Survival of Feminism: A Shared Goal 242
13.6.2. Emphasising Power Inequalities 243
13.7. The Structure of the "Debate" 244
13.8. Postscript 247
13.9. Conclusion 249
References 249

Chapter 14
Reflections on an Action Research Project: Women and the Law
in Southern Africa 251
Norma R. A. Romm
HA, Introduction 251
14.1.1. The Value of Discursive Accountability 252
14.1.2. The Value of Enhanced Choice-Making 253
14.1.3. Critical Systems Thinking: Toward Discursive Accountability
and Enhanced Choice-Making 254
14.2. The Case of the WLSA Project 256
14.2.1. Employment of Research Methods to Enhance Dialogical
Potential 257
14.2.2. The Relevance of Focus Group Discussions 259
14.2.3. Some Reflections on the Researchers' "Input" (in the
Researching System) 261
14.2.4. Structural Approaches and WLSA 263
Contents xi

14.2.5. The Facilitation of Debate and WLSA 264

14.2.6. Critical Systems Heuristics and WLSA 266
14.2.7. WLSA and CST: A Concluding Comment 269
References 270

Chapter 15
Economic Recession and Self-Deceptions: Messes in Collective Rationality 273
John Oliga
15.1. Introduction 273
15.1.1. The Sociopathological Anatomy of Economic Recessions 273
15.1.2. A Critical Hermeneutical Approach 274
15.2. Background to Empirical-Hermeneutical Study 275
15.3. Toward a Hermeneutical Understanding of Economic Crises 276
15.3.1. The Problem of Economic Recession 276
15.3.2. The Consequential Problem of Foreign Competition 278
15.3.3. Long-Wave Theories and Economic Crises 278
15.3.4. Decline in British Competitiveness and Economic Crises 279
15.4. Alternative Interpretations of Economic Crises 282
15.4.1. Global Rise in the Organic Composition of Capital 282
15.4.2. The "Profits Squeeze" Theory 284
15.5. Toward a Critical Understanding of Economic Recession as a
Sociopathological Condition 286
15.5.1. Toward a Critical Hermeneutical Understanding 286
15.5.2. Implications for Critical Social Theory 289
15.5.3. Implications for Critical Systems Thinking 294
References 294

Conclusion: Preserving a Taste for Research and Practice without Recipes 297

Index 299
Critical Systems Thinking
Current Research and Practice
 Overview
A Taste for Research and Practice

This book comprises articles written by colleagues employed within or affiliated to the
Centre for Systems Studies at the University of Hull.' The Centre for Systems Studies was
set up in 1992 as a research center to develop an action-oriented field of research orga-
nized under the broad banner of Critical Systems Thinking (CST). CST (a notion popu-
larized in the 1990s partly through Flood and Jackson's book Creative Problem Solving)^
was an effort, in Flood's terms, to 'liberate" systems thinking from confines of thought
with which it had traditionally been identified. Previously, action-oriented systems studies
had two main themes: first, design: finding out how systems are best coordinated and
controlled, with feedback mechanisms patterned to organize information-carrying in the
system (cybernetic-style thinking); and second, debate: finding out how sets of purposeful
activity and people's differing viewpoints can be systemically reconciled or accommo-
dated for (as in soft systems thinking).
CST, however, reckons that systems thinking can (and should) develop as a tolerant
and reflexive enterprise, able to reflect critically on the way in which these (and other)
knowledge constructions become generated. It can (and should) be able to recognize
likely consequences of employing different systemic approaches to different sorts of
issues encountered in organizational and societal affairs. This includes some attempt to
make visible assumptions supporting people's outlooks. It also recognizes a connection
between knowledge and power and makes this an issue to be addressed when studying and
tackling organizational and societal affairs. CST is concerned with the dominance of
dominant voices reflected in dominant ways of appreciating and tackling issues in organi-
zational and social reality. Evidence of dominant theoretical visions in systems thinking,
which portray themselves as the only worthy rational systemic approach, and attendant
dominant methodological options present in principles for action springing from these
theoretical visions, is cause for concern for CST.
CST, thus, does not advocate a monolithic mode of thought. Critical systems think-
ers do not even agree with what this "thing" called CST is. Gerald Midgley's chapter
entitled "What Is This Thing Called CST?" (the first chapter in this volume) is a foretaste

'The Centre is in fact equivalent to a department according to criteria of the University of Hull. The fact that it is
called a Centre is a historical detail since that is what it has become known as internationally. The Centre
employs around eight full-time staff members at any one time, has six affiliates from the Department of
Management Systems and Sciences at the University of Hull, around 20 Ph.D. students, edits the international
journal Systems Practice, runs its own masters course, and is housed in dedicated accommodation adjacent to
the university campus.
-Other books written by Centre staff on or around CST are listed in the bibliography at the end of this overview.

1
2 Overview

of the diversity of research carried out under the reflexive banner of CST. Our book
indeed offers a sense of a continuing conference around the notion of CST that is taking
place at the Centre for Systems Studies between its staff and visiting scholars. It offers a
taste of our research work. Tastes come in three main types of dishes that correspond to
the three main parts of this book: a Theory dish, a Methodology dish, and a Practice
dish.^Centre colleagues provide many tantalizing tastes and substantial food for thought in
each main dish.
Readers may wonder if we speak of arguments presented in each dish (part of the
book) as simply a postmodern TV cooking program about tasting many different ways of
seeing issues. Is there no way of choosing between the arguments presented by the
different authors other than resorting to simple appeal? Actually, we are struggling pre-
cisely with the question of how choices may be made, in a way that does not imply that it
is simply a matter of taste. Hence, Gerald Midgley in his "What Is This Thing Called
CST?" argues in one of his closing paragraphs that "there may be many different visions
of methodological pluralism [pluralism being one of the tenets of CST] . . . and our task
is then to justify why any one is preferable." Here Midgley refers to the importance of
justifying a way of understanding, in his case a way of understanding the meaning of
CST's view of pluralism, by developing arguments that define why any view can be taken
as preferable. Preferability then becomes argued for with reference to criteria that can be
invoked in the justification process. Yet, of course, in making visible the criteria used to
justify preferences, it is always possible that other people will prefer to invoke challenging
criteria. The process of argument about criteria can never reach finality.
So, although all of our authors have clearly made use of argument in the process
of laying out their ideas about possible ways of pursuing CST, we, as editors, have
chosen to present these ideas as tastes for the reader to relish, as they themselves de-
cide how to manage the dishes presented. We allowed for much leeway on the part of
the authors. We did not try to force their arguments into some mold that we, the edi-
tors, might have thought was required by a book on CST. This provided scope for the
authors to explore the issues as they saw fit and, we believe, it provides a richer expe-
rience for readers. Ultimately, we hope to enrich our readers' sense of the possibilities
offered by CST.
In the first part (the Theory dish), we offer a taste of what it may mean to be a critical
systems thinker. The chapters in this part address this question in a number of ways.
Gerald Midgley addresses it in his chapter entitled "What Is This Thing Called CST?"
with an overview of the manner in which CST authors have tried to delineate the meaning
of CST and by suggesting further avenues for research. In his second chapter entitled "The
Ideal of Unity and the Practice of Pluralism in Systems Science," Midgley makes a
connection between unity and pluralism. He outlines a handful of pluralist theories that

The Centre for Systems Studies is run on the basis of projects that are managed by a leader working with others
interested in the area of the project. Members of the Centre choose the projects they wish to lead or become
involved in. Projects mainly covered in this book include Community Reflective Practice, CST, Reflective
Practice Forum, Systems Thinking in South Africa, and Total Systems Intervention. The projects traverse all
three of the dishes mentioned in the main text with different slants. The authors in Part I are members inter alia
of the CST project. The authors in Part II and III are members of the TSI project and/or the special project on
South Africa and/or the community project. All of the Centre staff belong to the project called the Reflective
Practice Forum.
Overview 3

attempt to break down the barriers of monolithic, or isolationist, thinking. He pleads for a
pursuit of the ideal of unity alongside the practice of some form of methodological
pluralism as part of the CST enterprise.
The third chapter in Part I is by Wendy Gregory and is entitled "Dealing with
Diversity." Gregory explains the importance of dealing with diversity as a critical issue
for critical systems "thinking and practice." She designs an argument for what she calls
discordant pluralism. She explains how such a position may help to address concerns such
as the possibility of dialogue between different perspectives, the motivation for listening
to other perspectives, and the requirement for a critically reflexive stance as part of the
discursive process.
Nestor Valero-Silva's chapter entitled "A Foucauldian Reflection on Critical Sys-
tems Thinking" shows one relevance of Foucault's critical thought for CST. Valero-Silva
puts the focus on Foucault's work because, he reckons, it allows researchers to explore
CST as a means of addressing main dangers that arise within our historical situation. He
suggests that the notion of "improvement" may be linked to an attempt to address dangers
that surface when we recognize that all alternatives are dangerous.
Part I ends with our own joint chapter entitled "Diversity Management: Theory in
Action" in which we develop a complementarist position based on the (in)commensura-
bility of theoretical and methodological approaches. The chapter outlines several funda-
mental dilemmas that we feel can be managed with the help of our notion of (in)commen-
surability. The chapter explains what is meant by this notion.
The second part of the book is a Methodology one. It comprises chapters in which
authors write about the process of operationalizing theoretical approaches, thereby devel-
oping methodological principles for action.
The first chapter in this part is by Flood, entitled "Total Systems Intervention: Local
Systemic Intervention." In this chapter. Flood explains how Total Systems Intervention
(TSI) renders CST relevant for the management of "problems" in organizational and
societal life. Flood spells out and at the same time extends and further operationalizes
some of the tenets of TSI. The chapter presents an up-to-date conception of the philoso-
phy, principles, and processes of this kind of interventionist approach. It also suggests a
conceptualization of three modes of the process as part of the discussion of the process of
TSI. The three modes are: a Critical Review Mode, a Problem Solving Mode, and a
Critical Reflection Mode (in keeping with writings elsewhere in which Flood has sug-
gested these modes for TSI).
The second chapter in our Methodology dish elaborates on an aspect of Flood's
chapter by exploring in detail the Critical Review Mode of TSI. The chapter is entitled
"TSI as Critique: The Critical Review Mode." In this chapter, Jennifer Wilby offers much
original insight into the way in which the Critical Review Mode can be operationalized.
She shows how the Critical Review Mode examines and compares a variety of meth-
odological approaches. She shows what these comparisons involve in the light of TSI
commitments.
The third chapter in this part is by Gillian Ragsdell and is entitled "Critical Creativity
and Total Systems Intervention." Ragsdell particularizes the creativity aspect of TSI. She
discusses ways in which the concept of creativity has been deliberated on in the literature.
She uses this as a springboard to develop a working definition of creativity. Ragsdell
shows that while creativity seems to require that people avoid conformist acceptance of
4 Overview

other people's expectations, it at the same time requires a critical awareness of value
(including an awareness of other people's concerns). Value helps to avoid an anything
goes position which leads to any so-called novel or original behavior being called cre-
ative. By extending this argument, Ragsdell develops critical creativity for TSI.
The fourth chapter in this part is authored by Werner Ulrich. His chapter is titled
''Critical Systems Thinking for Citizens." Ulrich emphasizes the need to pragmatize CST,
but not just for well-trained managers. CST must be accessible to citizens if it is to make
inroads into enlightened social practice that is capable of addressing the complex environ-
mental and social issues that civilizations face today. Ulrich explains how CST has a
potential to give new meaning to the concept of citizenship that makes this possible.
The fifth chapter in this part, by Norma Romm, explores responsible judgment in
methodology employment. The chapter is entitled "Systems Methodologies and Interven-
tion: The Issue of Researcher Responsibility." Romm argues that this issue cannot be
glossed over by those who wish to identify with systems thinking. After searching through
some notions of responsibility that have appeared in writings on the subject and by
relating this to examples of methodology practice, Romm prefers to understand respon-
sibility as resting on discursive accountability. This allows practitioners to break out of
rigid allegiance to favored points of view and to embrace variety, while admitting that
they have to bear responsibility for their way of understanding things and for the actions
they take.
The last chapter in this part is by Mandy Brown and is entitled "A Framework for
Assessing Participation." Brown starts off reminding us of the prime importance that has
been given to participation in leading systems research. She notes, however, that the
concept seems to waiver between two aspects, based on differing criteria for assessing the
value of participation, and that these differences have not yet been substantially theorized.
The criteria are linked, on the one hand, to notions of efficiency and effectiveness, and on
the other to the moral appeal of the democratic process. Brown proposes a framework
with which to assess participation by locating ways in which the two criteria may be more
transparently employed in any intervention. Her chapter also demonstrates that her frame-
work can be used to reexamine claims made by self-named systems thinkers regarding
methodology employment.
The third dish we call a Practice dish. It sets out examples of work that have been
undertaken in an effort to become involved in improvement in the social matrix. The
authors have assumed somewhat different roles in terms of their interventions that are here
documented. In the first case Flood and Green operated largely as consultants but also
with an interest in reflecting on the process of TSI, evaluating whether it made a differ-
ence in the way issues were addressed. In the second case Claire Cohen was a member of
the group (in fact the president thereof) and so observations spring from a kind of in-house
research-and-participant involvement. In the third case Norma Romm was involved as a
consultant to a group of researchers and helped them to contribute to the research process
via the consultancy. In the last case John Oliga undertakes an empirical-hermeneutical
study of economic recessions as one form of empirical manifestation of the complex
interpenetrations of four crises: economic/fiscal crises (from the economic sphere), ratio-
nality crises and legitimation crises (both from the political sphere), and motivation crises
(from the sociocultural sphere). In all four cases the authors offer us food for thought
Overview 5

about ways to address issues in organizational and societal affairs from a holistic point of
view.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Flood, R. L. (1990). Liberating Systems Theory. New York: Plenum Press.

Flood, R. L. (1993). Beyond TQM. New York: Wiley.
Flood, R. L. (1995). Solving Problem Solving. New York: Wiley.
Flood, R. L., & Jackson, M. C. (1991). Creative Problem Solving: Total Systems Intervention. New York:
Wiley.
Flood, R. L., & Jackson, M. C. (Eds.). (1991). Critical Systems Thinking: Directed Readings. New York:
Wiley.
Flood, R. L., & Romm, N. R. A. (1996). Diversity Management: Triple Loop Learning. New York: Wiley.
Oliga, J. C. (1996). Power, Ideology and Control: A Critical Systems Perspective. New York: Plenum Press.