SKELETON AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS

Skeleton is the bony framework of the body which provide support, shape, rigidity and protection to the
soft tissue and organ in animal. The skeleton of any animal depend on the position of the organism in
the evolutionary trend help to determine the advancement and development of organism e.g. man is
able to stand erect than other organism due to their sophisticated skeletal build up.

FORMS OF SKELETON

I. Cuticle: Cuticle is composed of protein called chitin and a thin waterproof layer of wax.
Chitin is a non-living substance, hence animal with this type of skeletal structure undergo
moulting or ecdysis. Cuticle is an exoskeleton which is located externally on the body of the
animal. Examples of organisms with this kind of the body structure are mainly Arthropods
e.g. insect, crab, scorpion, prawn and crayfish.
II. Bones: Bones consist of a living bone cell called osteocytes, protein fibres called collagen
and minerals which are mainly of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. A bone consists
of a hard outer layer called shaft and a spongy or hollow cavity filled with bone marrow.
Animal that has bones include bony fish, toad, lizard and mammals.
III. Cartilage: A cartilage is a tissue found in the skeleton of complex vertebrates. It consists of
living cell called chondroblast, carbohydrate and protein fibre. It is a very tough and flexible
tissue that has great tensile strength. Examples of organisms which possess cartilage are:
cartilaginous fishes such as: Shark, rays and mammal.

Types of cartilage.

a. Hyaline cartilage : Trachea, bronchi and surface of moveable joint, nose

b. Fibro- cartilage: between inter vertebral column.

(c) Elastic cartilage: ear, epiglottis.

Types of skeleton.

1. Hydrostatic of fluid skeleton.

2. Exoskeleton.

3. Endoskeleton.

Hydrostatic Skeleton is a type of skeleton possessed by soft bodied animal examples of organism
with this type of skeleton are earthworm and sea anemones.

Exoskeleton is a type of skeleton which is found outside or external part of the body of some
animals. Most invertebrates do possess cuticle which is composed of chitin.

Endoskeleton is the type of skeleton which is found inside the body of the animal. Endoskeleton
exists in toad, lizard, birds and mammals. Endoskeleton in mammal include the skull, the vertebral
alumni or backbone, ribs, and the bones of the fore and hind limbs.

THE COMPONENT OF THE MAMMALIAN SKELETONS.

The mammalian skeletal system is group into two major parts:

1. Axial skeleton which comprises of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.

2. Appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs girdles, pectoral and pelvic girdles and the limbs
which is fore limbs and hind limbs.
 The skull is made up of several flat bones joined together by means of joint called sutures. The three
major parts of the skull are:

(i) Cranium or brain box.

(ii) Facial skeleton
(iii) Jaws (upper & lower)

Functions of the skull

1. It protects the brain.

2. It gives shape to the brain
3. It protects vital organs in the head e. g eye, nose, ear.
4. It bears the teeth which help in grinding of food.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The vertebral column is the central supporting structure of the skeleton, it is made up of five group of
bones called vertebrae in mammals. In human it consists of 33 vertebrae. The vertebrae are held to one
another with a strong ligament having compressible cartilage pads called intervertebral disc between
the consecutive vertebrae.

Types of vertebrae

Cervical vertebrae

Thoracic vertebrae

Lumber vertebrae

Caudual vertebrae

FEATURES OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRAE

All vertebrae even though they have different function, have certain features in common.

1. Neural canal: This is the passage of the spinal cord.

2. Neural spine: This project upward dorsally for the attachment of muscle
 3. Transverse processes: They project from the side of each vertebra for the attachment of
muscles and ligament.
4. Centrum : It is a solid piece of bone below the neural canal.
5. Facet: This a small, smooth, flat or slight depressed on the bone usually in point of contact with
another bone.
6. Zygapophysis : These are articular surfaces for the articulation of successive vertebrae, They are
grouped into two parts namely: (a) Pre- zygapophysis facing inward and upward. (b) Post-
zygapophysis facing outward and downward.

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE. The cervical vertebrae are found in the neck region. The First vertebra is
called atlas while the second one is called axis. The third to the seventh bones are similar and they
are the normal cervical bones. The atlas allows the head to nod and it fits into the occipital condyles
of the skull.

Characteristics of atlas.

1. It has a large neural canal.

2. It has a flat and broad transverse process.
3. The neural spine is very short, in some cases it may even be absent.
4. Centrum is absent.
5. It has a vertebrarterial canal for the passage of blood
vessels.

ATLAS

Characteristics of Axis vertebrae.

1. It has a broad and flat centrum.

2. It articulates with the atlas through odontoid process. .
3. It has a large flattered neural spine.
4. The transverse process is reduced to pin- like structure.
5. It has a vertebrarterial canal.

THORACIC VERTEBRAE

Thoracic vertebrae are found in the chest region.

Characteristics

1. It has a long and prominent neutral spine which project upward and backward.
2. It has a pair of short transverse processes.
3. There is presence of demifacet and articular surfaces for attachment of ribs.
4. It has a large neural canal.
5. It has a large centrum.

Functions of the Thoracic vertebrae

1. It aid the attachment of the ribs.

2. It provides space for attachment of muscles of the shoulder and back to the neural spine.
3. It assists in breathing along side with the ribs.

NB: leave 6 lines for diagram

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE: The lumbar vertebrae are found in the upper abdominal region.

Characteristics

1. It has a large flattened transverse process.

2. It has a broad and flat neural spine.
3. It has a large and thick centrum
4. It has well developed pre and post zygapophysis.
5. It also have two extra- paired projections called anapophysis & metapophysis for attachment of
abdominal muscles.

Functions of the lumbar vertebrae.

1. The lumbar vertebrae provide attachment for abdominal muscles.

2. They bear considerable weight of the body.

NB: leave 6 lines for diagram

SACRAL VERTEBRAE: These bones are found in the lower abdominal region. In man, they are 5 in
number and they are fused together to form the sacrum.

Characteristics
 1. It has a narrow neural canal.
2. It has neural spine which is reduced to a small notch.
3. It has a large centrum.
4. The first sacral vertebra has a pair of transverse process which is large and wing like but the
others are attached to the muscles of the back.
5. The first sacral vertebrae has a small neural canal which gradually become narrower in the other
vertebra.

Function

They are joined with the pelvic girdle to provide support rigidity and strength.

NB: leave 10 lines for diagram

CAUDAL VERTEBRAE: The caudal vertebrae are fused together is a solid mass of bone are found in the
tail region known as coccx

RIBS AND STERNUM. Twelve pairs of ribs and sternum form the rib cage in humans, the sternum is a
single bone which consist of seven small bones. The ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae; however,
in humans only the first ten pairs are attached to the sternum. The last two pairs remain free and are
known as floating ribs

Functions

1. The ribs and sternum protect the heart and the lungs.
2. They assists in respiration.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

PECTORAL/ SHOULDER GIRRDLE. The pectoral girdle holds the upper limbs or arms to the axial skeleton.
It consist many of four separate bones, two large flat, triangula bones called shoulder blade or scapula
at the back and two small slender bone called collar bone or clavicle in front. The scapula are attached
to the vertebral column by muscles, each scapula has a depression called the glenoid cavity into which
the head of the upper humerus fits to form the shoulder joint. The calvicles are attached to the scapula
at one end and to the sternum and the other end.

NB: Leave 10 lines for diagram

PELVIC GIRDLE: The pelvic griddles consist of two half which are join to each other ventrally to form a
sacrum. The line of fusion of two half bones is called pubis symphysis .Each half is made up three bones
namely ilium, ischium and pubis. The ilium is the largest an d the longest of the three bones. Pelvic
griddle or hips consist of two bones, the right and the left pelvic. These are joined to form sacrum at the
back and held together by cartilage at the back and in front to form a complete hip girdle. At the outer
edge of each pelvic is a deep cavity called acetabulum cavity into which the bone of the thigh bone or(
femur )fits to form the hip joint. At the lower and of ischium, ilium and pubis encloses an opening or a
hole called obturator foramen. It is through this hole blood vessels and muscles pass.

NB: Leave 10 lines for diagram

THE LIMBS: The limbs are made up of fore limbs i.e bones of the arm and limbs. The limbs of most
vertebrates are built on the same basic plan called pentadacty limb plan ( 5 digit plan).The fore limbs of
mammals is made up of an upper arm bone which a long bone called humerus. The humerus has a
rounded head which fix to the glenoid cavity of scapula of the pectoral girdle. The humerus are grooved-
like surface called trochlea which join with ulna and radius are foliated by the bones of the wrist called
carpals which are followed by the bones of the digit called metacarpals or phalanges.

NB: Leave 12 lines for diagram

HIND LIMBS: The hind limbs is made up of the tight bone called Femur. The femur is the largest and the
strongest bone in the body. Very close to the femur and three projections called TROCHANTERS, they
are important for the attachment of femur to muscle. At the distal end of the femur are two rounded
knobs called condoyle for articulation. The Shank is made up of two bones called Tibia and Fibula. The
knee joint is found at the junction of the femur with tibia and fibular, there is a short bone called patella
or knee cap . the inner tarsal’s project backward to form the heel bone .

IMPORTANT OF SKELETON

1. It gives support, shapes and rigidity to the body

2. Skeleton protect delicate organs of the body e.g the cranium protects the brain while the
ssternum
3. Protect the heart and the lung
4. Skeleton makes the body to move
5. The ribs and the sternum take part in respiration
6. The long bone marrow manufacture the raw blood cell
 7. The skeleton provide space for attachment of muscle
8. The skeleton stores some mineral salt e.g calcium and phosphorus

THE JOINTS: A joint is a place where two or more bones meet or articulated.

Types of Joint

1. Immovable joint: These are joints or regions where two or more bones are firmly
attaches to one another or firmly fixed by ligament in such a way that movement of
these bones are not possible. Example of some places in the body where Immovable
joints are present are skull and pelvic girdle. The immovable joint of the skull are called
suture
2. MOVABLE JOINTS: They are joint or region of the body where movement of joint is
possible. Most of the bones are held together by movable joint

Types of movable joint

1. Ball and socket joint: These are joints that allow movement in all directions the joint are
found in the shoulder and hip joint. NB: Leave 10 lines fir diagram
2. Hinge joints It is found at the elbows and knee it allow movement in only one direction
nt. NB: Leave 10 lines fir diagram
3. Gliding and sliding joint: It allows gliding of the bones over one another. Example of this
joint are found in the wrist and ankle. nt. NB: Leave 10 lines fir diagram
4. Pivot joint: Pivot joint are found in the neck between the atlas and axis. It permits
nodding and rotation of one part of the body on another Structure of joint.

The main part of the joint consist of the followings

1. Ligament These are though partly elastic bands of tissue which hold two bones together
at a joint
2. Tendons are extension of connecting tissue which join muscle to the bones
3. Articular cartilage: these are found at the surface of the bones at joint plays the role of
cushioning by protecting them from wear and tear during movement
4. Synovial Membrane: is responsible for the secretion of synovial fluid
 5. Synovial fluid is the fluid which lubricate the joint and thus reduce shock as well as
friction between bone.
6. Capsule is the space which contain the synovial fluid

Movement of the Limbs: The skeleton can be move due to the muscular contraction. Muscle are joined
to the bone by means of tendons . Tendon transmit the pull from a muscle into the bone, antagonist
pair of muscle work against each other moving the same limb into opposite direction, thus the biceps
bend the arm while the triceps straightened. The contraction of the flexor muscle attains elongation of
the biceps. The flexor muscle antagonistic pair i.e triceps the limbs while the extensor muscle e.g triceps
straighten the arm.

FUNCTIONS OF SKELETON

1. It gives support ,shape, and rigidity

2. It protects the delicate organs of the body such as the brain, spinal cord and heart
3. It helps in movement
4. The bone marrows manufacture the red blood cells
5. It provides space for the attachment of the muscles
6. The ribs and sternum help the respiration
7. The skeleton stores some mineral salt e.g calcium and phosphorus

SUPPORTING TISSUE IN PLANTS

1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma
4. Xylem
5. Phloem

Parenchyma: It is made up of living unspecialized plant cell that are rough spherical in shape.
Parenchyma tissues are founds in the cortex of stem, phloem. Root, leaf mesophyll, storage tissue and
xylem

Function

1. It gives firmness and rigidity to the stem of herbaceous plant

2. It can store food and water
 3. They are present in the leaf mesophyll to partake in the synthesis of food.

Collenchyma: are found in the primary tissue of plants. The cell of collenchyma are living elongated and
unevenly thickened at the corner. The cell are flexible and this allow the bending and twisting strain to
which the stem , root and leaves of plant are often subjected. The collenchyma tissue are location in the
cortex of stem and in the hypo dermis just beneath epidermis.

Function

1. They provide strength and support in young growing plant part such as stem, petiole and leaf
2. They give flexibility and resilience to the plant i.e enable the plant to bend without breaking

Sclerenchyma Tissue: is composed of two type of cell namely sclerenchyma fiber and sclerenchyma
sclereid. Both of them consist of deal cell in which the cell wall are heavily thickened with deposit of
lignin. ( A lignin is a substance that provide mechanical strength). The cells of the fiber are narrow
polygonal, elongated with tapering end. The lumens are small because of the thickened wall. The s-fiber
are present in the outer region of the cortex and pericycle of stem and in the vascular tissue
Sclerenchyma slereid are heavily lignified cells which are spherical. They are present in all part of the
plant e.g cortex, pith, phloem, fruit and seed coat.

Function

1. They provide mechanical strength

2. They give flexibility to plant and prevent them from breaking easily
3. They provide strength, rigidity, hardness and support to plants

XYLEM TISSUE: The xylem tissue are found in the vascular bundle especially the plant that undergo
secondary growth. There are four types of xylem tissues namely:

Xylem tracheid

Xylem vessel

Xylem fiber

Xylem parenchyma
Of the four, first three are lignified and so provide mechanical support. Xylem tracheid are non- living
elongated tapering cell with thickened lignified wall with pith that allow the passage of water and
dissolve mineral salt.

Xylem vessel are long tubular structure that are formed by the fusion of several elongated cells which
are joined one on top of another.

Xylem fibers are similar to the sclerenchyma fiber , they have narrow elongated cell with very thick wall.

Xylem parenchyma– are similar to parenchyma tissue. They are composed of cell with large vacuoles

Function of Xylem Tissue

1. The xylem tissue provide support and shape to the plant

2. The major function of xylem tissue is to conduct water and dissolved mineral salt from the root
to the leaves.

PHLOEM TISSUE: The phloem tissue are located within the vascular bundle of all plant, be it in the root,
stem and leaf , they are made up of four type of cells namely :

I. P. sieve ( phloem sieve tube)

II. Phloem parenchyma
III. Phloem companion ccell
IV. Phloem fiber

The phloem sieve tubes– are made up of elongated row of cylindrical cell which are arranged vertically.
The cell are living and they conduct mainly manufacture food.

Phloem parenchyma– are made up of parenchyma cell which offer strength and support to plant. The
cell also help in food storage

Phloem fibers– are special cells which are concerned with strengthening of the organs in which they are
present.

Phloem companion cells– are small and short cell which are vertically elongated like the seive tube. They
assist in conduction of food substance.
FUNCTION OF THE PHLOEM

1. The general function of the phloem is to conduct manufactured food from area of the synthesis
( leaf) to the area where they are needed ( i.e stem root)
2. They also assist to provide support to the entire plant .

EPIDERMIS: The protective tissue of plant is the epidermal cell found on the leaf and stem and as
piliferous cell in the root. The epidermal layer is one cell thick with a protective cell. It prevents the inner
cell from injury, infection and water less. The epidermis cell does not contain chloroplast except in the
guard cell which possess chloroplast and therefore can photosynthesis

CORTEX: The part of the stem between the epidermis and vascular bundle of a dicotyledonous stem is
called Cortex. The cortex is made up of three tissue which are( collenchyma) on the outside, a middle(
parenchyma) and inner( endoderm). The collenchyma is about three to four times thick while the
parenchyma is made up of thin wall cell with many spaces . Both cells provide strength and support. The
endodermis is a single layer which is also referred to as starch sheet.

Sclerenchyma. This layer is found on the outer part of the vascular bundle. It consists of dead lignified
cells. It aids to strengthen the cell.

Vascular Bundles: These are found in the inner part of the stem. It consist of the xylem, phloem and
cambium. The xylem is responsible for conduction of water and dissolved minerals salt from soil to the
leaf through the root and stem. The phloem is responsible for the conduction or transfer of
manufactured food from the area of their synthesis to the other part of the plant.

Cambium is found between the phloem and xylem. The cambium cell are constantly dividing cell. This
increases the size of cell which is called secondary thickening which is responsible for the increase in size
of the trunks of many trees.

Pith: It is the central part of the stem, it is large and made up of parenchyma and extend between the
vascular tissue.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF: The internal structure of a leaf consist of three main tissues:

1. The epidermis ( the upper and lower epidermis)

2. The mesophyll consist of palisade and spongy mesophyll
3. The vascular bundle consists of mid –rib and veins

The epidermis is a single layer of closely packed cell found both on the lower and upper surface of the
leaf. The epidermis is lined with cuticle which prevent too much evaporation of water and protect the
inner cell from mechanical damage and diseases.

The mesophyll is made up of parenchyma cell. The tissue between the upper and lower epidermis is
called mesophyll. The palisade mesophyll consist of one or two layers of elongated cell closely packed.
The cell contains numerous chloroplast which are used for photosynthesis. The spongy mesophyll is
made up of irregular cells that are loosely packed with lots of intercellular air spaces, air diffuse into the
space. The carbon (iv) oxide is absorbed for photosynthesis and oxygen is used respiration. The spongy
cell contain fewer chloroplasts.

The mid- rib and vein are the vascular tissue consisting of xylem and phloem surrounded with few
parenchyma. The stomata are the opening in the epidermal layer of leaves through which air passes in
and out of the leaves, the opening and closing of the stomata are guarded by guard cell.