Sports Med

DOI 10.1007/s40279-015-0419-3

CURRENT OPINION

The Transition Period in Soccer: A Window of Opportunity

Joao Renato Silva1,2 • Joao Brito3 • Richard Akenhead1 • George P. Nassis1

Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

Abstract The aim of this paper is to describe the programs should be characterized by clear training
physiological changes that occur during the transition objectives, a low frequency of training sessions, and
period in soccer players. A secondary aim is to address simple training tools in order to facilitate compliance. The
the issue of utilizing the transition period to lay the program suggested here may constitute the ‘minimum
foundation for the succeeding season. We reviewed pub- effective dose’ to maintain or at least attenuate the decay
lished peer-reviewed studies if they met the following of endurance- and neuromuscular-related performance
three selection criteria: (1) the studied population com- parameters, as well as restore an adequate strength prole
prised adult soccer players (aged [18 years), (2) time (reduce muscle strength imbalances). This periodization
points of physiological and performance assessments were strategy may improve the ability of players to cope with
provided, and (3) appropriate statistics for the calculation the elevated training demands of pre-season training and
of effect sizes were reported. Following two selection therefore reduce the risk of injury. Moreover, this strategy
phases, 12 scientic publications were considered, will favor a more efcient development of other relevant
involving a total sample of 252 players. The transition facets of performance during the pre-competition phase
period elicits small to moderate negative changes in body (e.g., tactical organization). We contend that the transition
composition, a moderate decline in sprint performance period needs to be perceived as a ‘window of opportunity’
with and without changes of direction, and small to for players to both recover and ‘rebuild’ for the following
moderate decrements in muscle power. Detraining effects season.
are also evident for endurance-related physiological and
performance outcomes: large decrements in maximal
oxygen consumption (VO _ 2max) and time to exhaustion,
Key Points
and moderate to very large impairments have been
observed in intermittent-running performance. Off-season The transition period should be viewed as a ‘window
of opportunity’ for players to recover and to ‘rebuild’
for the following season.
Coaches should adopt a holistic view (e.g., social
& Joao Renato Silva factors, training background) when dening the
[email protected]; [email protected] individual training variables (e.g., frequency,
1 volume, intensity) and modality of the exercise
National Sports Medicine Programme, Excellence in Football
Project, Aspetar-Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine intervention.
Hospital, PO Box 29222, Doha, Qatar
An individualized training program during the off
2
Center of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention season may represent an adequate methodological
in Sport (CIFI2D), Porto, Portugal
and physiological strategy favoring a more efcient
3
Health and Performance Unit, Portuguese Football periodization of the subsequent pre-season phase.
Federation, Lisbon, Portugal

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 J. R. Silva et al.

1 Introduction training loads, and consequently affect the odds of injury. It

should be noted that rapid increases in training load (e.g.,
The soccer season is commonly planned in three distinct training load = rating of perceived exertion 9 training
periods: the pre-competition, competition, and transition duration), particularly during pre-season training, have
periods. The duration of each period is inuenced by been associated with increased risk of injury [10]. More-
intrinsic (e.g., environmental conditions) and extrinsic over, training intensity [e.g., accumulated time spent
factors (e.g., international competitions). For instance, [85 % of maximal heart rate (HRmax)] and volume (ac-
some leagues comprise two distinct cycles of pre-compe- cumulated training hours) are key variables in character-
tition, competition, and transition periods. Nevertheless, izing players’ training load and have been recently
the most frequent scenario is that after 10–11 months of associated with injury incidence in professional football
training and competition [1], players undertake a period of players [6]. Assuming complete cessation of training dur-
rest typically lasting 4–6 weeks; the so-called transition or ing the transition period, the pre-season period represents a
off-season period. triad of risk factors: high training volumes, high training
Despite the general increase of training and competition intensity, and a rapid increase in training load relative to
demands over time, the transition period is generally recent exposure [6, 11].
characterized by a complete cessation of, or substantial Despite the consensus that ‘optimal’ tness develop-
reduction in, training [2, 3]. In some cases, players might ment requires variability in training stimuli, elite players
be involved in sport activities and/or voluntary non-peri- may be persistently exposed to high training loads during
odized training. The duration of the cessation period, the pre-competition; internal and external load variables have
magnitude of decrement in training impulses, and the been reported as being constant within the different pre-
players’ tness levels will modulate the kinetics of alter- competition microcycles during pre-season periodization
ations to body composition and physiological functions; [12]. Notwithstanding these data, the transition period
ultimately, this may lead to a partial or complete loss of remains the least examined and understood phase of the
some training-induced adaptations [2, 3]. soccer season. Here, we discuss the physical, physiological,
According to Mujika et al. [2], detraining can be divided biochemical, and performance alterations that occur during
into short term (\4 weeks) and long term ([4 weeks). transition periods. We contend that the transition period
Importantly, detraining effects may inuence how players should be viewed as a window of opportunity for players to
prepare during pre-competition and potentially affect their recover and to ‘rebuild’ for the following season. A com-
performance levels in the rst matches of the competition plete cessation or near absence of training stimuli might not
period [4]. In fact, pre-competition periodization is affected be benecial or appropriate for all players. We begin by
by players’ physical performance and physiological status examining the magnitude of decrements in physical per-
at the start of the season. For instance, following signicant formance and physiological parameters observed from pre-
detraining during the transition period, additional physical to post-transition. Following this, we present evidence-
training may be required, which may be detrimental to based guidelines for a periodized transition program.
other dimensions of performance (e.g., team tactical
organization). Furthermore, the pre-competition period is
commonly characterized by a high frequency of training 2 Methods
sessions. Players are typically exposed to friendly games
after a short period of returning to training (7–10 days) and 2.1 Search Strategy: Databases and Inclusion
are subjected to more rapid increases in training load Criteria
compared with other periods [5, 6]. Moreover, clubs’
commercial obligations may see many players travelling We selected studies in two consecutive screening phases.
and competing frequently within the pre-season, limiting The rst phase consisted of identifying articles through a
structured training and recovery opportunities within this systematic search using the US National Library of Med-
important period; all these factors contribute to substan- icine (PubMed), MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus databases.
tially increasing the psychological and physiological stress Literature searches comprised scientic publications from
of the pre-season period [7–9]. The development of fatigue April 2000 to January 2015. The following keywords were
during such intensied phases impacts players’ responses used in combination: ‘elite soccer’, ‘professional soccer’,
to training demands (e.g., how players understand the ‘highly trained players’, ‘seasonal alterations’, ‘perfor-
tactical tasks within the global team organization). More- mance analysis’, ‘soccer physiology’, ‘football’, ‘detrain-
over, excessive fatigue may also compromise the capacity ing’, and ‘training cessation’. We further searched the
of players to tolerate and recover from the typically higher relevant literature using the ‘related citations’ function of

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Detraining in Soccer

PubMed and by scanning reference lists. In the second 3.2 Neuromuscular Performance
phase, we reviewed published peer-reviewed studies if they
met the following three selection criteria: (1) the studied In terms of long-term neuromuscular detraining, trivial to
population comprised adult soccer players (aged small changes in force production at low and moderate
[18 years), (2) time points of physiological and perfor- angular velocities occur after 4 weeks of detraining
mance assessments were provided, and (3) appropriate (30 min jogging at approximately 60 % HRmax, three times
statistics for the calculation of effect sizes were reported. a week) in professional players [21]. Nevertheless, the
Following the two selection phases, 12 scientic publica- deleterious effects may be more pronounced at higher
tions (ten journal articles, one PhD thesis, and one con- shortening velocities (60° s-1 and 180° s-1; PC = 0.1 %
ference communication) were considered, involving a total and ES = 0.01 vs. PC = –3.4 % and ES = -0.3, respec-
sample of 252 adult soccer players. tively) [21]. This position is further supported when con-
sidering other reports tracking seasonal alterations in force
2.2 Data Extraction and Presentation production capacity of professional players [22]. Trivial
changes in jumping ability evaluated by the counter-
Data related to the players’ physiological parameters movement and squat jump tests have also been reported
(e.g., % body fat) and performance parameters (e.g., soc- (PC = -0.3 % and ES = -0.03 vs. PC = 1 % and
cer-specic endurance tests and jump tests) were extracted ES = 0.1, respectively) [21]. Nevertheless, 6–8 weeks of
and presented as the percentage of change (PC) = (post- detraining was associated with moderate reductions in
test mean - pretest mean)/pretest mean 9 100. We countermovement jump (PC = -4.6 to -6.3 %; ES =
assessed the magnitude of the changes using effect sizes -0.5 to -0.8) and squat jump height (PC = -6.1 to
(ES) = (post-test mean - pretest mean)/pretest standard -7.1 %; ES = -0.7 to -0.9) in professional players [17].
deviation [13]. We obtained 52 ESs, threshold values for Short distance (10-m sprint time: PC = 2.9 %;
which were ‘trivial’ (\0.2), ‘small’ (0.2–0.6), ‘moderate’ ES = 0.7–0.8; 20-m sprint time: PC = 1.3–1.7 %,
(0.6–1.2), ‘large’ (1.2–2.0), and ‘very large’ ([2.0) [14]. ES = 0.7–0.8) [17] and long-distance sprint performance
(50-m sprint time: PC = 7.4 %, ES = 1.0) [18] seem to be
moderately impaired after 3–6 weeks of detraining in
3 Physiological and Performance Changes professional players. Similar trends were also observed in
semi-professional players after 8 weeks’ detraining (15-m
3.1 Body Composition sprint time: PC = 3.3 %; ES = 0.9) [19]. Additionally,
assessment of change of direction ability using the Illinois
It is common that the off-season break negatively inu- agility test revealed moderate performance declines in
ences players’ body composition. Trivial to small increases semi-professional players (PC = 1.6 %; ES = 0.7) [19].
in the percentage of body fat (%BF) in professional
(PC = 0.8–3.0 %; ES = 0.2–0.5; Fig. 1) [15–18] and in
semi-professional (PC = 0.6 %; ES = 0.2) [19] players 3.3 Aerobic Fitness
have been reported. Moreover, moderate decreases in lean
body mass (LBM; PC = -3 %; ES = -0.5) [15] and Detraining during the off-season period is also detrimental
large decrements in fat-free mass (FFM) were detected in to other physiological and performance measures (Fig. 1).
professional players (PC = -6.6 %; ES = -1.3) [20]. The transition period leads to a decrease in maximal oxy-
gen consumption (VO _ 2max; PC = -3.5 to -6.1 %;
However, the ability of off-season training programs to
prevent these changes has received little attention. A ES = -0.5 to -3.0) [16, 17, 19, 23]. Sotiropoulos et al.
4-week off-season multi-component training program [16] reported that a 4-week transition period training pro-
comprising 22 sessions of general strength training and gram undertaken by professional players did not prevent
gymnastic exercises, low-intensity running, and stretching decreases in VO_ 2max. However, players who did not per-
routines might prevent negative changes in body compo- form any structured training during the transition period
sition compared with no structured training program [16]. had a greater decline in VO_ 2max than those who followed
Body mass increased from 78.1 ± 4.8 to 78.7 ± 5.0 kg the structured training (PC = -6.1 % and ES = -1.4 vs.
(PC = 0.8 %; ES = 0.1) in the training group, but greater PC = -1.4 % and ES = -0.3, respectively). In contrast,
increases were detected in the control group (from Slettalokken et al. [24] recently showed that the off-season
76.5 ± 2.7 to 77.9 ± 2.8 kg; PC = 1.9 %; ES = 0.5) decline in aerobic tness can be prevented by adding a low-
[16]. Similarly, %BF increased by 0.3 % (ES = 0.2) in the frequency high-intensity training stimulus (ve bouts
training group and by 0.8 % (ES = 0.5) in the control of 4 min at 87–97 % of peak heart rate) during a 6-week
group [16]. off-season period in semi-professional players. One

123
 J. R. Silva et al.

Fig. 1 a The effect of

detraining (3–8 weeks)
presented as mean percentage of
change and/or average weighted
mean percentage of change. b
Overall effect sizes (mean) for
body mass (BM) [15–17];
percentage body fat (%BF) [15–
17, 19]; lean body mass (LBM)
[15, 20]; 10-m [17], 15-m [19],
20-m [17], and 50-m sprint
times (T10–T50) [18]; change
of direction ability (COD) [19];
countermovement jump without
(CMJ) [17, 21] and with arm-
swing (CMJWAS) [19]; squat
jump (SJ) [17, 21]; maximal
oxygen consumption (VO _ 2max)
[16, 17, 19, 23]; time to
exhaustion (TE) [23]; Yo–Yo
Intermittent Recovery Test—
level 2 (YYIR2) [28]; Yo–Yo
Intermittent Endurance Test—
Level 2 (YYIE2) [29]

high-intensity training (HIT) session every second week increased heart rate at running speeds of 10, 14, and
(PC = 1 %, ES = 0.1) or one HIT session per week 17 kmh-1 (PC = 6.1 % and ES = 2.0; PC = 4.4 % and
(PC = -2 %, ES = -0.6) effectively prevented a signif- ES = 1.4; and PC = 2.8 % and ES = 1.7, respectively).
_ 2max in soccer players [24]. Off-season
icant decrease in VO Therefore, coaches should expect an altered external:
deconditioning is also reected in decreased time to internal load ratio when players return to training, which
exhaustion during incremental tests (PC = -3.9 %; has obvious consequences in the high-loading phase of pre-
ES = -1.2) [23], as well as a reduced ability to perform at competition (e.g., reduced economy, increased fatigue and
sub-maximal intensity. Christensen et al. [25] observed that psychophysiological responses to a given training load).
only 2 weeks of inactivity during the off-season period For this purpose, HIT impulses during the off-season
resulted in lower VO_ 2 kinetics (at 75 % maximal aerobic period might be needed to counteract decrements in soccer-
speed) as evidenced by an increased time constant (s) specic tness. Long-term detraining impairs performance
(PC = 10.7 %; ES = 0.9). This general attenuation of the during soccer-specic endurance tests such as the Yo–Yo
_ 2 response dynamic reduces the contribution of oxida-
VO Intermittent Recovery Test—level 2 (YYIR2, PC =
tive phosphorylation for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 10.7 %; ES = -2.2) [28] and the Yo–Yo Intermittent
resynthesis [26] and increases the accumulation of fatigue- Endurance Test—level 2 (YYIE2, PC = 28 %; ES =
related metabolites (H? and Pi) [27]. In addition, Mohr -1.0) [29]. In fact, a short-term 2-week detraining period
et al. [23] observed that the off-season resulted in an signicantly impaired YYIR2 performance (PC = -23 %,

123
Detraining in Soccer

ES = -1.2) and total time to perform a repeated sprint Biochemical monitoring has shown that long-term
(RS) test (10 9 20 m/15-s recovery; PC = 2.1 %; detraining resulted in lower concentrations of biomarkers
ES = 0.7) [25]. This decreased ability to perform high- to of tissue damage (e.g., creatine kinase, malondialdehyde)
very high-intensity exercise (e.g., RS) may result from the [37]. This may not be surprising given that the kinetics of
aforementioned impairments in some neuromuscular (e.g., these bio-markers have been associated with the metabolic
sprint speed) and endurance determinants of high-intensity and mechanical demands associated with eccentric muscle
exercise (e.g., VO_ 2 kinetics) [30]. Given the established contractions, ischemia-reperfusion events during power-
associations between physical match performance and Yo– related actions, excessive trauma (e.g., contact actions),
Yo tests, it is assumed that the reduction in Yo–Yo test and increased VO _ 2, which are all typical of soccer
performance translates into lower match running perfor- activities. No changes in C-reactive protein have been
mance [31]. reported [15, 37], but increases in creatinine, granulo-
The benets of performing an off-season organized cytes, total interleukin-8, serum nitrate, ferritin, and
training plan is indirectly supported by a study by Boullosa bilirubin have been reported during the off-season phase
et al. [32]. During the nal 5 weeks of the transition period, [15]. This apparent increase in catabolism observed after
after 18 days’ rest, players performed 21 individualized long-term detraining periods [15] is also partially sup-
conditioning sessions (strength, endurance, and proprio- ported by an increase in cortisol levels and a decrease in
ceptive-based exercises). After 8 weeks of pre-season testosterone/cortisol ratio during the off-season [37].
training, no pre- to post-preseason improvements were Accordingly, Reinke et al. [15] observed that the transi-
observed in either specic (YYIR1: 2475 vs. 2600 m; tion period induced signicant decrements in tissue-level
PC = 5.1 %; ES = 0.3) and non-soccer-specic [maximal stress, but that periods longer than 4 weeks may be
aerobic speed (MAS); 18.1 vs. 18.2 kmh-1; PC = 0.6 %; required before full recovery is achieved. Nevertheless,
ES = 0.1) endurance performance. Therefore, it can be training exposure throughout the off-season was not
concluded that organized, individualized conditioning ses- recorded, particularly during the nal weeks of the tran-
sions were as key to enabling players to maintain their ability sition period. Thus, a stress reaction related to physical
to perform intermittent endurance exercise as their physio- loads before the start of pre-season cannot be excluded as
_ 2max and running economy). In
logical determinants (e.g., VO a factor that may have inuenced results [37]. However,
fact, players started the season with high levels of soccer- players with higher match exposure during the season
specic endurance (YYIR1, 2475 ± 421 m); pre-season (starters vs. non-starters) may be prone to higher catabolic
values of professional players have been reported to range states as evidenced by the kinetics of hormonal-related
from 1510 to 2000 m [33–35] and from 15.9 to 16.1 kmh-1 parameters (increased cortisol) and their association with
[35, 36] for YYIR1 and MAS, respectively. match exposure [4, 37]. Being so, this further reinforces
the need for a holistic approach when dening the indi-
vidual training variables of the exercise intervention (e.g.,
4 Biochemical Changes frequency and intensity).
Long-term detraining did not affect sex steroid levels
Detraining can lead to changes in the cellular and blood at rest. Non-signicant changes have been reported in
biochemical milieu. Short-term detraining (2 weeks) sex steroid concentration, as total testosterone [17, 37],
decreased muscle oxidative capacity, via reduced muscle free testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate, D4-an-
pyruvate dehydrogenase activity (17 %), and maximal drostenedione, estradiol, luteinizing hormone, follicle-
activities of citrate synthase (12 %) and 3-hydroxyacyl- stimulating hormone, and prolactin [17]. However, it is
CoA (18 %) [25]. A decrease in muscle oxidative capacity clear that the scarcity of studies examining the multi-fac-
may have a detrimental effect on players’ ability to perform torial nature of physiology and performance hamper
and recover from intense exercise via reduction in phos- extensive conclusions on the biochemical changes
phocreatine (PCr) resynthesis rate and increasing the con- observed during transition periods. Moreover, difculties
tribution from anaerobic sources [25–27, 30]. Alterations in interpreting the meaningfulness of alterations in biological
blood redox states indicative of a decrease in antioxidant markers due to the complexity of the network of biological
status capacity have also been observed; a decrease in the interactions (e.g., spontaneous oscillations) and the lack of
rst line of antioxidant enzymatic defense against super- clear control of the activity of players during transition
oxide radicals (superoxide dismutase activity) has also been periods all increase the complexity of drawing precise
reported after a 6-week off-season period [37]. conclusions.

123
 J. R. Silva et al.

5 How to Alleviate the Changes Due to Reduced sessions that combine high metabolic requirements from
Training the O2 transport and utilization systems with a substantial
anaerobic glycolytic contribution whilst also considering
As previously discussed, the transition period is commonly the desired neuromuscular load. Individualized HIT ses-
devoted to recovery from the physiological and psycho- sions should be prioritized, and these sessions should take
logical stress of the competitive season [37, 38]. Therefore, into account the physiological and neuromuscular prole of
off-season programs should be characterized by clear each player since the acute impact of HIT is highly variable
training objectives, a low frequency of training sessions, and population dependent (age, sex, training status, and
and simple training tools in order to increase compliance. background) [49]. Moreover, the practitioner should con-
The practitioner should adopt a holistic view (e.g., social sider that manipulation of the different HIT variables (e.g.,
factors, family obligations, a need for mental regeneration) bout duration and intensity and duration of recovery,
when dening the individual training variables (e.g., fre- number of intervals) will affect the acute physiological
quency, volume, intensity) and modalities of the exercise responses and so model the short- to long-term training
intervention. Player training background, accumulated adaptations [57].
training and match exposure, injury history, player’s per- The second training session should focus on muscle
sonality and preferences, and off-season length, among strength and power. A combination of resistance exercises,
others, are all factors that must be carefully considered plyometric, and sport-specic strength exercises (e.g.,
during training prescription. The best exercise intervention accelerations and deceleration drills) is recommended to
is one that ts a player’s specic needs. At the end of the target a broad range of the force–velocity spectrum [58].
season, individual members within a squad will likely The aim is to maintain the essential aspects of intra- and
occupy a broad range of different physical and physio- inter-muscular coordination during soccer-specic motor
logical states (e.g., from detraining to over-reaching) [4, tasks where force production is a key factor. As an
38–44]. Therefore, individualized training programs may example, the injury-prevention training program proposed
be warranted, with consideration of the aforementioned by the Fédération Internationale de Football Association
factors. As a practical guideline, to avoid a substantial (FIFA) Medical Assessment and Research Centre, the
decrement in endurance- and neuromuscular-related per- ‘11?’, may represent a practical and feasible strategy [59,
formance, we believe that off-season structured training 60]. It is easy to implement, requiring only simple tools and
programs should involve a minimum of two sessions per few resources. The program is focused on injury preven-
week, separated by 48–72 h [16, 24, 45, 46]. We believe tion, but we believe the ‘11?’ has the necessary compo-
that the design presented here constitutes a ‘minimal nents to also serve as a detraining prevention program. We
effective dose’ to allow maintenance, or a reduced decay of recommend adding a multi-joint exercise such as the squat
physical and physiological features relevant to football [e.g., [80–95 % 1 repetition maximum (1RM), 3–4 sets,
performance [16, 24, 45, 46]. 4–8 reps] to the ‘11?’ training program to address the
Our proposal includes one HIT session per week (e.g., basic requirements of the high-force low-velocity rela-
5 9 4 mins at 87–97 % peak heart rate) [24]. Distinct HIT tionship of the neuromuscular system. The plyometric
formats have been shown as a time-efcient stimulus; section of the ‘11?’ will provide a complementary stim-
positive effects on cardiopulmonary and neuromuscular ulus to address other parts of the force–velocity spectrum
function can be achieved with a low volume of training (low-force high-velocity relationship). This training struc-
[47–50]. Moreover, evidence suggest that a lower volume ture may partially counteract the reported negative effects
of high-intensity exercise is required to maintain key that long-term detraining (4 weeks) has on some morpho-
physiological features (VO_ 2max) [51]. In addition, the hor- logical (muscle cross-sectional area) and mechanical fac-
monal responses associated with low-volume HIT (e.g., tors (tendon stiffness), which are important in force
testosterone, androstanediol glucuronide, growth hormone) production and application [61]. We believe this design
favors the anabolic processes to a greater degree than high- may reduce the observed detraining effect in important
volume protocols [52–56] and so may at least partly muscle power abilities (e.g., sprint ability). Interestingly,
counteract the negative changes in body composition pro- one strength training session per week involving squats
le that occur during the transition period (e.g., increa- (3 9 4RM) during the competition period may be suf-
sed %BF and decreased LBM). cient to maintain strength, jump, and sprint performance in
The selection of the off-season HIT session should professional players [45]. However, a lower training
consider an acute physiological response/strain effect [49]. stimulus (single set vs. multiple sets) may also be effective
Overall, the physical and physiological changes observed for maintaining strength levels during the initial stage of
during the transition period (Fig. 1) recommend HIT the transition period [62, 63]. Again, the practitioner must

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Detraining in Soccer

consider each player (e.g., single set programs prescribed aerobic tness [72]. Indeed, the role of the different
for players exposed to high training loads at the end of the training variables in the interference effect should be
season). Nevertheless, we believe the relatively high neu- considered [73]. The frequency, duration, and volume of
romuscular stress imposed during training sessions and endurance training are key determinants of the develop-
games throughout the competitive season also provides a ment and maintenance of strength and power [74, 75]. This
meaningful stimulus and contributes to preserving a play- provides support for the adoption of an HIT format for the
er’s neuromuscular performance [39, 64]. This supports our purposes of maintaining endurance qualities due to the low
proposal of combining HIT sessions with strength/power frequency and volume of training required. Moreover,
training as a strategy to maintain high neuromuscular strength, power, and HIT are characterized by brief and
involvement during the transition period. intense muscle contractions [58] and provide synergistic
The transition period also represents a window of contributions to the overall training stimulus [74].
opportunity to intervene on modiable risk factors associ- We recommend that the scientic community engage in
ated with injury occurrence. In terms of injury prevention, active collaboration with applied practitioners and coaches
off-season training should focus on reducing the risk of the to examine in detail the periodization during the transition
most common injuries (e.g., hamstring strains). Players period. For instance, which assessments of pre- and post-
with untreated strength imbalances may be four- to vefold transition adaptation are the most useful: physical, physio-
more susceptible to sustaining a hamstring injury than logical, psychological, or a combination [76–78]? Moreover,
players showing normal strength proles [65], therefore examining the effect of different off-season periodization
off-season interventions should target the restoration of programs on subsequent injury incidence, match perfor-
normal strength proles. Eccentric muscle loading has been mance, physical tness, and psychometric markers
recommended for the prevention of hamstring injuries [66, throughout the season is warranted. We believe that
67]. Training interventions might have a time-dependent addressing these questions may help practitioners develop
effect on promoting eccentric strength and reducing the more effective periodization models in the future, and ulti-
negative inuence of fatigue observed during matches [68]. mately result in tangible benets for players and teams.
Although scarcely investigated [69], we believe that vari-
ation is key: strength exercises and proprioception exer-
cises should be performed at both the start and the end of 6 Conclusion
training sessions to expose players to non-fatigued and
fatigued conditions, respectively. This might help condi- Overall, detraining during the transition period results in
tion players to cope with high-intensity periods in the nal meaningful performance impairments in a range of physi-
stages of the training sessions and/or friendly matches ological and performance measures. Both short- and long-
during pre-season. Similarly, although the mechanisms of term detraining leads to small-to-moderate negative chan-
adaptation are currently not fully understood, eccentric ges in body composition prole and moderate changes in
exercise elicits a protective adaptation often referred to as sprint ability. In addition, small-to-moderate decrements in
the ‘repeated-bout effect’. Inducing this protective effect muscle power might occur. The effect of detraining may be
via eccentric exercise might reduce the magnitude of more evident in the ability to produce force at high angular
subsequent muscle soreness that is frequently reported velocities. Dynamic, multi-joint actions can be affected,
during the pre-competition period. As well as the clear primarily those requiring high levels of motor coordination.
physiological benets, this approach may also provide The detraining effects are also extended to endurance-
psychological benets such as a reduced perception of related physiological and performance outcomes. Large
effort and increased perceived tolerance and so favor reductions in VO_ 2max and time to exhaustion, and moderate
players’ commitment during training practices [70, 71]. to very large impairments in soccer-specic endurance,
An appropriate off-season training program may con- have been described. The resultant reductions in training
stitute, at least in part, a superior methodological and status may negatively affect periodization during the pre-
physiological strategy favoring a more efcient periodiza- season, compromising performance levels during the initial
tion of the subsequent pre-season phase. For instance, stages of the competition phase.
given the detrimental effect of high endurance loading on We believe that the transition period needs to be per-
power development, a periodized program during the ceived as a window of opportunity for players to recover
transition period may avoid or reduce the interference and ‘rebuild’ for the start of the following season. This
effect between power and endurance adaptations during does not necessarily imply a complete or near cessation of
pre-season in professional players, allowing practitioners to training. On the contrary, cessation of training may nega-
focus more on a certain component of a player’s perfor- tively impact performance and increase susceptibility to
mance (e.g., muscle power) due to a greater ‘baseline’ of injury when restarting structured training. We recommend

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that clubs, coaches, and clinical departments should con- professional soccer players during the transition period.
sider the points discussed when prescribing individualized J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(6):1697–703.
17. Koundourakis NE, Androulakis NE, Malliaraki N, et al. Dis-
training programs for the transition period. crepancy between exercise performance, body composition, and
sex steroid response after a six-week detraining period in pro-
Compliance with Ethical Standards fessional soccer players. PLoS One. 2014;9(2):e87803.
18. Ostojic S. Seasonal alterations in body composition and sprint
Funding No sources of funding were used to assist in the prepa- performance of elite soccer players. J Exerc Physiol Online.
ration of this article. 2003;6(3):24–7.
19. Caldwell BP, Peters DM. Seasonal variation in physiological
Conicts of interest Joao Renato Silva, Joao Brito, Richard tness of a semiprofessional soccer team. J Strength Cond Res.
Akenhead, and George P. Nassis declare that they have no conicts of 2009;23(5):1370–7.
interest relevant to the content of this review. 20. D’Ascenzi F, Pelliccia A, Cameli M, et al. Dynamic changes in left
ventricular mass and in fat-free mass in top-level athletes during the
competitive season. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2015;22(1):127–34.
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