CHAPTER 3

CASTING

Department of Mechatronics
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EIU - 2023
 OUTLINES

1. Fundamentals of metal casting

2. Sand casting
3. Investment casting
4. Permanent mold casting
5. Die casting
6. Casting equipment
7. Defect of casting
8. Glassworking

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 OUTCOMES

At the end of this section, you should be able to Understand:

1. Fundamentals of metal casting

2. Types and processes of metal casting
3. Casting equipment
4. Casting defects
5. Shaping Glass

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 1. Fundamentals

Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by

gravity or other force into a mold where it solidifies in the
shape of the mold cavity

 Casting = melt metal  pour into mold  cool and solidify

 Casting: One of the oldest shaping processes

 Casting: Shapes or ingot
 Classification:
Pour: Gravity
Force (die casting)
Mold: Expendable mold (open or closed Mold)
Permanent mold

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 1. Fundamentals

Expendable mold:
Open Mold: (a)
Closed Mold: (b)
Fig source: [2]

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 1. Fundamentals

 Advantages:
 Create complex parts geometries: internal and external shapes
 Produce net shape and near net shape
 Produce very large parts: more than 100 tons
 Performed on any metal which can melt
 Performed on polymers and ceramics
 Apply for mass production
 Disadvantage:
 Poor dimensional accuracy
 Surface finish
 Safety hazards
 Environmental problems

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 Net shapes

Near net shapes

1. Fundamentals

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 1. Fundamentals

 Heating: Metal must be heated above its melting point

𝒔 𝒎 𝟎 𝒇 𝒍 𝑷 𝒎

Where H = total heat required to raise the temperature of the metal to

the pouring temperature, J (Btu);
 = Density; g/cm3 (lbm/in3) ;
Cs = Weight specific heat for the solid metal, J/gC (Btu/lbmF);
Tm = Melting temperature of the metal, oC (oF);
To = Starting temperature—usually ambient, oC (oF);
Hf = Heat of fusion, J/g (Btu/lbm);
Cl = Weight specific heat of the liquid metal, J/gC (Btu/lbmF);
Tp = Pouring temperature, oC (oF);
and V = Volume of metal being heated, cm3 (in3).

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 1. Fundamentals

Ex: Define heat required to manufacture an grey iron pulley (m= 1 kg) by casting

𝑯 = 𝝆𝑽 𝑪𝒔 𝑻𝒎 − 𝑻𝟎 + 𝑯𝒇 + 𝑪𝒍 𝑻𝑷 − 𝑻𝒎

 = Density; g/cm3 = 7,6

Cs = Weight specific heat for the solid metal, J/gC = 0.46
Tm = Melting temperature of the metal, oC = 1 200
To = Starting temperature—usually ambient, oC = 30
Hf = Heat of fusion, J/g = 270
Cl = Weight specific heat of the liquid metal, J/gC = 0.82
(engineeringtoolbox)
Tp = Pouring temperature, oC = Tm + 100 = 1 300
and V = Volume of metal being heated, cm3 = 132
Coal: 29,6 MJ/kg Coal: 30 g
𝑯 = 𝟖𝟗𝟑 𝟎𝟒𝟖 𝑱 = 𝟎, 𝟗 𝑴𝑱 Diesel: 21 g
Diesel: 42 MJ/kg
1 kW = 36 MJ Electric: 25 W
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 1. Fundamentals

Ex: Define heat required to manufacture an aluminum rim (m= 1.8 kg) by casting:

Material: Aluminum 6061, wrought, T451

𝒔 𝒎 𝟎 𝒇 𝒍 𝑷 𝒎

 = Density; g/cm3 (lbm/in3) = 2,72 g/cm3

Cs = Weight specific heat for the solid metal, J/gC (Btu/lbmF) = 0,97
Tm = Melting temperature of the metal, oC (oF) = 652
To = Starting temperature—usually ambient, oC (oF) = 30
Hf = Heat of fusion, J/g (Btu/lbm) = 393
Cl = Weight specific heat of the liquid metal, J/gC (Btu/lbmF) = 1.18
Tp = Pouring temperature, oC (oF) = 652 + 100 = 752
and V = Volume of metal being heated, cm3 (in3) = 661

𝑯 = 𝟐 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑱 = 𝟐 𝑴𝑱
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 1. Fundamentals

 Pouring: Metal must flow into all regions of the mold before
solidifying

Factors effecting:

- Pouring temperature
Supper heat = Pouring temperature – Freezing temperature

- Pouring rate
Too slow = Metal will chill and freeze before filling into the cavity
Too high = Turbulence

- Turbulence
More metal oxides, mold erosion, low quality

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 1. Fundamentals

 Fluidity of molten metal: Capability of a metal to flow into and fill the
mold before freezing
Factors effecting:

• Pouring temperature
• Viscosity of liquid metal
• Heat transfer surrounding
• Mold
Fig source: [2]

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 1. Fundamentals

 Cooling and Solidification:

After pouring into the mold, the molten metal cools and solidifies.
Classification
Fig source: [2]

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 Cooling and Solidification

Pure metals:
Fig source: [2]

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 Cooling and Solidification

Most alloys:
Fig source: [2]

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 Cooling and Solidification

Most alloys:
Fig source: [2]

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 Cooling and Solidification

Solidification time = The time required for the casting to solidify after pouring

Chvorinov’s rule:

Where:
- TTS = Total solidification time, min
- V = Volume of the casting, cm3
- A = Surface of the casting, cm2
- n = an exponent (usually n = 2)
- Cm = mold constant, min/cm2

Note: Chvorinov’s rule can be used to compute the size of the riser that will
Fig source: [2]

satisfy this requirement

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 Cooling and Solidification

Example: Riser design using Chvorinov’s rule

A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mold. The casting itself is
a steel rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5 cm x 12.5 cm x 2.0 cm. Previous
observations have indicated that the total solidification time (TTS) for this casting
= 1.6 min. The cylinder for the riser will have a diameter-to-height ratio = 1.0.
Determine the dimensions of the riser so that its TTS = 2.0 min.

Summary:
- TTS of casting (part) = 1.6 min
- TTS of riser = 2.0 min
- Dimensions of part = L x W x H = 7.5 x 12.5 x 2.0 (cm) 𝑉
𝑇 =𝐶
𝐴
- Dimensions of riser: D/H = 1
Fig source: [2]

- n=2
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 Cooling and Solidification

Example:
- Vp = 7.5*12.5*2 = 187.5 cm3 𝑇 =𝐶
𝑉
→𝐶 =
𝑇
𝐴 𝑉
- Ap = 287.5 cm2 𝐴
 Cm (of part) = 3.26 min/cm2

- Vr = D2H/4 = D3/4 (D=H)

- Ar = ((D2)/4)*2 + *D*H = 3*D2/2
 V/A = D/6
 TTS (of riser) = 2
 D (of riser) = 4.7 cm
 H (of riser) = 4.7 cm
Fig source: [2]

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 Cooling and Solidification

Eutectic alloys:
Pb: 327 oC
Sn: 232 oC

Eu: 183 oC
Fig source: [2]

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 Cooling and Solidification

Grain structure

(a): Pure metals

(b): Alloys

(c): structure obtained

by using nucleating
agents
Fig source: [1]

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 Cooling and Solidification

Effect of cooling rate

- Slow cooling rates (102 K/s) or long local solidification times: Coarse
dendritic structures with large spacing between dendrite arms.
- Higher cooling rates (104 K/s): The structure becomes finer with smaller
dendrite arm spacing.
- Still higher cooling rates (106 to 108 K/s): The structures developed are
amorphous
Fig source: [1]

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 1. Fundamentals

Shrinkage
Fig source: [2]

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Fig source: [2]
Shrinkage

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 2. Sand Casting

Sand casting = sand – mold casting, consists of pouring molten into a sand
mold. Sand casting is used the most widely casting: nearly all casting alloys,
small or large size parts
Chapter contents:
 Patterns and cores
 Molds
 The casting operation

An air compression
frame (680 kg)
Fig source: [2]

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 2. Sand Casting

Steps in production sequence in Sand casting

Fig source: [2]

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 2. Sand Casting

Patterns and Cores:

Sand casting require patterns, a full-sized model of the part, enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the final casting

Patterns: make from wood, plastic, metal… Wood: easy to make shape

Many kinds of Patterns

Fig source: [2]

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 2. Sand Casting

Patterns: External shapes

Cores: Internal shapes
Support core: Chaplets (made higher temperature melting than casting metal)
Fig source: [2]

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 2. Sand Casting

Molds and mold making

Materials: 90% Sand (silica SiO2) + 3% water + 7% Clay
- Green – sand molds: contain moisture at the time pouring
- Dry – sand mold: using organic binders rather than clay and baked at 200
– 320 oC
- Skin – dried mold: Combine green – sand mold and dry – sand mold
(depth from 10 – 25 mm)

Making mold and casting operation videos

1. Casting an Aluminium Slingshot

2. Metal Casting at Home Part 10
3. Machining the Model Stickney Engine with Lathe and Mill

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 Mold making

Shell molding
Fig source: [2]

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 Mold making

Vacuum molding
Fig source: [2]

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 3. Investment Casting

Investment casting:
Patterns made of
wax is coated with a
refractory material
to make the mold,
after which the wax
is melted away prior
to pouring the
molten metal.
Fig source: [2]

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 3. Investment Casting

Foam pattern:

Investment video:
Casting A Solid Copper Apple
Fig source: [2]

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 4. Permanent Casting

Permanent mold casting: Permanent-mold casting uses a metal mold

 Mold material: Steel or cast iron.
 Construction: Two sections for easy, precise opening and closing.
 Advantages: Accurate dimensions, good surface finish and rapid solidification
 Disadvantages: limited to metals of lower melting points

High pouring temperature (1500 oC)  Mold made of refractory materials

(Ceramics)
Cores made of metals

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 4. Permanent Casting

Step in permanent mold casting:

1 Movies
Fig source: [2]

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 4. Permanent Casting

Low pressure permanent mold casting:

Fig source: [2]

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 5. Die Casting

High pressure permanent mold casting: Die Casting

Pressure: Is 7 to 350 MPa and maintained during solidification.
Molds: Called dies.
Movie
Fig source: [2]

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 5. Die Casting

Steps die casting

operation:
Fig source: [2]

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 5. Die Casting

Steps die casting operation:

Movie
Fig source: [2]

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 Centrifugal casting

Centrifugal casting: mold is rotated at high speed so that centrifugal force

distributes the molten metal to the outer regions of the die cavity.
Includes: True centrifugal casting, semi-centrifugal casting, and centrifuge
casting.
 True centrifugal casting
Fig source: [2]

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 Centrifugal casting

 Semi centrifugal casting

Fig source: [2]

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 Centrifugal casting

 Centrifuge casting
Fig source: [2]

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 6. Casting Equipment

 Furnaces:
Types of furnaces:
1. Cupolas
2. Direct fuel-fired furnaces
3. Crucible furnaces
4. Electric-arc furnaces
5. Induction furnaces

Selection furnace type depends on: Casting alloy; melting and pouring
temperatures; capacity requirements of the furnace; costs of investment,
operation, and maintenance; and environmental pollution considerations.

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 6. Casting Equipment

1. Cupolas:
Fuel: Coke
Only for melting cast iron
Fig source: [2]

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 6. Casting Equipment

2. Direct fuel – fired furnaces

Fuel: Natural gas
General for melting Nonferrous metals: Cooper, Aluminum
3. Crucible furnaces = Indirect fuel – fired furnaces
Fuel: Oil, Gas, Coal
for melting Nonferrous metals: Bronze, Brass, Alloys of Zinc and Aluminum
Fig source: [2]

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 6. Casting Equipment

4. Electric arc furnaces

Fuel: Electric
General for melting Steel
High capacity 25 – 50 Tons
Fig source: [2]

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 6. Casting Equipment

5. Induction furnaces
Fuel: Electric
High quality and purity
General for melting Steel, Cast iron, Aluminum alloys…
Fig source: [2]

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 6. Casting Equipment

Pouring
Fig source: [2]

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 7. Casting quality

Defects: Six basic categories of casting defects

a. Misruns b. Cold Shuts c. Cold shots d. Shrinkage cavity
e. Microporosity f. Hot tearing
Fig source: [2]

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 7. Casting quality

Defects of Sand casting

a. Sand blow b. Pinholes c. Sand wash d. Scabs e. Penetration
f. Mold shift g. Core shift h. Mold crack
Fig source: [2]

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 7. Casting quality

Defects of Sand casting

a. Sand blow b. Pinholes c. Sand wash
Fig source: Internet

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 7. Casting quality

Defects of Sand casting

d. Scabs e. Penetration

h. Mold crack
Fig source: Internet

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 8. Glassworking

 Raw materials preparation and melting

Raw materials: Sand (0.1 – 0.6 mm), Na2O, CaO, K2O (Called Charge)

 Melting furnaces: (Melting point of glass: 1500 – 1600 oC)

 Pot furnaces: Low capacity
 Day tank: Larger capacity
 Continuous tank furnaces: For high production
Fig source: [2]

 Electric furnaces: For high production

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 8. Glassworking

 Shaping processes
• Spinning = centrifugal casting
Fig source: [2]

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 8. Glassworking

• Pressing
Fig source: [2]

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 8. Glassworking

• Pressing – and – Blowing

Fig source: [2]

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 8. Glassworking

• Blowing
Fig source: [2]

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 8. Glassworking

 Shaping of Flat
• Rolling of Flat plate

• Floating
Fig source: [2]

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 8. Glassworking

 Shaping of Tubes
• Drawing of Glass Tubes
Fig source: [2]

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 8. Glassworking

• Forming of Glass Fibers

How to make Fiber glass

Fig source: [2]

How to make fiber tube

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