Assi. Prof.

MANESH PATEL
PRESIDENT INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER APPLICAION COLLEGE, SHAYONA CAMPUS, A’BAD

BCA SEM: 3 Integrated Circuits CO

Integrated Circuits
 An integrated circuit (IC) is manufactured using silicon
material and mounted in a ceramic or plastic container
(known as Chip).
 The basic components of an IC consist of electronic
circuits for the digital gates.
 The various gates are interconnected inside an IC to
form the required circuit.
 Integrated circuit (IC), also called microelectronic circuit,
 microchip, or chip, an assembly of
electronic components, fabricated as a single unit,
in which miniaturized active devices (e.g., transistors and diodes)
and passive devices (e.g., capacitors and resistors) and their interconnections are built up on
a thin substrate of semiconductor material (typically silicon).

The following categories can broadly classify an Integrated Circuit (IC):

SSI (Small Scale Integration Devices)

 These type of devices contain several independent gates in a single package.
 The inputs and outputs of these gates are connected directly to the pins in the package.

 The number of logic gates are usually less than 10 and are limited by the number of pins
available in the IC.

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MSI (Medium Scale Integration Devices)

 These type of devices has a complexity of approximately 10 to 200 gates in a single
package.
 The basic components include decoders, adders, and registers.

LSI (Large Scale Integration Devices)

 LSI devices contain about 200 to a few thousand gates in a single package.
 The basic components of an LSI device include digital systems, such as processors,

memory chips, and programmable modules.

VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration Device)

 This type of devices contains thousands of gates within a single package.
 The most common example of a VLSI device is a complex microcomputer chip.

The circuit technology is often referred to as Digital Logic Family.

Each technology has its own basic electronic circuit and functions to perform.

The most common component in each technology is either a NAND, a NOR, or an inverter
gate.

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Decoders
 Decoder is multiple input and multiple output.
 A Decoder can be described as a combinational circuit that converts binary
information from 'n' coded inputs to a maximum of 2^n different outputs.
 n input and 2^n output
 Applications of Decoders are converting binary code to other code like……

1. Binary to Octal
2. Binary to Decimal
3. Binary to Hexadecimal

 The following image shows a 3-to-8 line decoder with three input variables which
are decoded into eight output, each output representing one of the combinations of
the three binary input variables.

X Y Z

D0

D1

D2

D3

D4

D5

D6

D7

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 The most common application of this decoder is binary-to-octal conversion.

The truth table for a 3-to-8 line decoder can be represented as:

3 Line to 8 Line Decoder Block Diagram

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Encoders
1. An encoder can also be described as a combinational circuit that performs the
reverse operation of a decoder.
2. An encoder has a maximum of 2^n (or less) input lines and n output lines.
3. Ex. 2^n input and n output
4. In an Encoder, the output lines generate the binary code corresponding to the input
value.

 Applications of Encoders are converting other code to binary code like……

Octal to Binary
Decimal to Binary
Hexadecimal to Binary

 The following image shows the block diagram of a 4 * 2 Encoder with four input
and two output lines.

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Multiplexers
 A Multiplexer (MUX) can be described as a combinational circuit that receives binary
information from one of the 2^n input data lines and directs it to a single output line.
 The selection of a particular input data line for the output is decided on the basis of
selection lines.
 The multiplexer is often called as data selector since it selects only one of many data
inputs.

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 Out of these four input data lines, a particular input data line will be connected to the
output based on the combination of inputs present at these two selection lines.
 The function table for a 4 * 1 Multiplexer can be represented as:

S1 S0 y

0 0 I0

0 1 I1

1 0 I2

1 1 13

 From the function table, we can write the Boolean function for the output (y) as:

y = S1S0I0 + S1S0I1 + S1S0I2 + S1S0I3

 The above equation for output 'y' can be implemented using inverters, three-input
AND gates and an OR gate.

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 We can also implement higher order multiplexers using lower order multiplexers.
 For instance, let us implement an 8 *1 multiplexer using two 4*1 multiplexers and a 2*1
multiplexer.
 The two 4*1 multiplexers are required in the first stage to get the eight input data lines.
 A 2*1 multiplexer is required in the second stage to converge the outputs generated at first
stage into a single output.

The block diagram

A set of common selection lines (S1 and S2) are applied to both of the 4*1 multiplexers.

The output generated by both of the 4*1 multiplexers is applied as inputs of the 2*1 multiplexer.

The function table for an 8*1 multiplexer can be represented as:

S2 S1 S0 y

0 0 0 I0

0 0 1 I1

0 1 0 I2

0 1 1 I3

1 0 0 I4

1 0 1 I5

1 1 0 I6

1 1 1 I7

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De-Multiplexers
 A De-multiplexer (De-Mux) can be described as a combinational circuit that performs the
reverse operation of a Multiplexer.
 A De-multiplexer has a single input, 'n' selection lines and a maximum of 2^n outputs.
 The following image shows the block diagram of a 1 * 4 De-multiplexer.

Registers
1. A Register is a fast memory used to accept, store, and transfer data and instructions

that are being used immediately by the CPU.

2. It is an electronic component that is used to hold the information as bits.

3. A register can be 2-bit register, 4-bit register, 8-bit register etc.

4. Register uses the cell to hold the bit that is called Flip Flop.

5. A Register can also be considered as a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of

storing one bit of information.

6. A register with n flip-flops is capable of storing binary information of n-bits.

7. The flip-flops contain the binary information whereas the gates control the flow of

information, i.e. when and how the information’s are transferred into a register.

8. Different types of registers are available commercially. A simple register consists of only

flip-flops with no external gates.

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9. The transfer of new data into a register is referred to as loading the register.

 The above figure shows a register constructed with four D-type flip-flops and a common
clock pulse-input.
 The clock pulse-input, CP, enables all flip-flops so that the information presently available at
the four inputs can be transferred into the four-bit register.

Types of Register in Computer Organization

 Here are the following types of registers in computer organization, such as:

S.NO RE.NAME SYMBOL FUNCTIONING

1 Accumulator AC An accumulator is the most often

utilized register, and it is used to store
information taken from memory.

2 Memory MAR Address location of memory is stored in

address this register to be accessed later. It is
registers called by both MAR and MDR together

3 Memory data MDR All the information that is supposed to

registers be written or the information that is
supposed to be read from a certain
memory address is stored here

4 General- GPR Consist of a series of registers generally

purpose starting from R0 and running till Rn - 1.
register These registers tend to store any form of
temporary data that is sent to a register
during any undertaking process.
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More GPR enables the register to

register addressing, which increases
processing speed.

5 Program PC These registers are utilized in keeping

counter the record of a program that is being
executed or under execution. These
registers consist of the memory address
of the next instruction to be fetched.
PC points to the address of the next
instruction to be fetched from the main
memory when the previous instruction
has been completed successfully.
Program Counter (PC) also functions to
count the number of instructions.
The incrementation of PC depends on
the type of architecture being used. If
we use a 32-bit architecture, the PC gets
incremented by 4 every time to fetch the
next instruction.

6 Instructions IR Instruction registers hold the

registers information about to be executed. The
immediate instructions received from
the system are fetched and stored in
these registers.
Once the instructions are stored in
registers, the processor starts executing
the set instructions, and the PC will
point to the next instructions to be
executed

7 Condition These have different flags that depict

code registers the status of operations. These registers
set the flags accordingly if the result of
operation caused zero or negative

8 Temporary TR Holds temporary data

registers

9 Input INPR Carries input character

registers

10 Output OUTR Carries output character

registers

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11 Index BX We use this register to store values and

registers numbers included in the address
information and transform them into
effective addresses. These are also called
base registers.
These are used to change operand
address at the time of execution, also
stated as BX

12 Memory MBR MBR - Memory buffer registers are used

buffer to store data content or memory
register commands used to write on the disk.
The basic functionality of these is to
save called data from memory.
MBR is very similar to MDR

13 Segment SR Hold address for memory

register

14 Data register DX Hold memory operand

Shift - Registers
 Shift – Registers are used to implement arithmetic operations.
 Ex. Left Shift, Right Shift
 Shift - Registers are capable of shifting their binary information in one or both directions.
 The shift register uses D flip flops. It is because the D flipflop can operate moving data from
the input to the output while a clock pulse is applied.
 The logical configuration of a Shift - Register consists of a series of flip-flops, with the
output of one flip-flop connected to the input of the next flip-flop.
 The following image shows the block diagram of a Shift - Register and its configuration.

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The basic configuration of a Shift - Register contains the following points:

 The most general Shift - Registers are often referred to as Bidirectional Shift Register with
parallel load.
 A common clock is connected to each register in series to synchronize all operations.
 A serial input line is associated with the left-most register, and a serial output line is
associated with the right-most register.
 A control state is connected which leaves the information in the register unchanged even
though clock pulses are applied continuously.

In shift registers, data can be entered and extracted sequentially or parallelly. Based on this,
Shift registers are classified as follows:

1. SISO – Serial In Serial Out

2. SIPO – Serial In Parallel Out
3. PISO – Parallel In Serial Out
4. PIPO – Parallel In Parallel Out

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Memory Unit
 A memory is just like a human brain.
 It is used to store data and instructions.
 Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored.
 The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells.
 Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus
one.
 For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory locations.
 The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
1. Cache Memory
2. Primary Memory/Main Memory
3. Secondary Memory

Characteristics of Primary Memory / Main Memory

 It is known as the main memory.

 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

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Random Access Memory

 RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result.
 It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
 As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
 Access time in RAM is independent of the address.
 Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
 RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure.
 Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers.
 RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −
1. Static RAM (SRAM)
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

 The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied.
 However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature.
 SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
 Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a
regular basis.
 SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space.
 It’s manufacturing cost is higher.
 SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

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Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data.
 This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second.
 DRAM is used for most system memory.
 It is cheap and small.
 All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

Read Only Memory (ROM)

 ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
 The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
 This type of memory is non-volatile.
 The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
 A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer.
 This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
 ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven.

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Various types of ROMs

MROM (Masked ROM)

 The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions.
 These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

Difference between PROM and EPROM

Parameter PROM EPROM

Full Form PROM stands for Programmable EPROM stands for Erasable
Read Only Memory. Programmable Read Only
Memory.

Reuse PROM is not reusable. It can be EPROM is a reusable ROM as it

written only at once. can be erased and written many
times.

Cost PROM is less expensive. EPROM is expensive in comparison

to PROM.

Reversibility Once a PROM has been processed, The processes of EPROM can be
it cannot be reversed. Thus, it stores reversed.
data permanently.

Storage Storage endurance of PROM is very The storage endurance of EPROM

Endurance high. is higher in comparison to PROM.

Preservation PROM is completely sheathed in a EPROM is boxed in a rock crystal

plastic cowl. window so that ultraviolet radiation
rays can transfer through it.

Nature PROM is a WORM type memory, EPROM is a type of ROM that is

which means it is a write once read read and write many times.
many type of memory device.

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Writing error If there is an error or bug while If there is an error or bug while
reversibility writing on PROM, it cannot be writing to EPROM, it can be
changed-making it unusable. reversed, and used again.

Version PROM is known as the older version It can be considered as the modern
of EPROM. version of PROM.

Flexibility & PROM is better than EPROM in It is less flexible and scalable in
Scalability terms of flexibility and scalability. comparison to PROM.

Difference between EPROM and EEPROM

EPROM stands for Erasable and EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable and
Programmable Read Only Memory. Programmable Read Only Memory.

UV (ultra violet) rays are used to erase the An electric signal is used to erase the contents of
content in EPROM. EEPROM.

It includes a rock crystal window at the top. The area in an EEPROM is completely sheathed in
an opaque plastic case.

The relative cell size in an EPROM is 1. The relative cell size in an EEPROM is 3.

EPROM is considered as the modern version EEPROM is considered as the modern version of
of PROM. EPROM.

EPROM is an external programming EEPROM is an external programming technique.

technique.

Once erased, EPROM memory can't be EEPROM can be reprogrammed after erasing (like
reprogrammed. EPROM).

The transistor used with EPROM consumes The transistor used with EEPROM consumes 5 volts.
12.5 volts.

The hot electron injection programming The tunnel effect is used as programming technique
technique is used with EPROM. in EEPROM.

The operation of erasing consumes 15 to 20 Erasing contents of EEPROM consumes 5

minutes in EPROM. milliseconds.

To erase and reprogram the system's BIOS, The operation of erasing and reprogramming can be
EPROM chip has to be switched off from the done without switching off the electrical circuit of the
circuit. system.

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Memory Units
 Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
 This storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a
data item or a character.

Word
4 A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a
unit, which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.

S.No. Unit & Description

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes

2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB

3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB

4 TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB

5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

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Difference between RAM and ROM

Parameter RAM ROM

Full Form RAM stands for Random Access ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
Memory.

Definition RAM is a primary memory of the ROM is a primary memory of the

computer that stores those data computer that stores those computer
and instructions on which the CPU instructions and programs that do not
is currently working. need to be altered in future like BIOS.

Nature RAM is a volatile memory. Which ROM is a non-volatile memory that

means it stores data as long as means it stores data permanently even
power is on. when power is off.

Data The CPU of the computer can CPU can only read data from ROM, but it
Access read, write, or alter the data on can write or change.
RAM.

Usage RAM is used to store data that ROM is used to store data that in needed
CPU needs for current instruction to bootstrap the computer.
processing.

Types There are two major types of RAM Three types of ROM available – PROM
available – SRAM (Static Random (Programmable ROM), EPROM
Access Memory) and DRAM (Erasable PROM), and EEPROM
(Dynamic Random Access (Electrically EPROM).
Memory).

Speed The speed of RAM is quite high. The speed of ROM is slower than RAM.

CPU CPU can access data stored on Data to be copied from ROM to RAM so
Access RAM directly. that CPU can access its data.

Capacity RAM memory is large and high ROM is generally small and of low
capacity. capacity.

Used as RAM is used as CPU Cache, ROM is used as firmware by

Primary Memory. microcontrollers.

Cost RAM is costly. ROM is not so expensive.

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