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MODULE 1
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO
OPERATING SYSTEMS

CO – Students will be able to summarize the

operating system functions and its structures

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OPERATING SYSTEMS
• An operating system is a program that manages the computer
hardware.
• It acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and the
computer hardware.
• The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment
in which a user can execute programs in a convenient and efficient
manner.
• Some operating systems are designed to be convenient, others to
be efficient, and others some combination of the two.
Efficient - optimum resource utilization
Convenient - user interaction is simple.
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• An operating system is an important part of almost every computer

system.
A computer system can be divided roughly into four components:
• Hardware
• Operating system
• Application programs
• Users

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• The hardware — the central processing unit (CPU), the memory,

and the input/output (I/O) devices — provides the basic computing
resources.
• The application programs — such as word processors,
spreadsheets, compilers, and web browsers — define the ways in
which these resources are used to solve the computing problems
of the users.
• The operating system controls and coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various application programs for the various
users.

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Operating system allocates hardware resources for running the

application programs. I.e., OS act as a
• Resource allocator
• Control program
• A computer system has many resources — hardware and software
— that may be required to solve a problem: CPU time, memory
space, file-storage space, I/O devices, and so on. The operating
system acts as the manager of these resources.
• An operating system is a control program. A control program
manages the execution of user programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer.

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VVVVV

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TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS (OS)

1. BATCH SYSTEMS
• Here the user did not interact directly with the computer systems.
Rather, the user prepared a job and submitted it to the computer
operator program.
• The job was usually in the form of punch cards.

• At some later time (after minutes, hours, or days), the output

appeared.
• Its major task of the OS was to transfer control automatically from
one job to the next.
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• To speed up processing, operators batched together jobs with

similar needs and ran them through the computer as a group.
• The operator would sort programs into batches with similar
requirements and, as the computer became available, would run
each batch.
• In this execution environment, the CPU is often idle, because the
speeds of the mechanical I/O devices are slower than are those of
electronic devices.
• Using SPOOLing the idle time of the CPU can be reduced.
• The common input devices are card readers and tape drivers.
• The output devices are line printers, tape drives and card punches.

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• The introduction of disk technology allowed the operating system

to keep all jobs on a disk, rather than in a serial card reader.
• With direct access to several jobs, the operating system could
perform job scheduling, to use resources and perform tasks
efficiently

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2. MULTIPROGRAMMED SYSTEMS
• Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so
that the CPU always has one to execute.
• The operating system keeps several jobs in memory
simultaneously.
• This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
• The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs
in the memory.
• Eventually, the job may have to wait for some task, such as an I/O
operation, to complete.

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• In a multiprogramming system, the operating system simply

switches to, and executes, another job.
• When that job needs to wait, the CPU is switched to another job,
and so on.
• Eventually, the first job finishes waiting and gets the CPU back.
• As long as at least one job needs to execute, the CPU is never idle.

JOB POOL
• All the jobs that enter the system are kept in the job pool. This pool
consists of all processes residing on disk awaiting allocation of
main memory.

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• If several jobs are ready to be brought into memory, and if there is

not enough room for all of them, then the system must choose
among them. Making this decision is job scheduling.
• When the operating system selects a job from the job pool, it loads
that job into memory for execution.
• Having several programs in memory at the same time requires
some form of memory management.
• If several jobs are ready to run at the same time, the system must
choose among them. Making this decision is CPU scheduling.
Job Scheduling CPU Scheduling

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Multi programming requirements are

• Protection and security
• Large memory
• Proper job mixing
• Job Scheduling
• CPU scheduling
• Disk management
• Main memory management

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3. TIME-SHARING SYSTEMS (MULTI-TASKING SYSTEM)

• Time sharing (or multitasking) is a logical extension of
multiprogramming.
• The CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them, but the
switches occur so frequently that the users can interact with each
program while it is running.
• A time-shared operating system allows many users to share the
computer simultaneously.
• Since each action or command in a time-shared system tends to be
short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user.

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• As the system switches rapidly from one user to the next, each user
is given the impression that the entire computer system is
dedicated to her use, even though it is being shared among many
users.
• A time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a
time-shared computer.
• Each user has at least one separate program in memory.
• A program loaded into memory and executing is commonly
referred to as a process.

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• Time-sharing operating systems are even more complex than

multiprogrammed operating systems.
• In both, several jobs must be kept simultaneously in memory, so
the system must have memory management and protection .
• The main advantage is the user gets quick response

• Multiprogramming is known as non-preemptive system because it

goes to a waiting state, if an I/O operation is coming.
• Timeshared system is preemptive. It does not go to a waiting state.
So it is known as an interactive system. After the time completion,
the process goes to ready state through an interrupt.

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4. MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEMS
• Most systems to date are single-processor systems; that is, they
have only one main CPU.
• Multiprocessor systems also known as parallel systems or tightly
coupled systems.
• Such systems have more than one processor in close
communication, sharing the computer bus, the clock, and
sometimes memory and peripheral devices.
ADVANTAGES
1. Increased throughput: By increasing the number of processors,
we hope to get more work done in less time. The speed-up ratio
with N processors is not N; rather, it is less than N.
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2. Economy of scale: Multiprocessor systems can save more money

than multiple single-processor systems, because they can share
peripherals, mass storage, and power supplies.
3. Increased reliability: If functions can be distributed properly
among several processors, then the failure of one processor will not
halt the system, only slow it down. If we have ten processors and
one fails, then each of the remaining nine processors must pick up a
share of the work of the failed processor. Thus, the entire system
runs only 10 percent slower, rather than failing altogether.
• This ability to continue providing service proportional to the level
of surviving hardware is called graceful degradation.
• Systems designed for graceful degradation are also called fault
tolerant.
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There are two types of multiprocessors

a. Symmetric Multiprocessors
• Each processor runs an identical copy of the operating system, and
these copies communicate with one another as needed.
• SMP means that all processors are peers; no master- slave
relationship exists between processors.
• Each processor concurrently runs a copy of the operating system.
• The benefit of this model is that many processes can run
simultaneously — N processes can run if there are N CPUs —
without causing a significant deterioration of performance

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• Also, since the CPUs are separate, one may be sitting idle while
another is overloaded, resulting in inefficiencies. These
inefficiencies can be avoided if the processors share certain data
structures.
• An example of the SMP system is Encore's version of UNIX for the
Multimax computer

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b. Asymmetric multiprocessors
• Here which each processor is assigned a specific task.
• A master processor controls the system; the other processors
either look to the master for instruction or have predefined tasks.
• This scheme defines a master-slave relationship.
• The master processor schedules and allocates work to the slave
processors.
• The difference between symmetric and asymmetric
multiprocessing may be the result of either hardware or software.

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5. CLUSTERED SYSTEMS
• Like parallel systems, clustered systems gather together multiple
CPUs to accomplish computational work.
• Clustered systems differ from parallel systems, however, in that
they are composed of two or more individual systems coupled
together.
• Clustered computers share storage and are closely linked via LAN
networking.
• Clustering is usually performed to provide high availability.
• A layer of cluster software runs on the cluster nodes.

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• Each node can monitor one or more of the others (over the LAN).
• If the monitored machine fails, the monitoring machine can take
ownership of its storage, and restart the application(s) that were
running on the failed machine.
• The failed machine can remain down, but the users and clients of
the application would only see a brief interruption of service.

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a. Symmetric clustering
• In symmetric mode, two or more hosts are running applications,
and they are monitoring each other.
• This mode is obviously more efficient, as it uses all of the available
hardware. It does require that more than one application be
available to run.
b. Asymmetric clustering
• In asymmetric clustering, one machine is in hot-standby mode
while the other is running the applications.
• The hot-standby host (machine) does nothing but monitor the
active server. If that server fails, the hot standby host becomes the
active server
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• Since a cluster consists of several computer systems connected via

a network, clusters can also be used to provide high-performance
computing environments.
• Other forms of clusters include parallel clusters and clustering over
a WAN.
• Parallel clusters allow multiple hosts to access the same data on
the shared storage.

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6. REAL-TIME SYSTEMS
• It is a special-purpose operating system.
• A real-time system is used when rigid time requirements have been
placed on the operation of a processor.
• It is often used as a control device in a dedicated application.
• Sensors bring data to the computer. The computer must analyze
the data and possibly adjust controls to modify the sensor inputs.
• A real-time system has well-defined, fixed time constraints.
Processing must be done within the defined constraints, or the
system will fail.
• A real-time system functions correctly only if it returns the correct
result within its time constraints.
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Real-time systems come in two flavors: hard and soft.

A hard real-time system guarantees that critical tasks be
completed on time.
• Virtual memory is almost never found on real-time systems.
Deadline is supported. It doesn‘t support advanced OS features. No
priority based working.
A less restrictive type of real-time system is a soft real-time
system, where a critical real-time task gets priority over other
tasks, and retains that priority until it completes.
• It doesn‘t show any deadline support.
• It has multimedia applications and support advanced OS features.

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KERNEL DATA STRUCTURES

• Kernel is central component of an operating system that manages
operations of computer and hardware.
• It basically manages operations of memory and CPU time.
• It is core component of an operating system.
• Kernel loads first into memory when an operating system is loaded
and remains into memory until operating system is shut down
again.
• It is responsible for various tasks such as disk management, task
management, and memory management.
• It decides which process should be allocated to processor to
execute and which process should be kept in main memory to
execute.
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• Several fundamental data structures used extensively in operating

systems.
• An array is a simple data structure in which each element can be
accessed directly.
• A list represents a collection of data values as a sequence.
• The most common method for implementing this structure is a
linked list, in which items are linked to one another.
• Linked lists are of several types:
• In a singly linked list, each item points to its successor, as illustrated
in

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• In a doubly linked list, a given item can refer either to its

predecessor or to its successor
• In a circularly linked list, the last element in the list refers to the
first element, rather than to null,
• Linked lists accommodate items of varying sizes and allow easy
insertion and deletion of items.
• A stack is a sequentially ordered data structure that uses the last
in, first out (LIFO) principle for adding and removing items,
meaning that the last item placed onto a stack is the first item
removed.
• The operations for inserting and removing items from a stack are
known as push and pop, respectively.
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• An operating system often uses a stack when invoking function

calls.
• Parameters, local variables, and the return address are pushed
onto the stack when a function is called; returning from the
function call pops those items off the stack.
• A queue, in contrast, is a sequentially ordered data structure that
uses the first in, first out (FIFO) principle: items are removed from a
queue in the order in which they were inserted.
• Queues are also quite common in operating systems—jobs that are
sent to a printer are typically printed in the order in which they
were submitted, for example.

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• A tree is a data structure that can be used to represent data

hierarchically.
• Data values in a tree structure are linked through parent–child
relationships. In a general tree, a parent may have an unlimited
number of children.
• In a binary tree, a parent may have at most two children, which we
term the left child and the right child. A binary search tree
additionally requires an ordering between the parent‘s two
children in which left child <= right child.
• A hash function takes data as its input, performs a numeric
operation on this data, and returns a numeric value.

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• This numeric value can then be used as an index into a table

(typically an array) to quickly retrieve the data.
• Whereas searching for a data item through a list of size n can
require up to O(n) comparisons in the worst case, using a hash
function for retrieving data from table can be as good as O(1) in
the worst case, depending on implementation details. Because of
this performance, hash functions are used extensively in operating
systems.
• A bitmap is a string of n binary digits that can be used to represent
the status of n items.

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• For example, suppose we have several resources and the

availability of each resource is indicated by the value of a binary
digit: 0 means that the resource is available, while 1 indicates that
it is unavailable (or vice-versa).
• The value of the ith position in the bitmap is associated with the
ith resource.
• As an example, consider the bitmap shown below:
001011101

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