0% found this document useful (0 votes)

119 views

Dbms Gate Notes

Uploaded by

shubhraj3263

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

119 views

Dbms Gate Notes

Uploaded by

shubhraj3263

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 574

http://www.knowledgegate.

in/gate
Database
• Core subjects for CS/IT Students

• In GATE 7-8 Marks out of 100 Marks, and 5-6 questions on an average

• Needs less time, very scoring

• Mostly numerical questions

• Indirect Application in Industry, good future

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Syllabus

• Transactions and concurrency control

• ER-model
• Relational model
• Integrity constraints
• Normal forms
• File organization, indexing (e.g., B and B+ trees)
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Relational algebra, tuple calculus, SQL
Video chapters
• Chapter-1 (Bscics Transactions and concurrency control)
• Chapter-2 (ER-model)
• Chapter-3 (Relational model, Functional Dependencies, Keys)
• Chapter-4 (Normalization)
• Chapter-5 (File organization, indexing (e.g., B and B+ trees)
• Chapter-6 (Relational algebra, tuple calculus, SQL)
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Chapter-1
(Basics Transactions and concurrency control)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Data
• Data are characteristics, usually numerical, that are collected through observation. In a more
technical sense, data are a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or
more persons or objects, while a datum (singular of data) is a single value of a single variable.
• Any facts and figures about an entity is called as Data.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Information
• Although the terms "data" and "information" are often used interchangeably, these terms
have distinct meanings. In some popular publications, data are sometimes said to be
transformed into information when they are viewed in context or in post-analysis.
• Processed Data is called information.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Data Base
• A database is an organized collection of data, generally stored and
accessed electronically from a computer system.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Data Base Management System
• The database management system (DBMS) is the software that interacts with end
users, applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze the data.

• The DBMS software additionally encompasses the core facilities provided to

administer the database. The sum total of the database, the DBMS and the associated
applications can be referred to as a "database system".

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Problem With File System
1. Data redundancy and inconsistency: Imagine two spreadsheets that list employee
contacts, but one is updated with a new phone number while the other is not, leading to
confusion about the correct number to use.
2. Difficulty in accessing Data: Consider needing a specific report from a database, but you
have to request it from an IT specialist instead of getting it yourself directly, causing
delays.
3. Data Isolation: If customer profiles are stored in one system and their order histories in
another, merging this information for a comprehensive view can be cumbersome.
4. Integrity Problem: After a customer updates their address on one page of a website, they
find the old address on another page because the change did not carry through all
systems.
5. Atomicity Problem: A banking transaction that deducts money from one account but fails
to deposit it in another leaves the transaction incomplete and accounts unbalanced.
6. Concurrent access Anomalies: Two people booking the last ticket on a flight at the same

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
time might both get a confirmation, but only one can actually get the seat.
Instance and Schemas
• The collection of information stored in the database at a particular
moment is called an instance of the database.
• The overall design of the database is called the database schema.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
TRANSACTION
• Why we study transaction?
• According to general computation principle (operating system) we may have partially
executed program, as the level of atomicity is instruction i.e. either an instruction is
executed completely or not
• But in DBMS view, user perform a logical work(operation) which is always atomic in nature
i.e. either operation is execute or not executed, there is no concept like partial execution.
For example, Transaction T1 which transfer 100 units from account A to B

T1
Read(A)
A = A-100
Write(A)
Read(B)
B = B+100

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Write(B)
• In this transaction if a failure occurs after Read(B) then the final statue of the
system will be inconsistent as 100 units are debited from account A but not
credited in account B, this will generate inconsistency.

• Here for ‘consistency’ before (A + B) == after (A + B)”

T1
Read(A)
A = A-100
Write(A)
Read(B)
B = B+100
Write(B)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
What is transaction
• To remove this partial execution problem, we increase the level of
atomicity and bundle all the instruction of a logical operation into a
unit called transaction.
• So formally ‘A transaction is a Set of logically related instructions to
perform a logical unit of work’.

T1
Read(A)
A = A-100
Write(A)
Read(B)
B = B+100
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Write(B)
• As here we are only concerned with DBMS so we well only two basic
operation on database

• READ (X) - Accessing the database item x from disk (where database
stored data) to memory variable also name as X.

• WRITE (X) - Writing the data item from memory variable X to disk.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Desirable properties of transaction
• Now as the smallest unit which have atomicity in DBMS view is transaction, so if
want that our data should be consistent then instead of concentrating on data
base, we must concentrate on the transaction for our data to be consistent.

T1
Read(A)
A = A-100
Write(A)
Read(B)
B = B+100
Write(B)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Transactions should possess several properties, often called the ACID properties;
to provide integrity and consistency of the data in the database. The following
are the ACID properties:

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Atomicity - A transaction is an atomic unit of processing; it should
either be performed in its entirety or not performed at all.
• It is the responsibility of recovery control manager / transaction
control manager of DBMS to ensure atomicity

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Consistency - A transaction should be consistency preserving, meaning that if it
is completely executed from beginning to end without interference from other
transactions, it should take the database from one consistent state to another.
• The definition of consistency may change from one system to another. The
preservation of consistency of database is the responsibility of
programmers(users) or the DBMS modules that enforces integrity constraints.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Isolation - A transaction should appear as though it is being executed
in isolation from other transactions, even though many transactions
are executing concurrently.
• That is, the execution of a transaction should not be interfered with by
any other transactions executing concurrently.
• The isolation property of database is the responsibility of concurrency
control manager of database.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Durability - The changes applied to the database by a committed
transaction must persist in the database.
• These changes must not be lost because of any failure. It is the
responsibility of recovery control manager of DBMS.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q NOT a part of the ACID properties of database transactions?

(a) Atomicity

(b) Consistency

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
(d) Deadlock-freedom
Transaction states

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Transaction states
• ACTIVE - It is the initial state. Transaction remains in this state while it is executing operations.
• PARTIALLY COMMITTED - After the final statement of a transaction has been executed, the
state of transaction is partially committed as it is still possible that it may have to be aborted
(due to any failure) since the actual output may still be temporarily residing in main memory
and not to disk.
• FAILED - After the discovery that the transaction can no longer proceed (because of hardware
/logical errors). Such a transaction must be rolled back.
• ABORTED - A transaction is said to be in aborted state when the when the transaction has
been rolled back and the database has been restored to its state prior to the start of
execution.
• COMMITTED - A transaction enters committed state after successful completion of a
transaction and final updation in the database.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q if the transaction is in which of the state that we can
guarantee that data base is in consistent state

a) aborted b) committed

c) both aborted & committed d) none

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Why we need concurrent execution
• Concurrent execution is necessary because-
• It leads to good database performance , less weighting time.
• Overlapping I/O activity with CPU increases throughput and response time.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
PROBLEMS DUE TO CONCURRENT EXECUTION OF TRANSACTION

• But interleaving of instructions between transactions may also lead to many

problems that can lead to inconsistent database.
• Sometimes it is possible that even though individual transaction are satisfying
the acid properties even though the final statues of the system will be
inconsistent.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Lost update problem / Write - Write problem-
• If there is any two write operation of different transaction on same
data value, and between them there is no read operations, then the
second write over writes the first write.

T1 T2
Read(A)
Write(A)
Write(A)
Commit
Commit

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Dirty read problem/ Read -Write problem
• In this problem, the transaction reads a data item updated by another
uncommitted transaction, this transaction may in future be aborted
or failed.
• The reading transactions end with incorrect results.

T1 T2
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(A)
Commit
Abort
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Unrepeatable read problem
• When a transaction tries to read a value of a data item twice, and another
transaction updates the data item in between, then the result of the two read
operation of the first transaction will differ, this problem is called, Non-
repeatable read problem.

T1 T2
Read(A)
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(A)
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Phantom read problem

T1 T2
Read(A)
Delete(A)
Read(A)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q The following schedule is suffering from

a) Lost update problem

b) Unrepeatable read problem

c) Both A and B

d) Neither A and B

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Which of the following scenarios may lead to an irrecoverable error in a database
system?

(A) A transaction writes a data item after it is read by an uncommitted transaction

(B) A transaction reads a data item after it is read by an uncommitted transaction

(C) A transaction reads a data item after it is written by a committed transaction

(D) A transaction reads a data item after it is written by an uncommitted transaction

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Solution is Schedule
• When two or more transaction executed together or one after another then they can be
bundled up into a higher unit of execution called schedule.

• A schedule of n transactions T1, T2, ..., Tn is an ordering of the operations of the transactions.
Operations from different transactions can be interleaved in the schedule S.

• However, schedule for a set of transaction must contain all the instruction of those
transaction, and for each transaction Ti that participates in the schedule S, the operations of Ti
in S must appear in the same order in which they occur in Ti.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Serial schedule - A serial schedule consists of sequence of instruction belonging to
different transactions, where instructions belonging to one single transaction appear
together. Before complete execution of one transaction another transaction cannot be
started.

• For a set of n transactions, there exist n! different valid serial schedules. Every serial schedule
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
lead database into consistent state. Throughput of system is less.
• Non-serial schedule - A schedule in which sequence of instructions of a
transaction appear in the same order as they appear in individual transaction
but the instructions may be interleaved with the instructions of different
transactions i.e. concurrent execution of transactions takes place.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• So the number of schedules for n different transaction T1,T2,T3,---------TN where
each transaction conations n1, n2, n3, -----------,n4 respectively will be.

• {(n1 + n2+ n3 +-----------+nn)!}/ (n1! n2! n3! -----------nn!)}

• {(n1 + n2+ n3 +-----------+nn)!}/ (n1! n2! n3! -----------nn!)} - n!

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Conclusion of schedules
• We do not have any method to proof that a schedule is consistent, but from
the above discussion we understand that a serial schedule will always be
consistent, so if somehow we proof that a non-serial schedule will also have
same effects as of a serial schedule that we get a proof that, this particular
non-serial schedule will also be consistent “find those schedules that are
logically equal to serial schedules”.
• For a concurrent schedule to result in consistent state, it should be equivalent
to a serial schedule. i.e. it must be serializable.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
On the basis of On the basis of
SERIALIZABILITY RECOVERABILITY

Conflict
Recoverable
serializable

View
Cascadeless
serializable

Result
Strict
Equivalent

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
R(A) R(B) R(A) W(A)
R(B) R(A) W(A) R(A)

T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
R(A) W(B) R(A) W(A)
W(B) R(A) W(A) R(A)

T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
R(A) R(A) W(A) W(A)
R(A) R(A) W(A) W(A)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
SERIALIZABILITY
• Conflicting instructions - Let I and J be two consecutive instructions belonging to two different
transactions Ti and Tj in a schedule S, the possible I and J instruction can be as-
• I= READ(Q), J=READ(Q) ->Non-conflicting
• I= READ(Q), J=WRITE(Q) ->Conflicting
• I= WRITE(Q), J=READ(Q) ->Conflicting
• I= WRITE(Q), J=WRITE(Q) ->Conflicting

• So, the instructions I and J are said to be conflicting, if they are operations by different
transactions on the same data item, and at least one of these instructions is a write operation.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Conflict equivalent – if one schedule can be converted to another schedule by
swapping of non- conflicting instruction then they are called conflict equivalent
schedule.

T1 T2 T1 T2
R(A) R(B)
A=A-50 B=B+50
R(B) R(A)
B=B+50 A=A-50
R(B) R(B)
B=B+50 B=B+50
R(A) R(A)
A=A+10 A=A+10
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Consider a schedule of transactions T1 and T2: Here, RX stands for “Read(X)” and WX
stands for “Write(X)”. Which one of the following schedules is conflict equivalent to the
above schedule?
S
T1 T2
RA

a) b) c) d) RB
WB
S S S S RC
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 RD
RB RA RA RB WD
WB RC RC WB WC
RD WD WD RD WB
RA WB RB WC Commit
RC RB WB RA Commi
WD WB RD RC t
WB RD WB WD
WC WC WC WB
Commit Commit Commit Commit
Commit Commit Commit Commit
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
CONFLICT SERIALIZABLE
• The schedules which are conflict equivalent to a serial schedule are called
conflict serializable schedule.
• If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S’ by a series of swaps of non-
conflicting instructions, we say that S and S’ are conflict equivalent.
• A schedule S is conflict serializable, if it is conflict equivalent to a serial schedule.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Procedure for determining conflict serializability of a schedule
• It can be determined using PRECEDENCE GRAPH method:
• A precedence graph consists of a pair G (V, E)
• V= set of vertices consisting of all the transactions participating in the schedule.
• E= set of edges consists of all edges Ti à Tj, for which one of the following
conditions holds:
• Ti executes write(Q) before Tj executes read(Q)
• Ti executes read(Q) before Tj executes write(Q)
• Ti executes write(Q) before Tj executes write(Q)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• If an edge Ti à Tj exists in the precedence graph, then in any serial schedule S’ equivalent
to S, Ti must appear before Tj.

• If the precedence graph for S has no cycle, then schedule S is conflict serializable, else it
is not. This cycle detection can be done by cycle detection algorithms, one of them based
on depth first search takes O(n2) time.

• The serialializibility order of transactions of equivalent serial schedule can be determined

using topological order in a precedence graph.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Let Ri(z) and Wi(z) denote read and write operations on a data element z by a
transaction Ti, respectively. Consider the schedule S with four transactions.
S: R4 (x)R2 (x) R3(x) R1(y) W1(y) W2(x) W3(y) R4(y) Which one of the following serial
schedules is conflict equivalent to S?

(a) 𝑇1 → 𝑇3 → 𝑇4 → 𝑇2

(b) 𝑇1 → 𝑇4 → 𝑇3 → 𝑇2
(c) T4 → 𝑇1→ 𝑇3→ 𝑇2
(d) 𝑇3 → 𝑇1→ 𝑇4→ 𝑇2

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Let ri(z) and wi(z) denote read and write operations respectively on a data item z by a
transaction Ti. Consider the following two schedules.
• S1:r1(x)r1(y)r2(x)r2(y)w2(y)w1(x) S1 S2
• S2:r1(x)r2(x)r2(y)w2(y)r1(y)w1(x) T1 T2 T1 T2
Which one of the following options is correct? R(X) R(X)
R(Y) R(X)
a) S1 is conflict serializable, and S2 is not conflict serializable R(X) R(Y)
b) S1 is not conflict serializable, and S2 is conflict serializable R(Y) W(Y)
W(Y) R(Y)
c) Both S1 and S2 are conflict serializable
W(X) W(X)
d) Neither S1 nor S2 is conflict serializable

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Consider the following schedule for transactions T1, T2 and T3: Which one of the schedules
below is the correct serialization of the above?

(A) T1->>T3->>T2

(B) T2->>T1->>T3

(D) T3->>T1->>T2
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
VIEW SERIALIZABLE

• If a schedule is not conflict serializable, still it can be consistent, so let us study a weaker form
of serializability called View serializability, and even if a schedule is view serializable still it can
be consistent.
• If a schedule is conflict serializable then it will also be view serializable, so we must check view
serializability only if a schedule is not conflict serializable.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• if a schedule is not conflict serializable and it does not contain any blind write then it can
never be view serializable, but if not conflict serializable and have blind write then may or may
not be view serializable.

• If a schedule is not conflict serializable and if there exist a blind write.

• First tabulate all serial schedules possible. Then check one by one whether given schedule
is view equivalent to any of the serial schedule.
• If yes then schedule is view serializable otherwise not.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Check Conflict
Serializability

Not Conflict Yes Conflict

Serializable Serializable

Blind Write No Blind Yes View

Present Write Serializable

Check For
Not View
View
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Serializability
Serializable
• Two schedules S and S’ are view equivalent, if they satisfy following conditions –
• For each data item Q, if the transaction Ti reads the initial value of Q in schedule S , then
then the transaction Ti must, in schedule S’ ,also read the initial value of Q.
• If a transaction Ti in schedule S reads any data item Q, which is updated by transaction Tj,
then a transaction Ti must in schedule S’ also read data item Q updated by transaction Tj in
schedule S’.
• For each data item Q, the transaction (if any) that performs the final write(Q) operation in
schedule S, then the same transaction must also perform final write(Q) in schedule S’.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Complexity wise finding the schedule is view serializable or not is a NP- complete problem.
View Serializable
• A schedule S is view serializable, if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
View Serializable

A schedule S is view serializable, if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• BLIND WRITES- In the above example, transaction T4 and T6 perform write
operation on data item Q without accessing (reading the data item), such
updation without knowing/accessing previous value of data item, are called
Blind updation or BLIND WRITE.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q A Schedule that is not conflict serializable and contains at least one blind write
then the schedule is
a) Always view serializable

b) Always non-serializable

c) May be View serializable

d) None of the above

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Which of the following statements (s) is/are TRUE?
S1: All view serializable schedules are also conflict serializable.
S2: All conflict serializable schedules are also view serializable.
S3: If a schedule is not conflict serializable then it is not view serializable
S4: If a schedule is not view serializable then it is not conflict serializable.

a) S1 and S2 only

b) S2 and S3 only

c) S2 and S4 only

d) S1 and S3 only

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Consider the following schedule ‘S’ with three transactions.
S: R1(B); R3(C); R1 (A); W2 (A); W1(A), W2 (B); W3 (A); W1 (B); W3 (B), W3 (C)
Which of the following is TRUE with respect to the above schedule?

a) It is conflict serializable with sequence [T1, T2 T3]

b) It is conflict serializable with sequence [T2, T1 T3]

c) It is view serializable but not conflict serializable

d) It is neither conflict serializable nor view serializable

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
NON- RECOVERABLE SCHEDULE
• A schedule in which for each pair of transaction Ti and Tj , such that if Tj reads a
data item previously written by Ti, then the commit or abort operation of Ti
appears before Tj. Such a schedule is called Non- Recoverable schedule.

S
T1 T2
R(X)
W(X)
R(X)
C
C
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
RECOVERABLE SCHEDULE
• A schedule in which for each pair of transaction Ti and Tj , such that if Tj reads a
data item previously written by Ti, then the commit or abort of Ti must appear
before Tj. Such a schedule is called Recoverable schedule.

S
T1 T2
R(X)
W(X)
R(X)
C
C

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Consider the following schedule S of transactions T1, T2, T3, T4
Which one of the following statements is CORRECT?
(A) S is conflict-serializable but not recoverable
(B) S is not conflict-serializable but is recoverable
(C) S is both conflict-serializable and recoverable
(D) S is neither conflict-serializable nor is it recoverable

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Let S be the following schedule of operations of three transactions T1, T2 and T3 in a relational
database system: R2(Y),R1(X),R3(Z),R1(Y)W1(X),R2(Z),W2(Y),R3(X),W3(Z), Consider the
statements P and Q below:
P: S is conflict-serializable.
Q: If T3 commits before T1 finishes, then S is recoverable.
Which one of the following choices is correct?
S

(a) Both P and Q are true T1 T2 T3

R(Y)
(b) P is true and Q is false R(X)
R(Z)
(c) P is false and Q is true W(X) W(Z)
R(z)
(d) Both P and Q are false
W(Y)
R(X)
W(z)
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
CASCADING ROLLBACK
• It is a phenomenon, in which a single transaction failure leads to a series of transaction
rollbacks, is called cascading rollback. Even if the schedule is recoverable the, the commit of
transaction may lead lot of transaction to rollback.
• Cascading rollback is undesirable, since it leads to undoing of a significant amount of work.
Uncommitted reads are not allowed in cascade less schedule.
S
T1 T2 T3
R(X)
W(X)
R(X)
W(X)
R(X)
C
C
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
C
CASCADELESS SCHEDULE
• To avoid cascading rollback, cascade less schedule are used.
• A schedule in which for each pair of transactions Ti and Tj, such that if Tj reads a data item
previously written by Ti then the commit or abort of Ti must appear before read operation of
Tj. Such a schedule is called cascade less schedule.

S
T1 T2 T3
R(X)
W(X)
C
R(X)
W(X)
C
R(X)
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate C
Check Dirty Read

Dirty Read Present Dirty Read not Present

Not Cascadleless
Both Recoverable and
Check order of Cascadless
commit

If order of commit is
same in which dirty

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
read is done,
recoverable otherwise
not
Q Consider the following partial Schedule S involving two transactions T1 and T2. Only the read and the write operations
have been shown. The read operation on data item P is denoted by read(P) and the write operation on data item P is
denoted by write(P).
Suppose that the transaction T1 fails immediately after time instance 9. Which one of the following statements is correct?
(A) T2 must be aborted and then both T1 and T2 must be re-started to ensure transaction atomicity
(B) Schedule S is non-recoverable and cannot ensure transaction atomicity
(C) Only T2 must be aborted and then re-started to ensure transaction atomicity
(D) Schedule S is recoverable and can ensure atomicity and nothing else needs to be done

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Strict Schedule
• A schedule in which for each pair of transactions Ti and Tj, such that if Tj reads a data item previously written by Ti
then the commit or abort of Ti must appear before read and write operation of Tj.

S1 S2 S3
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
R(a) R(a) R(a)
W(a) W(a) R(b)
W(a) C W(a)
C W(a) W(b)
R(a) R(a) C
C C R(a)
C

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Consider the following database schedule with two transactions, T1 and T2. S = r2(X); r1(X);
r2(Y); w1(X); r1(Y); w2(X); a1; a2. where ri(Z) denotes a read operation by transaction Ti on a
variable Z, wi(Z) denotes a write operation by Ti on a variable Z and ai denotes an abort by
transaction Ti. Which one of the following statements about the above schedule is TRUE?
(a) S is non-recoverable (b) S is recoverable, but has a cascading abort
(c) S does not have a cascading abort (d) S is strict

S
T1 T2
R(x)
R(X)
R(Y)
W(X)
R(Y)
W(X)
a1
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
a 2
CONCURRENCY CONTROL

• Now we understood that if there is a schedule how to check whether it will work
correctly or not i.e. weather it will maintain the consistency of the data base or not.
(conflict serializability, view serializability, recoverability and cascade less)
• Now we will understand those protocol which guarantee how to design those
schedules which ensure conflict serializability or other properties. There are different
approach or idea to ensure conflict serializability which is the most important property.
• So first we must understand what is the possibility of conflict between two instruction
and if somehow, we manage than the generated schedule will always be conflict
serializable

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Goals of a Protocol: - We desire the following properties from schedule generating
protocols
• Concurrency should be as high as possible, as this is our ultimate goal
because of which we are making all the effort.
• The time taken by a transaction should also be less.
• Desirable Properties satisfied by the protocol
• Easy to understand and implement

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
TIME STAMP ORDERING PROTOCOL
• Basic idea of time stamping is to decide the order between the transaction
before they enter in the system using a stamp (time stamp), in case of any
conflict during the execution order can be decided using the time stamp.
• Let’s understand how this protocol works, here we have two idea of
timestamping, one for the transaction, and other for the data item.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Time stamp for transaction,
• With each transaction ti, in the system, we associate a unique fixed timestamp, denoted by
TS(ti).
• This timestamp is assigned by database system to a transaction at time transaction enters
into the system.
• If a transaction has been assigned a timestamp TS(ti) and a new transaction tj , enters into
the system with a timestamp TS(tj), then always TS(ti) <TS(tj).

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Two things are to be noted
1. First time stamp of a transaction remain fixed throughout the execution
2. Second it is unique means no two transaction can have the same timestamp.

• The reason why we called time stamp not stamp, because for stamping we use
the value of the system clock as stamp, advantage is,
• Tt will always be unique as time never repeats
• There is no requirement of refreshing and starting with fresh value.

• The time stamp of the transaction also determines the serializability order.
• Thus if TS(ti) <TS(tj), then the system must ensure that the produced schedule is
equivalent to a serial schedule in which transaction ti appears before transaction
tj. http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Time stamp with data item, in order to assure such scheme, the protocol maintains for each
data item Q two timestamp values:

1. W-timestamp(Q) is the largest time-stamp of any transaction that executed write(Q)

successfully.
2. R-timestamp(Q) is the largest time-stamp of any transaction that executed read(Q)
successfully.
• These timestamps are updated whenever a new read(Q) or write(Q) instruction is executed.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Suppose a transaction Ti request a read(Q)
1. If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti needs to read a value of Q that was
already overwritten. Hence, the read operation is rejected, and Ti is rolled
back.
2. If TS(Ti)≥ W-timestamp(Q), then the read operation is executed, and R-
timestamp(Q) is set to the maximum of R-timestamp(Q) and TS(Ti).

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Suppose that transaction Ti issues write(Q).
1. If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(Q), then the value of Q that Ti is producing was needed previously, and
the system assumed that that value would never be produced. Hence, the write operation is
rejected, and Ti is rolled back.

2. If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti is attempting to write an obsolete value of Q. Hence, this
write operation is rejected, and Ti is rolled back.

3. If TS(Ti) ≥ R-timestamp(Q), then the write operation is executed, and W-timestamp(Q) is set to
max(W-timestamp(Q), TS(Ti)).

4. If TS(Ti) ≥ W-timestamp(Q), then the write operation is executed, and W-timestamp(Q) is set to
max(W-timestamp(Q), TS(Ti)).

If a transaction Ti is rolled back by the concurrency control scheme as a result of either a read or
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
write operation, the system assigns it’s a new timestamp and restarts it.
Conflict View Recoverability Cascadelessness Deadlock
Serializability Serializability Freedom

Time Stamp Ordering

Thomas Write Rule

Basic 2PL
Conservative 2PL
Rigorous 2PL
Strict 2PL

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
THOMAS WRITE RULE
• Thomas write is an improvement in time stamping protocol, which makes some modification
and may generate those protocols that are even view serializable, because it allows greater
potential concurrency.

• It is a Modified version of the timestamp-ordering protocol in which Blind write operations

may be ignored under certain circumstances.

• The protocol rules for read operations remain unchanged. while for write operation, there is
slightly change in Thomas write rule than timestamp ordering protocol.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
When Ti attempts to write data item Q,

• if TS(Ti ) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti is attempting to write an obsolete value of

{Q}. Rather than rolling back Ti as the timestamp ordering protocol would have
done, this {write} operation can be ignored.

• This modification is valid as the any transaction with TS(Ti ) < W-timestamp(Q),
the value written by this transaction will never be read by any other transaction
performing Read(Q) ignoring such obsolete write operation is considerable.
• Thomas' Write Rule allows greater potential concurrency. Allows some view-
serializable schedules that are not conflict serializable.

Time Stamp Ordering YES YES NO NO YES

Thomas Write Rule
Basic 2PL
Conservative 2PL
Rigorous 2PL
Strict 2PL

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Lock Based Protocols
• To ensure isolation is to require that data items be accessed in a mutually
exclusive manner i.e. while one transaction is accessing a data item, no other
transaction can modify that data item. Locking is the most fundamental
approach to ensure this.
• Lock based protocols ensure this requirement. Idea is first obtain a lock on the
desired data item then if lock is granted then perform the operation and then
unlock it.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• In general, we support two modes of lock because, to provide better concurrency.

• Shared mode
• If transaction Ti has obtained a shared-mode lock (denoted by S) on any data item Q, then
Ti can read, but cannot write Q, any other transaction can also acquire a shared mode lock
on the same data item(this is the reason we called this shared mode).

• Exclusive mode
• If transaction Ti has obtained an exclusive-mode lock (denoted by X) on any data item Q,
then Ti can both read and write Q, any other transaction cannot acquire either a shared or
exclusive mode lock on the same data item. (this is the reason we called this exclusive
mode)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Lock –Compatibility Matrix

• Conclusion shared is compatible only with shared while exclusive is not compatible either with
shared or exclusive.
• To access a data item, transaction Ti must first lock that item, if the data item is already locked
by another transaction in an incompatible mode, or some other transaction is already waiting
in non-compatible mode, then concurrency control manager will not grant the lock until all
incompatible locks held by other transactions have been released. The lock is then granted.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Lock based protocol do not ensure serializability as granting and releasing of lock do not follow
any order and any transaction any time may go for lock and unlock. Here in the example
below we can see, that even this transaction in using locking but neither it is conflict
serializable nor independent from deadlock.
T1 T2
LOCK-X(A)
READ(A)
WRITE(A)
UNLOCK(A)
LOCK-S(B)
READ(B)
UNLOCK(B)
LOCK-X(B)
READ(B)
WRITE(B)
UNLOCK(B)
LOCK-S(A)
READ(A)
UNLOCK(A)
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Two phase locking protocol(2PL)
• The protocol ensures that each transaction issue lock and unlock requests in two phases, note
that each transaction will be 2 phased not schedule.
• Growing phase- A transaction may obtain locks, but not release any locks.
• Shrinking phase- A transaction may release locks, but may not obtain any new locks.

• Initially a transaction is in growing phase and acquires lock as needed and in between can
perform operation reach to lock point and once a transaction releases a lock, it can issue no
more lock requests i.e. it enters the shrinking phase.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
T1 T2
LOCK-X(A)
READ(A)
WRITE(A)
LOCK-S(B)
READ(B)
LOCK-X(B)
READ(B)
WRITE(B)
LOCK-S(A)
READ(A)
UNLOCK(B)
UNLOCK(A)
UNLOCK(B)
UNLOCK(A)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Conflict View Recoverability Cascadelessness Deadlock
Serializability Serializability Freedom

Time Stamp Ordering YES YES NO NO YES

Thomas Write Rule NO YES NO NO YES
Basic 2PL
Conservative 2PL
Rigorous 2PL
Strict 2PL

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Which of the following concurrency protocol ensures both conflict serializability
and freedom from deadlock?
(1) 2 - phase Locking (2) Time stamp - ordering

(a) Both (1) and (2) (b) (1) only

(c) (2) only (d) Neither (1) nor (2)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Conservative 2PL
• The idea is there is no growing phase transaction start directly from lock point,
i.e. transaction must first acquire all the required locks then only it can start
execution. If all the locks are not available then transaction must release the
acquired locks and must wait.
• Shrinking phase will work as usual, and transaction can unlock any data item
anytime.
• we must have a knowledge in future to understand what is data required so
that we can use it

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q In conservative two phase locking protocol, a transaction
a) Should release exclusive locks only after the commit operation
b) Should release all the locks only at beginning of the transaction
c) should acquire all the locks at beginning of the transaction
d) Should acquire all the exclusive locks at beginning transaction

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Conflict View Recoverability Cascadelessness Deadlock
Serializability Serializability Freedom

Time Stamp Ordering YES YES NO NO YES

Thomas Write Rule NO YES NO NO YES
Basic 2PL YES YES NO NO NO
Conservative 2PL
Rigorous 2PL
Strict 2PL

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
RIGOROUS 2PL
• Requires that all locks be held until the transaction commits.
• This protocol requires that locking be two phase and also all the locks taken be
held by transaction until that transaction commit.
• Hence there is no shrinking phase in the system.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q In a Rigorous 2 phase protocol
a) All shared locks held by the transaction are related after the
transaction is committed
b) All exclusive locks held by the transaction are released after the
transaction is committed
c) All locks held by the transaction are released after the transaction is
committed
d) All locks held by the transaction are released before the transaction is
committed

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Conflict View Recoverability Cascadelessness Deadlock
Serializability Serializability Freedom

Time Stamp Ordering YES YES NO NO YES

Thomas Write Rule NO YES NO NO YES
Basic 2PL YES YES NO NO NO
Conservative 2PL YES YES NO NO YES
Rigorous 2PL
Strict 2PL

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
STRICT 2PL
• that all exclusive-mode locks taken by a transaction be held until that transaction commits.
This requirement ensures that any data written by an uncommitted transaction are locked in
exclusive mode until the transaction commits, preventing any other transaction from reading
the data.

• This protocol requires that locking be two phase and also that exclusive –mode locks taken by
transaction be held until that transaction commits.

• So it is simplified form of rigorous 2pl

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Conflict View Recoverability Cascadelessness Deadlock
Serializability Serializability Freedom

Time Stamp Ordering YES YES NO NO YES

Thomas Write Rule NO YES NO NO YES
Basic 2PL YES YES NO NO NO
Conservative 2PL YES YES NO NO YES
Rigorous 2PL YES YES YES YES NO
Strict 2PL

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Consider the following two statements about database transaction schedules:
I. Strict two-phase locking protocol generates conflict serializable schedules that are also
recoverable.
II. Timestamp-ordering concurrency control protocol with Thomas Write Rule can
generate view serializable schedules that are not conflict serializable.
Which of the above statements is/are TRUE?

(a) Both I and II

(b) Neither I nor II

(d) I only

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Which of the following statement is/are correct
a) Every conflict serializable schedule allowed under 2PL protocol is
allowed by basic time stamping protocol.
b) Every schedule allowed under basic time stamping protocol is allowed
by Thomas-write rule
c) Every schedule allowed under Thomas-write rule is allowed by basic
time stamping protocol
d) none

• E-R data model was developed to facilitate database design

by allowing specification of an enterprise schema that
represents the overall logical structure of a database.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Conclusion
• It consists of collections of basic objects, called entities and of relationships among these
entities and attributes which defines their properties.

• E-R model is very useful in mapping the meanings and interactions of real-world enterprises
onto a conceptual schema.

• It is free from ambiguities and provides a standard and logical way of visualizing the data.

• As basically it is a diagrammatical representation easy to understand even by a non-technical

user.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
ENTITY

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
ENTITY
• An entity is a thing or an object in the real world that is distinguishable from other object
based on the values of the attributes it possesses.
• An entity may be concrete, such as a person or a book, or it may be abstract, such as a course,
a course offering, or a flight reservation.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Types of Entity
• Tangible - Entities which physically exist in real world. E.g. - Car, Pen, locker
• Intangible - Entities which exist logically. E.g. – Account, video.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• ENTIY SET- Collection of same type of entities that share the same properties or
attributes. In an ER diagram an entity set is represented by a rectangle. In a
relational model it is represented by a separate table.

• In ER diagram we cannot represent an entity, as entity is an instant not schema,

and ER diagram is designed to understand schema.
• In a relational model entity is represented by a row or a tuple or a record in a
table.
http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
ATTRIBUTES
• Attributes are the units defines and describe properties and characteristics of
entities. Attributes are the descriptive properties possessed by each member of
an entity set. for each attribute there is a set of permitted values called domain.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• In an ER diagram attributes are represented by ellipse or oval connected to rectangle.

• While in a relational model they are represented by independent column. e.g. Instructor (ID,
name, salary, dept_name)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Types of Attributes
• Single valued- Attributes having single value at any instance of time for an entity. E.g. –
Aadhar no, dob.

• Multivalued - Attributes which can have more than one value for an entity at same time. E.g.
- Phone no, email, address.
• A multivalued attribute is represented by a double ellipse in an ER diagram and by an
independent table in a relational model.
• Separate table for each multivalued attribute, by taking mva and pk of main table as fk in
new table

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Customer
Customer ID First Name Surname Telephone Number
123 Pooja Singh 555-861-2025, 192-122-1111
(555) 403-1659 Ext. 53; 182-929-
456 San Zhang
2929
789 John Doe 555-808-9633

जग
ु ाड़ technology

Customer
Telephone Telephone
Customer ID First Name Surname
Number1 Number2
123 Pooja Singh 555-861-2025 192-122-1111
(555) 403-1659 Ext.
456 San Zhang 182-929-2929
53
789 John Doe 555-808-9633

Customer Name Customer Phone Number

Customer ID Telephone Number
Customer ID First Name Surname
123 555-861-2025
123 Pooja Singh 123 192-122-1111
456 San Zhang 456 (555) 403-1659 Ext. 53
789 John Doe 456 182-929-2929
789 555-808-9633

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Simple - Attributes which cannot be divided further into sub parts. E.g. Age

• Composite - Attributes which can be further divided into sub parts, as simple
attributes. A composite attribute is represented by an ellipse connected to an
ellipse and in a relational model by a separate column.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Stored - Main attributes whose value is permanently stored in database. E.g.
date_of_birth

• Derived -The value of these types of attributes can be derived from values of other
Attributes. E.g. - Age attribute can be derived from date_of_birth and Date attribute.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Descriptive attribute - Attribute of relationship is called descriptive attribute.

• An attribute takes a null value when an entity does not have a value for it. The null
value may indicate “not applicable”— that is, that the value does not exist for the
entity.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Null can also designate that an attribute value is unknown. An unknown value
may be either missing (the value does exist, but we do not have that
information) or not known (we do not know whether or not the value actually
exists).

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Relationship / Association

• Is an association between two or more entities of same or different entity set.

• In ER diagram we cannot represent individual relationship as it is an instance or
data.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• In an ER diagram it is represented by a diamond, while in relational model
sometimes through foreign key and other time by a separate table.

• Note: - normally people use word relationship for relationship type so don’t get confused.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Every relationship type has three components.

• Name- Every relation must have a unique name.

• Degree-

• Structural constraints (cardinalities ratios, participation)

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Degree of a relationship/Relationship Set
• Means number of entities set(relations/tables) associated(participate) in the relationship set.

• Most of the relationship sets in a data base system are binary.

• Occasionally however relationship sets involve more than two entity sets.

• Logically, we can associate any number of entity set in a relationship called N-ary Relationship.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Unary Relationship - One single entity set participate in a Relationship, means two entities of
the same entity set are related to each other.

• These are also called as self -referential Relationship set.

• E.g.- A member in a team maybe supervisor of another member in team.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Binary Relationship - Two entity
sets participate in a Relationship. It
is most common Relationship.

• Ternary Relationship - When

three entities participate in a
Relationship. E.g. The University
might need to record which
teachers taught which subjects in
which courses.

• Quaternary Relationship - When

four entities participate in a
Relationship.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• N-ary relationship – where n number of entity set are associated

• But the most common relationships in ER models are Binary.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Structural constraints (Cardinalities Ratios, Participation)
• An E-R enterprise schema may define certain constraints to which the contents
of a database must conform.
• Express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a
relationship set. Four possible categories are-
• One to One (1:1) Relationship.
• One to Many (1: M) Relationship.
• Many to One (M: 1) Relationship.
• Many to Many (M: N) Relationship.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
One to One (1:1) Relationship - An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B, and an
entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A.

E.g.- The directed line from relationship set advisor to both entities set indicates that ‘an instructor
may advise at most one student, and a student may have at most one advisor’.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
One to Many (1: M) Relationship - An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of
entities in B. An entity in B, however, can be associated with at most one entity in A.

E.g.- This indicates that an instructor may advise many students, but a student may have at most
one advisor.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Many to One (M: 1) Relationship - An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in
B. An entity in B, however, can be associated with any number (zero or more) of entities
in A.

E.g.- This indicates that student may have many instructors but an instructor can advise at
most one student.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Many to Many(M:N) Relationship - An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or
more) of entities in B, and an entity in B is associated with any number (zero or more) of
entities in A.

E.g.- This indicates a student may have many advisors and an instructor may advise many
students.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Participation Constraints
• Participation constraint specifies whether the existence of an entity depends on its
being related to another entity via the relationship type.
• These constraints specify the minimum and maximum number of relationship
instances that each entity must/can participate in.
• Max cardinality – it defines the maximum no of times an entity occurrence
participating in a relationship.
• Min cardinality - it defines the minimum no of times an entity occurrence
participating in a relationship.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• PARTICIPATION CONSTRAINTS- it defines participations of entities of an entity
type in a relationship.
• PARTIAL PARTICIPATION (min cardinality zero) - In Partial participation only
some entities of entity set participate in Relationship set, that is there exists at
least one entity which do not participate in a relation.
• TOTAL PARTICIPATION (min cardinality at least one) - In total participation every
entity of an entity set participates in at least one relationship in Relationship set.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• Conversion of 1-1 relationship(binary)
• No separate table is required, take pk of one side as pk on other side,
priority must be given to the side having total participation.

• Conversion of 1-n or n-1 relationship (binary)

• No separate table is required, modify n side by taking pk of 1 side a foreign
key on n side.

• Conversion of n-n relationship (binary)

• Separate table is required take pk of both table and declare their
combination as a pk of new table.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q In an Entity-Relationship (ER) model, suppose R is a many-to-one relationship from
entity set E1 to entity set E2. Assume that E1 and E2 participate totally in R and that the
cardinality of E1 is greater than the cardinality of E2. Which one of the following is true
about R?
(a) Every entity in E1 is associated with exactly one entity in E2
(b) Some entity in E1 is associated with more than one entity in E2

(c) Every entity in E2 is associated with exactly one entity in E1

(d) Every entity in E2 is associated with at most one entity in E1

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Given the basic ER and relational models, which of the following is INCORRECT?
(A) An attribute of an entity can have more than one value

(B) An attribute of an entity can be composite

(D) In a row of a relational table, an attribute can have exactly one value or a NULL value

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Q Consider the entities ‘hotel room’, and ‘person’ with a many to many relationship ‘lodging’ as
shown below:

If we wish to store information about the rent payment to be made by person (s) occupying
different hotel rooms, then this information should appear as an attribute of

(A) Person

(B) Hotel Room

(D) None of these

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
STRONG AND WEAK ENTITY SET

• An entity set is called strong entity set, if it has a primary key, all the tuples in the set are
distinguishable by that key.
• An entity set that does not process sufficient attributes to form a primary key is called a weak
entity set.
• It contains discriminator attributes (partial key) which contain partial information about the
entity set, but it is not sufficient enough to identify each tuple uniquely. Represented by
double rectangle.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• For a weak entity set to be meaningful and converted into strong entity set, it must be
associated with another strong entity set called the identifying or owner entity set i.e. weak
entity set is said to be existence dependent on the identity set.
• The identifying entity set is said to own weak entity set that it identifies.
• A weak entity set may participate as owner in an identifying relationship with another weak
entity set.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
• The relationship associating the weak entity set with the identifying entity set is called the
identifying relationship (double diamonds).

• The identifying relationship is many to one from the weak entity set to identifying entity set,
and the participation of the weak entity set in relationship is always total.
• The primary key of weak entity set will be the union of primary key and discriminator
attributes.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
REASONS TO HAVE WEAK ENTITY SET
• Weak entities reflect the logical structure of an entity being dependent on
another.
• Weak entity can be deleted automatically when their strong entity is deleted.
• Without weak entity set it will lead to duplication and consequent possible
inconsistencies.

http://www.knowledgegate.in/gate
Conversion From ER Diagram To Relational Model
• Entity Set
• Convert every strong entity set into a separate table.
• Convert every weak entity set into a separate table, by making it
dependent into one strong entity set (identifying or owner entity set).