UIC John Marshall Journal of Information Technology & Privacy

Law

Volume 4 Article 3
Issue 4 Computer/Law Journal - Spring 1984

Spring 1984

Trade Secret and Copyright Protection of Computer Software, 4

Computer L.J. 669 (1984)
Ray A. Mantle

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Ray A. Mantle, Trade Secret and Copyright Protection of Computer Software, 4 Computer L.J. 669 (1984)

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 TRADE SECRET AND COPYRIGHT
PROTECTION OF COMPUTER
SOFTWAREt

by RAY A. MANTLE*

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
INTRODUCTION ........................................... 669
II.
PATENT PROTECTION ................................... 670
II.TRADE SECRET PROTECTION .......................... 673
IV. COPYRIGHT PROTECTION .............................. 677
V.DUAL PROTECTION BY COMBINING COPYRIGHT
AND TRADE SECRET PROTECTION .................... 689
VI. COPYRIGHT PREEMPTION OF TRADE SECRETS
UNDER SECTION 301 OF THE 1976 COPYRIGHT ACT. 690
VII. CONCLUSION .............................................. 694

I. INTRODUCTION
The software industry has become a major commercial and
technological contributor to the success of United States businesses;
the creators of U.S. software have an undisputed worldwide lead.
With the mounting demand for pre-packaged software, the wide-
spread retail marketing of off-the-shelf software (particularly for
microcomputers), and the shortage of programmers, soft-
ward/firmware has become increasingly valuable.1 The legal system

t © Ray A. Mantle 1983. All rights reserved. Adapted from a speech delivered
by Mr. Mantle on May 12, 1983, at the Fourth Annual University of Southern
California Computer Law Institute.
* Member of Milgrim Thomajan Jacobs & Lee P.C., New York, New York, LL.B.
degree from New York University. The author thanks Lynne Costantini, a student at
New York University Law School, for her important contributions to this Article.
1. "Firmware" is a term of art in the computer industry and refers to micro-in-
structions permanently embodied in hardware elements. Generally, the term
"software" will be used to mean both computer programs and data bases, with spe-
cific reference where necessary to draw a distinction. For the purposes of this Arti-
cle, firmware will be separately identified where it is pertinent to the context, but it
generally will be included in discussion of software, albeit embodied in a different
medium.
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

in the U.S., however, is ill-prepared to extend to software/firmware

the degree of protection extended to other industrial property
through patents, copyrights, and trade secrets.
This Article will examine how the software/firmware industry
can legally protect itself against misappropriation and misuse.
While a variety of civil, criminal, and administrative laws afford a
2
menu of choices, including injunctive relief for unfair competition,
3
seizure and forfeiture or destruction, and award of damages equal
to the infringer's profits, 4 the focus will be primarily on trade secret
and copyright protection of proprietary software/firmware.
The primary source of proprietary protection is the United
States Constitution, which grants Congress the power to "promote
the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited
Time to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respec-
tive Writings and Discoveries. '5 Pursuant to this constitutional
mandate, Congress has enacted both the Patent Act, 6 which grants
limited monopolies to inventors for their discoveries, and the Copy-
right Act of 1976, 7 which grants protection to authors of their original
writings.

II. PATENT PROTECTION

Under the Patent Act, creators of inventions are given a seven-

teen year period of exclusive use, which protects against independ-
ent creation, use, or sale of the invention or process by all others in
the United States without an express licensing agreement from the
patent holder. 8 Section 101 of the Patent Act describes the subject
matter protected by the Act:
Whoever invents or discovers any new and useful process,
machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and
useful improvement thereof, may obtain a patent therefor, subject
9
to the conditions and requirements of this title.
A patent represents an absolute property right;10 intentional or
innocent infringement of patent rights is actionable under the Pat-

2. See, e.g., 15 U.S.C. § 45 (1982).

3. 17 U.S.C. §§ 506, 509 (1982).
4. Id. §504.
5. U.S. CONsT. art. I, § 8, cl. 8.
6. 35 U.S.C. §§ 1-376 (1982).
7. 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810 (1982).
8. 35 U.S.C. § 154 (1982).
9. Id. § 101.
10. Id. § 261.
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

ent Act." In order to obtain this limited monopoly, the invention

must meet three requirements: the invention must fit into one of
the statutory subject matter classifications, i.e., the invention must
comprise statutory subject matter;12 it must be novel;13 and, it must
be non-obvious to one skilled in the art. 14 The protection is territori-
i5
ally limited to the United States.
Although the patent laws seem to afford a broad scope of legal
protection for a variety of types of industrial property, Patent Office
practices and court decisions have left uncertain how computer
software/firmware fits within the patent system. Under current pat-
ent law an invention, the embodiment of ideas and principles, is pat-
entable; however, ideas, mathematics, abstract principles, and laws
of nature are not.16 The distinction between ideas and the embodi-
ments of ideas is not always clear, 17 and it is particularly nebulous
when applied to computer programs. Confusion over how computer
software/firmware fits within the statutory subject matter groups
renders patent protection an uncertain method of protecting com-
puter programs against misappropriation and misuse.
The question whether or not inventions realized or imple-
mented by software/firmware comprise statutory subject matter ac-
corded patent protection was addressed and somewhat resolved by
the United States Supreme Court in Diamond v. Diehr.18 In Diehr, a
process for curing synthetic rubber using a computer program and a
mathematical equation was found patentable. While the patentabil-
ity of mathematical equations had been denied in the past,19 the

11. Id. § 271. See, e.g., Schnadig Corp. v. Gaines Mfg. Co., 620 F2d 1166 (6th Cir.
1980).
12. 35 U.S.C. § 101 (1982).
13. Id. § 102.
14. Id. § 103.
15. See 17 U.S.C. § 271 (1982).
16. See, e.g., Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S. 584 (1978) (method for updating alarm lim-
its during catalytic conversion processes in which the only novel feature was a math-
ematical formula held not patentable); Funk Bros. Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant Co., 333
U.S. 127 (1948) (discovery of particular law of nature not patentable).
17. See, e.g., Mackay Radio & Tel. Co. v. Radio Corp. of Am., 306 U.S. 86 (1939),
modified and reh'g denied, 306 U.S. 618 (1939). The Court attempted to clarify this
distinction stating- "While a scientific truth, or the mathematical expression of it, is
not patentable invention, a novel and useful structure created with the aid of knowl-
edge of scientific truth may be." Id. at 94.
18. 450 U.S. 175 (1981) (5-4 decision).
19. See Gottschalk v. Benson, 409 U.S. 63 (1972). There the Court held that the
discovery of a novel and useful mathematical formula was not patentable. The sub-
ject matter in Benson was an algorithm that described a method for converting bi-
nary-coded decimal numbers into pure binary numerals. The Court held that this
method was not a "process" within the meaning of the Patent Act. Id. at 71.
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

Court granted a patent in Diehr by viewing the claim not "as an at-
tempt to patent a mathematical formula, but rather to [patent] an
industrial process for the molding of rubber products. ' 20 The Court
determined that the process claimed by Diehr was eligible for pat-
ent protection since it fit into the statutory classifications. The
Court held that its conclusion was "not altered by the fact that in
several steps of the process a mathematical equation and a
programmed digital computer are used."'2 1 In other words, the fact
that a programmed computer was utilized in realizing an invention
was of no significance for the purpose of statutory classification
under the Patent Act.
In another case dealing with whether or not patent protection
was applicable to the software/firmware field, In re Application of
23
Bradley,22 an invention that combined tangible firmware elements
was held patentable despite the fact that certain calculations were
made during the operation of the system. 24 In granting the patent,
the court noted the distinction between what a computer does and
how it does it, and explained that the owners of the invention were
claiming a patent for the combination of hardware elements, not for
the information embodied in the firmware or software itself.25 The
court concluded that the presence of calculations would not "trans-
26
form the invention as a whole into a method of calculation."
Although the Diehr and Bradley cases clarified somewhat how
courts will classify computer programs for purposes of patent pro-
tection, the courts' reasoning and the distinctions drawn are still too
unclear to afford an inventor any degree of certainty in obtaining
patent protection for software/firmware. 27 Beyond the certainty
problems, there are other drawbacks and limitations to patent pro-
tection of computer software/firmware. It may take up to three
years to obtain patent approval from the Patent and Trademark Of-
fice; by this time the software may be less marketable due to look-

20. Diehr, 450 U.S. at 192-93 (emphasis added).

21. Id. at 185.
22. 600 F.2d 807 (C.C.P.A. 1979), aff'd by an equally divided court sub nom. Dia-
mond v. Bradley, 450 U.S. 381 (1981).
23. The invention sought to be patented in Bradley was a "Switch System Base
Mechanism" that altered or repositioned information in the computer's system base.
600 F.2d at 808. This was accomplished by use of a "firmware" component. Id. at 809.
24. Id. at 813.
25. Id. at 811-12.
26. Id. at 813. The Court also determined that the invention did not recite a
mathematical algorithm that would render the invention "non-statutory" under the
Patent Act. Id.
27. In addition, the precedential value of In re Application of Bradley is question-
able given the 4-4 split among the Justices of the Supreme Court.
1984] PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

alike competitors or it even may be superseded. In addition, during

the period between application for and issuance of the patent the
owner has no enforceable rights under the patent laws, thus render-
ing software protection meaningless during the time when it may be
most valuable. 28 Finally, there is also a requirement of disclosure in
obtaining 29a patent that may bar simultaneous trade secret
protection.
Due to the shortcomings and uncertainties of the application of
patent protection to software/firmware, except in those rare in-
stances under Diehr and Bradley where patent protection is avail-
able and where it is more important than marketing and other
considerations, patent protection is not advisable as the primary
source of legal protection. The shortcomings inherent in patent pro-
tection may be avoided by using copyright and trade secret protec-
tion, which are better suited to meet the needs of the software
industry, and are a preferable means of protection for most
software. The remainder of this Article will focus on trade secret
and copyright protection of software.

III. TRADE SECRET PROTECTION

Trade secret protection is a product of the common law and
arises in the contexts of property rights, 30 contract rights,3 1 and pro-
tected or confidential relationships. 3 2 It is not constitutionally based
and, for the most part, is not even statutory,3 unlike copyright and
patent protection. Trade secret protection is available both domesti-
cally and internationally,3 thus avoiding the territorial limitation of
patent, and to some extent copyright, protection.
A commonly cited definition of a trade secret is provided in the
Restatement of Torts:

28. See 35 U.S.C. § 151 (1982) (a patent is issued approximately six months after
written notice to the applicant of allowance of the patent application by the Patent
Office). Procedures for applying for a patent and Patent Office review are set forth in
35 U.S.C. §§ 111-146 (1982).
29. 35 U.S.C. § 112 (1982). But see Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp., 416 U.S. 470,
491 (1974) (holding that the extension of trade secret protection to clearly patentable
inventions does not conflict with the patent policy of disclosure). See infra notes 141-
165 and accompanying text for a discussion of Kewanee.
30. See generally R. McGRnI, TRADE SECRETS § 1.01 (1983).
31. See generally id. § 3.01.
32. See generally id. § 5.01.
33. The UNi. TRADE SECRETS ACT (1980), reprinted in R. Mn'oRim, supra note 30,
app. A, has been adopted by Arkansas, Delaware, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota,
North Carolina, Utah, and Washington. M. JAGER, TRADE SECRETS LAW HANDBOOK
§ 3.04 (1982).
34. See I. MiwCimu, supra note 30, § 7.08[2].
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. rV

A trade secret may consist of any formula, pattern, device or compi-

lation of information which is used in one's business and which
gives him an opportunity to obtain an advantage over competitors
who do not know or use it. It may be a formula for a chemical com-
pound, a process of manufacture, treating or preserving materials, a
pattern for a machine or other device, or a list of customs. It differs
from other secret information in the business in that it is not simply
information as to a single or emphemeral events in the conduct of
the business ... [but] is a process or device for continuous use in
the operation of the business. Generally, it relates to the produc-
tion of goods .... It may, however, relate to the sale of goods or to
other operations in the business .... 35
Under this definition a trade secret must satisfy three require-
ments. It must be: (1) maintained in confidence; 3 6 (2) used in a
trade or business;37 and (3) afford the proprietor a competitive ad-
vantage. 38 Trade secrets are not protected against independent dis-
covery. Products publicly distributed through sale, lease, or license
may contain protectible trade secrets so long as the marketing terms
preserve confidentiality. 39 Confidentiality is important at all levels
and at all times. Protection requires relative secrecy; i.e., that the
trade secret is not generally known in the trade °
The law of trade secrets will protect an original combination of
known matter and techniques where the combination has a value.4 1
A trade secret need not achieve the level of advancement required
to obtain a patent. It need only represent a valuable combination of
features. 2 Thus, although applications programs that perform the
same function on the same make and model of computers employ-
ing the same operating system software necessarily will have cer-

35. RESTATEMENT (FIRsT) OF TORTS § 757(B) comments (1939).

36. R. MILGRIm, supra note 30, § 2.03.
37. Id. § 2.02. Courts do not strictly apply this requirement. For example, a non-
profit organization can protect a trade secret even though it is not technically "in
business." Id.
38. Id. § 2.08.
39. See, Warrington Assocs. v. Real-Time Eng'g Sys., 522 F. Supp. 367 (N.D. 111.
1981); Technicon Medical Information Sys. Corp. v. Green Bay Packaging, 211
U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 343 (E.D. Wis. 1980); Management Science Am., Inc. v. Cyborg Sys., 6
Comp. L Serv. Rep. (Callaghan) 921 (N.D. m11. 1978); M. Bryce & Assocs. v. Gladstone,
107 Wis. 2d 241, 319 N.W.2d 907 (Ct. App. 1982); Data Gen. Corp. v. Digital Computer
Controls, Inc., 297 A.2d 436 (Del. Ch. 1975).
40. See Cataphote Corp. v. Hudson, 422 F.2d 1290 (5th Cir. 1970). See generally R.
MumRn, supra note 30, § 2.07[2].
41. See Coin-share, Inc. v. Computer Complex, Inc., 338 F. Supp. 1229, 1234 (E.D.
Mich. 1971); Cybertek Computer Prods., Inc. v. Whitfield, 203 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 1020
(Cal. Super. Ct. 1977).
42. See Telex Corp. v. IBM Corp., 367 F. Supp. 258, 323 (N.D. Okla. 1973); Ungar
Elec. Tools, Inc. v. Sid Ungar Co., 192 Cal. App. 2d 398, 13 Cal. Rptr. 268 (1961).
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

tain common characteristics, the law of trade secrets will protect

each independently created version despite the similarities.
The existence of a trade secret is ultimately a question of fact to
be determined by a jury.43 In an action for misappropriation of a
trade secret, the trade secret owner has the burden of proving the
existence of a protectible trade secret and the ownership of that
trade secret. 44
The amount of use in a trade or business that is required to sus-
tain trade secret protection is generally not difficult to prove. There
is, however, a distinction between a trade secret used in business
and a submission of industrial or business ideas.4 5
A trade secret user's competitive advantage must be active in
nature. 46 However, in Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp.,4 7 the
Supreme Court stated that research and development was eligible
for trade secret protection, even though the research and develop-
ment results in that case were not directly used or useable in the
business activities of the trade secret proprietor. Thus, the head-
start value of a new combination of known principles is a good ex-
ample of a trade secret. 48
Computer programs and software are protectible subject matter
under trade secret law.49 Trade secrets can protect the idea, the in-
formation, the invention, the design, and the expression of the idea.

43. See Lear Siegler, Inc. v. Ark-Ell Springs, Inc., 569 F.2d 286 (5th Cir. 1978).
There the court stated that
it] he term "trade secret" is one of the most elusive and difficult concepts in
the law to define. The question of whether an item taken from an employer
constitutes a "trade secret," is of the type normally resolved by a fact finder
after full presentation of evidence from each side.
Id. at 288-89. See also Kodekey Elecs. v. Mechanex Corp., 486 F.2d 449 (10th Cir. 1966);
Hulsenbusch v. Davidson Rubber Co., 344 F.2d 730 (8th Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 382
U.S. 977 (1966); Sundstrand Corp. v. Hydro-Tech Corp., 202 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 263 (D.
Colo. 1978), affid, 673 F.2d 1171 (10th Cir. 1982).
44. See Nickelson v. General Motors Corp., 361 F.2d 196 (7th Cir. 1966); Keystone
Plastics, Inc. v. C & P Plastics, Inc., 340 F. Supp. 55 (S.D. Fla. 1972), affid., 506 F.2d 960
(5th Cir. 1975); Bickley v. Frutchey Bean Co., 173 F. Supp. 516 (E.D. Mich. 1959), affid,
279 F.2d 685 (6th Cir. 1960); Wexler v. Greenburg, 399 Pa. 569, 160 A.2d 430 (1960).
45. See R. MULGRim, supra note 30, § 8.03.
46. See id. § 2.02.
47. 416 U.S. 470 (1974) (secret protection granted for processes, procedures, and
techniques developed to grow synthetic crystals useful in detecting ionizing
radiation).
48. See R. MIGmm, supra note 30, § 2.02[11 n.16.
49. See University Computing Co. v. Likes-Youngston Corp., 504 F.2d 518 (5th Cir.
1974); Hancock v. Decker, 379 F.2d 552 (5th Cir. 1967); Warrington Assocs. v. Real-
Time Eng'g Sys., 522 F. Supp. 367 (N.D. Ill. 1981); Management Science Am., Inc. v.
Cyborg Sys., 6 Comp. L Serv. Rep. (Callaghan) 921 (N.D. Il. 1978); Telex Corp. v.
IBM Corp., 367 F. Supp. 258 (ND. Okla. 1973); Com-Share Inc. v. Computer Complex,
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

Thus, trade secret protection extends to elements not covered by

50
copyright law, which only protects the expression of the idea. Al-
though any duplication of copyright protection is precluded in the
United States due to the preemption of other laws that afford rights
equivalent to the exclusive rights granted under the Copyright Act
of 1976, 51 duplication may be significant in those jurisdictions that
do not afford copyright protection to software. Therefore, trade se-
cret protection of software is particularly important for software that
is marketed outside of the United States; international copyright
protection of software is highly uncertain, whereas trade secret pro-
tection is available internationally. Although some jurisdictions
have legislation regulating the transfer of technology that super-
sedes or limits the availability of trade secret protection, 52 other
statutory protection is usually substituted to some extent to protect
the trade secret proprietor, albeit on less advantageous grounds to
implement the public policy reflected in the local law.
Certain precautions can and should be taken in order to secure
the maximum degree of trade secret protection. Some practical
trade secret measures include: (1) limiting access to programs and
computer areas on a need-to-know basis; (2) monitoring all software
and document copying; (3) entering into restrictive covenants with
key employees to prevent disclosure and to limit post-employment
competition;5 3 (4) requiring all third-parties having access to com-
puter programs, and their employees, subcontractors, and other re-
lated parties having access, to sign a restrictive non-disclosure
agreement; (5) using software with a built-in "lock-out," "time
bomb" or self-destruct feature activated upon copying; (6) using
firmware as opposed to software where feasible to make copying
more difficult;M (7) licensing a machine-readable object code only

Inc., 338 F. Supp. 1229 (E.D. Mich. 1971); Cybertek Computer Prods., Inc. v. Whitfleld,
203 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 1020 (Cal. Super. Ct. 1977).
50. See infra notes 55-139 and accompanying text (discussion of copyright protec-
tion of computer software/firmware).
51. 17 U.S.C. § 301 (1982); See infra notes 141-69 and accompanying text (discus-
sion of pre-emption under the 1976 Act).
52. For example, Mexico and Brazil have such statutes. Many other South Amer-
ican countries have nationalistic laws limiting the importation and protection of for-
eign technology.
53. But note that non-competition agreements may not be enforceable in some
states. See, e.g., CAi Bus. & PROF. CODE §§ 16600-16602 (West 1964); R. MILGRIM,
s-upra note 30, § 3.05[11 [d).
54. See supra notes 22-26 and accompanying text (discussion of the affirmation of
the patentability of subject matter relying in part on hardware elements and
firmware). Consider the Texas Instruments "GROM" approach. Wall St. J., Mar. 4,
1983, at 25, col. 1.
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

and prohibiting reverse assembly, engineering, and compilation;

(8) destroying all obsolete, excess, and preliminary copies of propri-
etary materials to prevent their use or reproduction; (9) adopting
appropriate physical security measures, including the use of em-
ployee badges, restricted areas, audit trails of all users accessing
material, and secure storage; and (10) encrypting high value mate-
rial. Most importantly, one must know who will have access to infor-
mation and avoid high-risk situations (e.g., allowing alcoholic or
narcotic addicted persons, or those who have personal financial
troubles or a past history of abuse of confidences to access com-
puters) where financial or personal considerations may induce the
loss of proprietary rights.

IV. COPYRIGHT PROTECTION

The same portion of the United States Constitution that autho-
rizes Congress to grant inventors limited monopolies in the form of
patent protection also confers authority on Congress to protect the
property rights of authors in their works through the enactment of
copyright laws.55 There was great uncertainty under the Copyright
Act of 1909 (1909 Act)5 6 as to whether or not statutory copyright pro-
tection extended to software. The Copyright Office registered claims
to "published" computer programs as books, but copyrights in "un-
published" works were only protected under a state's common
law.57 Since trade secret law was more fully developed and state
law remedies were sufficiently similar to the relief available under
the 1909 Act, software proprietors tended not to rely on copyright
protection for unpublished software.5 8 In addition, the publication
of a computer program forced the owner to elect copyright protec-
tion at the expense of trade secret protection.5 9 Although the regis-
tration of a copyright in a "published" computer program was
permitted, and it afforded certain primafacie rights to the software
proprietor, the Copyright Office practice was not contested and the
legality of the registration was unclear. 60 In those cases where com-

55. U.S. CONST. art. I, § 8, cl. 8; See Mazer v. Stein, 347 U.S. 201, reh'g denied, 347
U.S. 949 (1954); White v. Kimmell, 94 F. Supp. 502 (S.D. Cal. 1950), rev'd on other
grounds, 193 F.2d 744 (9th Cir. 1952), cert. denied, 343 U.S. 957 (1952).
56. Act of March 4, 1909, ch. 320, 35 Stat. 1075.
57. See generally, M. NIMMER, NMMER ON COPYRIGHT § 2.04[c] (1983).
58. But cf. Data Gen. Corp. v. Digital Computer Controls, Inc., 357 A.2d 105 (Del.
Ch. 1975) (computer software protected under both trade secrets law and common
law copyright).
59. See infra notes 136-39 and accompanying text.
60. See generally 4 COPYRIGHT, CONGRESS AND TECHNOLOGY: THE PUB. RECORD
(N. Henry ed. 1980). Computer programs were classified as "books" and were af-
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

mon law copyright protection of software was sought, trade secret

relief was also claimed. 61
The Copyright Act of 1976 (1976 Act) 62 extended the privilege of
copyright to computer programs and data bases, in both unpub-
lished and published form. Under the 1976 Act, common law copy-
right protection for unpublished works was superseded and a single
statutory scheme was applied to both published and unpublished
works.6 3 Although the 1976 Act did not expressly enumerate com-
puter programs as copyrightable subject matter, definitional refer-
ences and the legislative history indicate that Congress considered
''
computer programs subject to protection as "literary works."
The Computer Software Copyright Act of 1980 (the CONTU
Amendment)6 5 did not specify computer programs as copyrightable
works within section 102 of the Copyright Act; it did add, however, a
definition of "computer program" to section 101,66 and amended sec-
tion 117 to delete language originally intended to preserve the status
quo until the CONTU Report was acted upon by Congress to provide
in place of the deletion certain limitations on exclusive rights in
computer programs. 67 The new section 117 text added by the
CONTU Amendment provides that it would not constitute copyright
infringement
for the owner of a copy of a computer program to make or authorize
the making of another copy or adaptation of that computer program
provided;
(1) that such new a [sic] copy or adaptation is created as an es-

forded the degree of protection offered by the copyright laws to literary works. Id. at
357.
61. See, e.g., Data Gen. Corp. v. Digital Computer Controls, Inc., 357 A.2d 105 (Del.
Ch. 1975); Data Gen. Corp. v. Digital Computer Controls, Inc., 297 A.2d 433 (Del. Ch.
1971), affd, 297 A.2d 437 (Del. 1972).
62. Pub. L. No. 95-553, 90 Stat. 2541 (1976).
63. See H.R. REP. No. 1476, 94th Cong., 2d Sess. 129-33, reprinted in 1976 U.S. CODE
CONG. & AD. NEWS 5659, 5744-49.
64. See id. at 51, 54, 56-57, 151-52; 1976 U.S. CODE CONG. & AD. NEWS at 5659, 5667,
5669-70, 5767-68; S. REP. No. 473, 94th Cong., 1st Sess. 50, 52, 54, 134 (1975). See also
FINAL REP. OF THE NAT'L COMM'N ON NEW TECHNOLOGICAL USES OF COPYRIGHTED
WORKS 16 (1978) ("It was clearly the intent of Congress to include computer pro-
grams within the scope of copyrightable subject matter in the Act of 1976.") [herein-
after cited as CONTU REP.]; Tandy Corp. v. Personal Micro Computers, Inc., 524 F.
Supp. 171 (N.D. Cal. 1981).
65. Pub. L No. 96-517, 94 Stat. 3015 (1980). The abbreviation stands for the Na-
tional Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works.
66. 17 U.S.C § 101 (1982). A computer program is defined as a "set of statements
or instructions to be used directly or indirectly in a computer in order to bring about
a certain result." Id.
67. Id. § 117.
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

sential step in the utilization of the computer program in conjunc-

tion with a machine and that it is used in no other manner, or
(2) that such new copy or adaptation is for archival purposes only
and that all archival copies are destroyed in the event that contin-
ued possession of the computer program should cease to be
rightful.6
The amended section 117 raises numerous questions, including
whether or not a "licensee" has the rights of an "owner". Section
117 also provides that copies of a computer program may be "leased,
sold, or otherwise transferred... only as part of the lease, sale, or
other transfer of all rights in the program. ' 69 These definitional and
limiting provisions evidence an understanding that computer pro-
grams are within the protection of section 102.70 The inclusion has
its limits, however. The portion of the House Report dealing with
section 102(b) provides in pertinent part:
Some concern has been expressed lest copyright in computer pro-
grams should extend protection to the methodology or the
processes adopted by the programmer, rather than merely to the
writing expressing his ideas. Section 102(b) is intended, among
other things, to make clear that the expression adopted by the
programmer is a copyrightable element in the computer program
and that the actual processes or methods embodied in the program
are not within the scope of the copyright law. This proposition re-
states that the basic dichotomy between expression of the idea and
71
the idea remains unchanged.
It has been urged that the 1976 Act be further amended to pro-
vide for more explicit treatment of computer programs. The
ADAPSO Bill introduced during 198272 would further amend the
1976 Act to include "computer software" in the listing of copyright-
able works under section 102(a), and include programs, descrip-
tions, and supporting material as a designated type of "literary
work. ' 73 The ADAPSO Bill would also change the definition of
"computer program," to include "program descriptions," and "sup-
porting materials," such as instructions, manuals, and

68. Id.
69. Id.
70. See Williams Elects., Inc., v. Artic Int'l, Inc., 685 F.2d 870 (3rd Cir. 1982)
(copyrightability of computer programs is firmly established under the 1980 Amend-
ment to the Copyright Act).
71. H.R. REP. No. 1476, supra note 63, at 56-57; 1976 U.S. CODE CONG. & AD. NEWS
at 5669-70.
72. H.R. 6983, 97th Cong., 2d Sess. (1982). The Association of Data Processing
Service Organization (ADAPSO), a trade group whose membership consists of
software houses and service groups, proposed this Bill.
73. Id. at 2.
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV
74
documentation.
Although copyrights can be more easily and inexpensively ob-
tained, the 1976 Act does not offer as complete a protection as the
Patent Act does. A basic principle of copyright law is that a copy-
right only protects the expression of the author's idea, not the ideas,
concepts, principles, systems, or inventions themselves. 75 Although
this copyright principle was equally true under the 1909 Act and its
predecessors, it was not until the introduction of computers that
technological advances pressed this rubric to its limit. The distinc-
tion between "idea" and "expression" was initially drawn under the
1909 Act, albeit with some difficulty, 76 but its application to the na-
ture and use of computer programs, combined with the requirement
of its compatibility with operating system hardware or software,
magnifies the effect of classification as one or the other. The distinc-
tion between particular software applications becomes vital in deter-
77
mining the value of a software copyright.
78
Consider, for example, the steps followed to obtain a ROM
with an embedded program. The analogy of a "writing" protected by
copyright law is easy at the flowchart stage, where high level lan-
guage is used by programmers to create a computer program. Even
the object code resulting from the assembly or compilation of the
source code into a machine-executable binary form can be analo-
gized to a recording of a phonograph record or a tape in a form that
the machine can recognize and play back; both items covered under
copyright law. The transposition, however, of that binary code into a
circuit design that replicates the on-off switching of the binary form
object code using sophisticated optical, electrical, photographic, and
other processes raises serious questions of copyright protectability.
Where is the authorship in this work? How can it be a protected

74. Id. at 2-3. A revised version of the ADAPSO Bill is expected to be fied during
the 98th Session of Congress.
75. 17 U.S.C. § 102(b) (1982); H.R. REP. No. 1476, supra note 63, at 56-57; 1976 U.S.
CODE CONG. & AD NEWS at 5669-70; S. REP. No. 473, supra note 64, at 54.
76. See Nichols v. Universal Pictures Corp., 45 F.2d 119 (2d Cir. 1930), cert. denied,
282 U.S. 902 (1931).
77. Compare Atari, Inc. v. Williams, 1981-1983 COPYRIGHT L. REP. (CCH) 25,412
(E.D. Cal. 1981) (audio-visual display presented no similarity of expression between
Pac Man and Jaw Breaker game displays) with Atari, Inc. v. North Am. Phillips Con-
sumer Elecs. Corp., 672 F.2d 607 (7th Cir. 1982) (audio-visual display with substantial
similarity of expression between Pac Man and K.C. Munchkin game displays); see
also Synercom Technology, Inc. v. University Computing Co., 462 F. Supp. 1003 (N.D.
Tex. 1979). See generally M. NIMMER, supra note 57, §§ 2.18(H) (3) (B), 2.18(J), 8.08.
78. ROM stands for a "read only memory" computer chip; it may be used to store
a computer's operating system software or dedicated applications program that are
sold as part of a computer system.
1984] PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

"writing"? After all, is it not, in microchip form, a part of a machine,

a device, a utilitarian object-valuable yes, but protected under
copyright? The function of the operating system software in a com-
puter makes this analysis even more troublesome, because the com-
puter cannot operate without it-it may79 be supplied by the
hardware manufacturer as part of a system.
Confronting some of these problems, the Third Circuit Court of
Appeals decision in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer
Corp.,80 decided August 30, 1983, held that 1976 Act protection ex-
tends to operating system software in a ROM. Although this deci-
sion was reached on an interlocutory appeal, the reasoning and
holding is likely to be widely cited by other courts dealing with simi-
lar difficult issues.
The idea-expression dichotomy has led to suggestions that other
forms of existing and proposed protection are better suited to
software than to copyrights.8 1 Since copyright law only protects
against the copying of an expression and not an idea, and does not
protect against independent creation of an identical work,8 2 combin-
ing copyright with other forms of protection is desirable to the ex-
tent possible. Although this may be true at the present time, there
have been efforts made to adapt copyright law to the changes in
technology over the years and current copyright law may be extend-
able to protect object codes, firmware (e.g., ROMs), and their prog-
eny. For example, Congress clearly intended to overrule White-
Smith Music Co. v. Apollo Co.,83 where the Supreme Court had held
that a player piano roll was not a "copy" within the meaning of the
copyright laws because it was embodied in a machine or device,
even though it could reproduce copyrighted music when it was
played on an appropriate instrument,8 4 when it passed the 1976
Copyright Act.85 Another example is the definition of "literary

79. See Data Gen. Corp. v. Digital Computer Controls, Inc., 357 A.2d 105 (Del. Ch.
1975); Data Gen. Corp. v. Digital Computer Controls, Inc., 297 A.2d 436 (Del. Ch. 1971),
affd, 297 A.2d 437 (Del. 1972).
80. 714 F.2d 1240 (3d Cir. 1983). This case was settled on January 4, 1984 without
further judicial review. The settlement provided for entry of a $2.5 million judgment
against Franklin and Franklin's agreement not to infringe Apple's copyrights in the
future, subject to Franklin's right to dispose of its inventory. Wall St. J., Jan. 5, 1984,
at 10, col. 1.
81. See CONTU REP., supra note 64, at 27 (Commissioner Hersey dissenting).
82. See, e.g., Fred Fisher Music Co. v. Dillingham, 298 F. 145 (S.D.N.Y. 1924).
83. 209 U.S. 1 (1908).
84. Id. at 18.
85. See H.R. REP. No. 1476, supra note 63, at 52; 1976 U.S. CODE CONG. & AD. NEWS
at 5659, which states that the broad language of § 201 of the Copyright Act
is intended to avoid the artificial and largely unjustifiable distinctions, de-
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

works" as "works ... expressed in words, numbers, or other verbal

or numerical symbols or indicia, regardless of the nature of the ma-
86
terial objects.., in which they are embodied.
In addition, the object code or firmware versions of computer
programs are really derivative works of protectible writings, i.e., the
source codes.8 7 Congress even left room for the protection of tech-
nology under the copyright laws by not defining "original works of
'8 8
authorship.
Thus, in applying the terms "expressions," "writing," and "au-
thorship" to a software program, one must look back to the origina-
tion of the software to see if it meets the above requirements and if
subsequent transformations by compilers, assemblers, ROM design-
ers, and others limit the availability of copyright protection. If the
object code is the binary encryption of the copyrighted source code,
the two should be treated as one work; i.e., copyright of the source
code should protect the object code as well.8 9 Most courts that have
dealt with this issue support this analysis; 90 others still need
enlightenment. 91
What if the idea inherent in the expression cannot be used in

rived from cases such as White-Smith . . . under which statutory

copyrightability in certain cases has been made to depend upon the form or
medium in which the work is fixed .... [I]t makes no difference what the
form, manner or medium of fixation may be-whether it is in words, num-
bers, notes, sounds, pictures, or any other graphic or symbolic indicia,
whether embodied in a physical object in written, printed, photographic,
sculptural, punched, magnetic, or any other stable form, and whether it is ca-
pable of perception directly or by means of any machine device "now known
or later developed."
Id.
86. 17 U.S.C. § 101 (1982).
87. See GCA Corp. v. Chance, 217 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 718 (N.D. Cal. 1982).
88. 17 U.S.C. § 102(b) (1982).
89. See GCA Corp. v. Chance, 217 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 718 (N.D. Cal. 1982); Tandy
Corp. v. Personal Micro Computers, Inc., 524 F. Supp. 171 (N.D. Cal. 1981) (ROM chip
duplication as infringing copy under definitional provisions).
90. See, e.g., Williams Elecs., Inc. v. Artic Int'l, Inc., 685 F.2d 870, 877 (3rd Cir.
1982) (rejecting the "suggestion that would afford an unlimited loophole by which in-
fringement of a computer program is limited to copying of the program text but not to
duplication of a computer program fixed on a silicon chip."); GCA Corp. v. Chance,
217 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 718 (N.D. Cal. 1982) ("Because the object code is the description
of the copyrighted source code, the two are to be treated as one work. therefore, copy-
right of the source code protects the object code as well."); Tandy Corp. v. Personal
Micro Computers, Inc., 524 F. Supp. 171 (N.D. CaL 1981) (ROM chip duplication as in-
fringing copy under definitional provisions).
91. See, e.g., Synercom Technology, Inc. v. University Computing Co., 462 F. Supp.
1003 (N.D. Tex. 1979) (while instruction manual was protectible by copyright, arrange-
ment of data in the input formats was not).
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFIWARE

any other form?92 The Data General cases shed some light on this
problem. 93 These cases involved restraint of trade dealing with a
computer operating system that the owner, Data General, would not
license to a computer manufacturer that emulated the Data General
system. From a copyright perspective, the competitors wanted the
right to use Data General's operating system software with the com-
petitors' hardware, in order for their computer to be compatible with
the Data General users' applications programs. Another operating
system would necessarily have most, if not all, of the same charac-
teristics in order to be compatible; however, it probably would be
identical only if it was a direct copy. The question was whether or
not the Data General operating system design/idea was protectible
as an "expression" under copyright law. 94 The district court found
that it was, noting that there were available competitive operating
95
systems for Data General computers.
The 1976 Act affords copyright protection to subject matter cre-
ated after January 1, 1978.96 A work is considered to be created
when it is fixed in a tangible medium of expression sufficient 'to be
perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated for a period of
more than transitory duration. '97 Generally, copyright protection
endures for the life of the author and fifty years after the author's
death.9 8
The notice provision of the 1976 Act requires that whenever a
copyrighted work is published9 9 in the United States, or elsewhere,

92. Baker v. Selden, 101 U.S. 99 (1879) (bookkeeping system forms not protected).
In Baker the Court stated: "The description of the art in a book, though entitled to
the beneflt of copyright, lays no foundation for an exclusive claim to the art itself.
The object of one is explanation; the object of the other use. The former is secured
by copyright." Id. at 105. See also Taylor Instrument Cos. v. Fawley-Brost Co., 139
F.2d 98 (7th Cir. 1943) (charts to record temperatures not protected under copyright),
cert. denied, 332 U.S. 801 (1947). In Taylor the Court stated: "The chart is... indis-
pensable to the operation of a recording thermometer.... [T]he chart neither
teaches nor explains the use of the art. It is an essential element of the machine; it is
the art itself." Id. at 100.
93. In re Data General Corp., 1980-1 Trade Cas. (CCH) 63,219 (N.D. 1980); 529 F.
Supp. 801, 1982-1 Trade Cas. (CCH) 64,487 (N.D. Cal. 1980).
94. 529 F. Supp. at 801.
95. Id.
96. 17 U.S.C. § 302(a) (1982).
97. Id. § 101; See H.R. REP. No. 1476, supra note 63, at 52-53 (exclusion of "purely
evanescent or transient reproductions such as those ... captured momentarily in the
'memory' of a computer"); 1976 U.S. CODE CONG. & AD. NEWS at 5665-66.
98. 17 U.S.C. § 302(a) (1982).
99. Publication is defined as "the distribution of copies.., of a work to the pub-
lic by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending [and] [t]he
offering to distribute copies. . . to a group of persons for purposes of further distribu-
tion, public performance, or public display .... " Id. § 101. A public display of a work
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

a copyright notice must be placed on "all publicly distributed copies

from which the work can be visually perceived, either directly or
with the aid of a machine or device."'1° For copies distributed on or
after January 1, 1978, the notice must be affixed "in such a manner
and location as to give reasonable notice" of the claimed copy-
right. 01' The Copyright Office has prescribed the specific manner of
affixation and position of notices that will satisfy the notice require-
ment, 10 2 but a copyright owner may show that a noncomplying no-
tice is reasonable under the circumstances and therefore valid
under the 1976 Act.' 0 3 The Copyright Office regulations provide that
where works will be reproduced in machine-readable form, it would
be reasonable for the copyright notice to be displayed at the user's
terminal at sign-on, or continuously on terminal display, or on a per-
manent label securely affixed to the copies or permanent receptacle
of the copy, or embodied in such fashion that it appears at or with
the title or at the end of the work on printout. 1° 4 Although these lo-
cations are proposed in the alternative, multiple notices are fre-
1 05
quently used.
The alternative forms of copyright notice are the symbol ©, the
word "copyright" or the abbreviation "copr," and the year of the first
publication of the work and the name, recognizable abbreviation, or
alternative designation of the copyright owner. 10 6 Computer print-
ers and CRT screens generally are unable to reproduce the copy-
right symbol ©, and therefore the practice has developed to use
"(c)". Under the 1909 Act, the Copyright Office accepted such no-
tices on deposit, without expressly passing on their validity. Cur-
rent practice apparently follows this view. When the Copyright
Office was asked to clarify this use by regulation and recognize the

does not, of itself, constitute publication. Id. See also H.R. REP. No. 1476, supra note
63, at 143; 1976 U.S. CODE CONG. & AD. NEWS at 5759; S. REP. No. 473, supra note 64, at
126 (no publication upon mere display "through computer transmission"). In the
area of computer programs, it is unclear where the courts will draw the line as to
what constitutes "published" or "unpublished" programs.
100. 17 U.S.C. § 401(a) (1982).
101. 37 C.F.R. § 201.20(a)(1) (1983).
102. Id. § 201.20. This section provides that an "acceptable" notice must be "per-
manently legible to the ordinary user of the work under normal conditions of use,
and affixed to the copies in such a manner and position that, when affixed, it is not
concealed from view upon reasonable examination." Id. § 201.20(c)(1).
103. 17 U.S.C. § 401(c) (1982).
104. 37 C.F.R. § 201.20(g) (1983).
105. See, e.g., Midway Mfg. Co. v. Artic Int'l, Inc., 211 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 1152 (N.D. Ill.
1981) (the court found that a copyright notice affixed to the cabinet near the display
screen and displayed on the screen prior to and at the commencement of display was
adequate).
106. 17 U.S.C. § 401(b) (1982).
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE
10 7
validity of the "(c)" form, however, it declined.
Under the Universal Copyright Convention, 0 8 only the symbol
© is authorized. 10 9 Compliance with the Universal Copyright Con-
vention requirement is important for copyright protection outside of
the United States, unless the copyright proprietor intends to rely
solely on other conventions.1 10 The acceptability of "(c)" notices for
this purpose is generally left to determination by the forum country.
Another subject of controversy is whether or not use of the
copyright notice on software or related materials negates trade se-
cret protection. The argument for negation has been expressed in
various forms, including estoppel,"' and waiver or election. 112 To
date, the courts have not adopted the view that use of a copyright
notice alone forfeits trade secret protection." 3 In adopting regula-
tions on affixation of copyright notices, the Copyright Office explic-
itly declined to treat the presence of a copyright notice as evidence
that the work had been published, thus supporting the view that

107. Copyright Office Circular 61 (1964), 46 Fed. Reg. 58,307 (1981). The Copyright
Office stated:
Section 401(b) (1) of the Act specifies that one of the elements contained in
the notice shall be the symbol ©. . . the Copyright Office has no authority to
alter this requirement .... Although the print matrices may not presently
be equipped to print the symbol ©, they can presumably print either of the
alternative indicia....
Id. at 58,310.
108. Much of copyright protection for U.S. citizens under foreign law is obtained
by virtue of the Universal Copyright Convention. See generally M. NIMMER, supra
note 57, §§ 5.05(B) (2) (d), 17.04(B).
109. UNIVERSAL COPYRIGHT CONVENTION art. I1 (1), 25 U.S.T. 1341 (1974).
110. A citizen of the U.S. may still obtain copyright protection even if the nation in
which he seeks such protection is not a party to the Universal Copyright Convention.
There are several bilateral treaties to which the U.S. is a party that would afford such
protection in China (33 Stat. 2208 (1903) & 63 Stat. 1300, 1368-9 (1946)), Hungary (37
Stat. 1631 (1912)), and Thailand (53 Stat. 1731 (1937)). In addition, American copy-
right owners may obtain copyright protection under the Berne Convention to which
the U.S. is not a party and the Buenos Aires Convention, to which the U.S. is a signa-
tory, by following the prescribed requirements. See N. NndmER, supra note 57,
§ 4.01[c] n.35.
111. For example, that the notice is an admission of publication inconsistent with
confidentiality.
112. For example, that the claim of federal copyright is inconsistent with the pres-
ervation of state trade secret relief.
113. See Technicon Medical Information Sys. v. Green Bay Packing, 211 U.S.P.Q.
(BNA) 1001 (E.D. Wis. 1980) (the mere act of affixing a copyright notice does not void
a claim of secrecy under state trade secrets law); Management Science Am., Inc. v.
Cyborg Sys., 6 Computer L Serv. Rep. (Callaghan) 921 (N.D. m11.1978) (affixing a
copyright notice does not preclude a claim of secrecy). See also M. Bryce & Assocs. v.
Gladstone, 107 Wis. 2d 241, 319 N.W.2d 902 (Ct. App. 1982) (owner's use of federal
copyright notice did not prevent the state from applying its trade secrets law), cert.
denied, 103 U.S. 258 (1983).
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

trade secret protection is not forfeit. 114

Use of a form of notice that preserves both trade secret confi-
dentiality and copyright, by establishing the unpublished character
of the work while meeting the minimal requirements of section
401,115 is probably the best approach. This would prevent uncer-
tainty as to whether or not use of copyright notice might evidence
publication and thus deny trade secret confidentiality, and whether
or not widespread commercial exploitation of copyrighted software
might be deemed "publication" despite confidentiality restrictions
imposed by licensing terms. An example of one form of such a no-
tice is:
Confidential Information-Limited distribution to authorized per-
sons only. This software [data base] is protected as an unpub-
lished work under the U.S. Copyright Act of 1976. Created 19-- ©.
All rights reserved. [Name of owner.]
Inadvertent omissions of copyright notice for published works
after January 1, 1978, will not invalidate copyright if any one of three
conditions provided in section 405116 is met: omission may occur by
complete absence of a notice for published copies, postdating a no-
tice by more than one year, certain types of so-called disbursed no-
tices, 117 and by failing to meet special requirements for work
"consisting preponderantly of one or more works of the U.S.
8
Government."11
Notices omitted "from no more than a relatively small number"
of publicly distributed copies do not forfeit copyright. 119 There is lit-
tle guidance as to the meaning of the term "relatively small
number." Further, if the notice is omitted by a licensee or other au-
thorized user in breach of an "express requirement in writing" that
the distributed copies or phono-records bear notice, copyright is still
not forfeited. 20 Software owners should insert appropriately
worded clauses in their licensing agreements to gain this savings

114. The Copyright Office declined the proposed wording that "presence of a copy-
right notice should not be construed as evidence that the work. . . has, in fact, been
published or as an admission that notice is required," but stated that "affixation of
copyright notice may not necessarily evidence publication." 46 Fed. Reg. 58,307-08
(1981).
115. Section 401(b) requires that the form of copyright notice contain the follow-
ing "(1) the symbol © (the letter C in a circle), the word 'Copyright,' or the abbrevia-
tion 'Copr.', and (2) the year of first publication of the work, and (3) the name of the
owner of copyright in the work...." 17 U.S.C. § 401(b) (1982).
116. Id. § 405.
117. See id. § 406(b), (c).
118. See id. §§ 403, 405(a).
119. Id. § 405(a)(1).
120. Id. § 405(a)(3).
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

provision. If a notice omission is cured by registering the work

within five years after publication without notice, and reasonable ef-
fort is made after the omission is discovered to add notice to all cop-
ies distributed to the public in the United States, copyright will be
preserved. 121 Note that "reasonable effort" is an ambiguous term.
Even if one of these conditions is met, notice omissions may af-
fect the remedies available against innocent infringers who have
been misled. 122 In addition, errors in the name of the copyright
owner appearing in the notice will not forfeit copyright, but may
provide defenses to innocent infringers who deal with the person
named in the notice. 123 Omission of any name or date is equivalent
to the complete omission of a notice. 124 The Copyright Office prac-
tice has been to examine published works deposited with an appli-
cation for registration for the presence or absence of copyright
notice. Registration will be refused for works published before Jan-
uary 1, 1978, with notice omissions or defects that would have been
sufficient to dedicate a work under the 1909 Act. Works published
after January 1, 1978, with defective or omitted notices, will be regis-
25
tered with a possible warning letter.1
Thus, published software and data bases that lack copyright no-
tice may have registration delayed or issued subject to a warning
letter in light of applicable deposit requirements and the Copyright
Office registration practice. In addition, there are special notice pro-
126
visions that may apply to some data bases.
Copyright registration may be made for any eligible copyright-
able work, whether published or unpublished. 127 Works published
with notice under the 1909 Act, or eligible unpublished works that
were registered before January 1, 1978, must have a timely renewal
registration filed to secure extension of United States copyright pro-
tection beyond the first term of twenty-eight years. 128 Registration
affords two distinct advantages in the event of an infringement: re-
129
covery of attorneys' fees and statutory damages.

121. Id. § 405(a)(2).

122. Id. § 405(b).
123. Id. § 406(a).
124. Id. § 406(c).
125. See N. NIMER, supra note 57, § 2.04(c).
126. See 17 U.S.C. § 403 (1982). Special notice requirements apply for works con-
stituting "preponderantly of one or more works of the U.S. Government," i.e., "collec-
tive works." Id.
127. Id. §§ 103, 104.
128. Id. § 304(a).
129. Id. § 412. No award of statutory damages or attorney's fees may be granted in
an action for copyright infringement if the copyright is not registered before the
infringement.
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

There has been, however, some hesitancy on the part of com-

puter program proprietors to register their software under the Copy-
right Act deposit requirement. A deposit of the work to be
registered must accompany an application for copyright registra-
tion. 130 Under the 1976 Act 13 1 and the Freedom of Information provi-
sions of the Administrative Procedure Act 132 as adopted by the
Copyright Office, 133 the deposit becomes part of the Copyright Of-
fice's public record, available for public inspection but generally not
for copying. Proprietors are concerned that disclosure through de-
posit might forfeit trade secret status and make available unpub-
lished programs.
Particular regulations pertain to the deposit of unpublished
works fixed, or works published, "only in the form of machine-reada-
ble copies, such as magnetic tape or disks, punched cards, or the
like, from which the work cannot ordinarily be perceived except
with the aid of a machine or device."' 1 The deposit of these works
is to consist of one copy of identifying portions in visually percepti-
ble form, i.e., printouts. 135 Deposit of diskettes and chips is ex-
cluded because of examination considerations (i.e., the inability to
"read" the material) but should not affect copyrightability of com-
puter programs embodied in that media. Deposit of "identifying ma-
terial" may protect against loss of confidentiality through public
access to Copyright Office records to the extent that the material de-
posited contains none, or only part, of the significant proprietary
information.
It is questionable whether or not the public availability of
materials deposited with the Copyright Office will destroy trade se-
cret protection for information disclosed by the deposit. In Warring-
ton Associates, Inc. v. Real-Time Engineering Systems Inc.,136 the
court indicated that copyright registration will not destroy the confi-
dentiality requisite for trade secret relief as a matter of law. 137 The

130. Id. § 408; 37 C.F.R. § 202.20 (1983).

131. 17 U.S.C. §§ 701(d), 705(b), 706(b) (1982).
132. 5 U.S.C. § 552 (1982).
133. 37 C.F.R. § 203 (1983).
134. Id. § 202.20(c) (vii) (A) (computer programs), (B) (data bases).
135. Id. § 202.20(c) (vii) (B) states that:
"[I]dentifying portions" shall mean either the first and last 25 pages or
equivalent units of the program if reproduced on paper, or at least the first
and last 25 pages or equivalent ... if reproduced in microform together with
the page or equivalent unit containing the copyright notice if any ....
136. 522 F. Supp. 367 (N.D. ]al. 1981).
137. Id. at 368-69. The court held that the 1976 Act did not preempt the owner's
claim of trade secret misappropriation. There is a question whether in order to de-
feat trade secret protection a defendant must show actual loss of confidentiality,
1984] PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

problem of the required deposit was exacerbated because the Copy-

right Office would not accept deposits of object codes except under a
rule of doubt procedure based on its inability to examine the mate-
rial. 1m Recently, however, two developments have changed this sit-
uation. First, the Copyright Office will accept deposit of object code
accompanied by ten pages of source code without issuing a rule of
doubt letter. Second, the Copyright Office will act upon requests for
confidential treatment of software deposits. 139

V. DUAL PROTECTION BY COMBINING COPYRIGHT AND

TRADE SECRET PROTECTION

Copyright protection of software is effective and should be pur-

sued by any proprietor wishing to protect his interest in
software/firmware. Proprietors, however, should understand the
limitations of copyright, as well as trade secret, protection and use a
combination of both to cover the shortcomings in each. The combi-
nation of trade secret protection under state law and copyright pro-
tection under the 1976 Act will provide the maximum amount of
legal protection for a computer program short of a patent. For ex-
ample, if one were to create a new VX series for IBM computers, it
would be wise to place a limited publication copyright notice on it
along the lines set out above, 14° and market it with carefully drawn
contractual restrictions to preserve its trade secret status.
The interplay of trade secret and copyright in a dual protection
scheme provides ideal synergy. Whereas trade secret protection can
be diminished by marketing absent restrictions by contract or confi-
dential relationships, a copyright can provide protection even in the
case of unrestricted sales that would forfeit trade secret protection.
Conversely, although a copyright is not diminished by marketing, it
does not protect the idea, which trade secret protection guards. In
addition, whereas a copyright proprietor has the exclusive right to
copy, adapt, or create derivative works or other forms of commercial
exploitation of the copyrighted work, the trade secret proprietor can
also gain a contract/license to improvements, enhancements, modifi-
cations, and new works based on the same idea if the proper con-
tractual arrangements are made. If one can study the idea only by
making an unauthorized copy of the work, or can reverse engineer
only by reproducing a copyrighted ROM, copyright protection alone

rather than mere availability of deposited materials. See Carson Prods. Co. v.
Califano, 594 F.2d 453 (5th Cir. 1979); Franke v. Wiltscheck, 209 F.2d 493 (2d Cir. 1953).
138. See Copyright Office Guide Letter R-70 (July, 1981).
139. See Copyright Office Circular R7c.
140. See supra text accompanying note 115.
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

will suffice; but if the idea is available from the copyrighted work it-
self, then trade secret protection adds another dimension.
Thus, if marketing is restricted to the licensing of software with
express limitations on assignment, resale, adaptation, improvement,
enhancement, modification, reverse assembly, and compilation, as
well as reservation of all rights afforded by copyright, the dual pro-
tection of trade secret law and copyright will cover the weaknesses
inherent in copyright protection of software.

VI. COPYRIGHT PREEMPTION OF TRADE SECRETS UNDER

SECTION 301 OF THE 1976 COPYRIGHT ACT
Section 301 of the 1976 Act preempts state common law or statu-
tory protection of rights "that are equivalent to any of the exclusive
rights within the general scope of copyright . . . [in fixed works
that] come within the subject matter of copyright .... ,,141 Preemp-
tion does not prevent dual protection of copyright and trade secret
protection, but it does preclude overlapping protection.
In considering section 301 of the Act, Congress clearly set out its
objectives for preemption boundaries:
The declaration of this principle [preemption] in section 301 is in-
tended to be stated in the clearest and most unequivocal language
possible, so as to foreclose any conceivable misinterpretation of its
unqualified intention that Congress shall act preemptively, and to
avoid the development of any vague borderline areas between State
142
and Federal protection.
The language of section 301 requires a three-part test. One must
first inquire as to whether or not the subject matter falls within the
scope of copyright, specifically with reference to sections 102 and
103; if the answers to the preceding questions are affirmative, one
must determine if the rights sought to be protected are "equivalent"
to any of the exclusive rights in section 106.14 Underlining this test
are the threshold requirements that the work involved be a "Work of
authorship," and that it be "fixed in a tangible medium of
expression."'144
The legislative history of section 301 indicates that Congress did
not intend that the 1976 Act preempt trade secret law.1 4 5 The courts

141. 17 U.S.C. § 301 (1982).

142. H.R. REP. No. 1476, supra note 63, at 130; 1976 U.S. CODE CONG. & AD. NEWS at
5746.
143. 17 U.S.C. § 301(a) (1982).
144. Id.
145. I-R. REP. No. 1307, 96th Cong., 2d Sess. 23-24 (Report on CONTU Amend-
ments), reprintedin 1980 U.S. CODE CONG. & AD. NEWS 6482-83.
The Committee consulted the Copyright Office for its opinion as to whether
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

that have considered this preemption issue have generally found no

preemption; trade secret protection is not an "equivalent right" be-
cause trade secret protection extends to ideas, methodology, or
"know how" that is not protected by copyright. 14 The United States
Supreme Court decisions in Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp.147 and
Goldstein v. California,'" decided before the 1976 Act was adopted,
provided a definitive analysis of the preemption doctrine as it re-
lates to the Patent and Copyright Acts.
In Goldstein, a California tape piracy statute that provided
copyright protection for records and tapes for an unlimited duration
was upheld on constitutional grounds despite arguments that such a
statute would be preempted by federal copyright law. 49 The Court
specifically held that a federal copyright statute passed in 1971150 did

Section 301 of the 1976 Copyright Act in any way preempted these and other
forms of state law protection for computer software [i.e. trade secret or unfair
competition]. On the basis of this advice and advice of its own counsel the
Committee concluded that state remedies for protection of computer
software are not limited by this bill.
Id. See CONTU REP., supra note 64, at 18.
146. See B.P.I. Sys. v. Leith, 532 F. Supp. 208 (W.D. Tex. 1981); Warrington Assocs.
v. Real-Time Eng'g Sys., 522 F. Supp. 367 (N.D. Ill. 1981); Walker v. University Books,
Inc., 382 F. Supp. 126 (N.D. Cal 1974) (Kewanee establishes that claim for misappro-
priation of trade secrets based on state law may exist independently of copyright pro-
tection), affid, 602 F.2d 859 (9th Cir. 1979); M. Bryce & Assocs. v. Gladstone, 107 Wis.
2d 241, 319 N.W.2d 902 (Ct. App. 1982). Cf.Technicon Medical Information Sys. Corp.
v. Green Bay Packaging, Inc., 211 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 343 (E.D. Wis. 1980); Bromhall v.
Rorvik, 478 F. Supp. 361 (E.D. Pa. 1979) ("ideas" not copyrightable, hence misappro-
priation claim not preempted); Management Science Am., Inc. v. Cyborg Sys., 6 Com-
puter L Serv. Rep. (Callaghan) 921 (N.D. Ill. 1978).
Questions have been raised about the strength of trade secret protection. See,
e.g., Avco Corp. v. Precision Air Parts, Inc., 210 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 894 (M.D. Ala. 1980)
(trial court held trade secrets claim equivalent to copyright under certain circum-
stances and preempted, appellate court affirmed on statute of limitations grounds),
azffd on other grounds, 676 F.2d 494 (11th Cir. 1982), cert. denied, 51 U.S.L.W. 3419
(1983); Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., Inc., 501 F. Supp. 848
(S.D.N.Y. 1980) (preemption of conversion claim); Mitchell v. Penton Indus. Publish-
ing Co., 486 F. Supp. 22 (N.D. Ohio 1979) (broad misappropriation claim of plaintiff
preempted even though certain types of misappropriation not preempted). Compare
Bromhall v. Rorvik, 478 F. Supp. 361 (E.D. Pa. 1979) (no preemption of "idea" protec-
tion) with Hoehling v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 618 F.2d 972 (2d Cir. 1980) (pre-
emption of "fact" protection). See also J & K Computer Sys. v. Parrish, 642 P.2d 732
(Utah 1982) (preemption defense to trade secret claim could not be raised on appeal
for first time).
147. 416 U.S. 470 (1974). See supra note 47 and accompanying text.
148. 412 U.S. 546 (1973).
149. Id. at 550-51.
150. Pub. L. 92-140, 85 Stat. 391 (codified at 17 U.S.C. §§ 1(f), 5(n), 19, 20, 26, 101(e)
(1982)).
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

not preempt the California lawi51 despite the Court's previous deci-
sions in Sears, Roebuck & Co. v. Stiffel Co.,152 and Compco Corp. v.
Day-Brite Lighting I s 3 that recognized a congressional policy of es-
tablishing uniform laws throughout the United States in order to
protect original writings.1 5 4 The Court distinguished the
Sears/Compco cases on the grounds that they dealt with high stan-
dards of patentability for mechanical designs and arose in an unfair
competition context. 5 5 The Goldstein Court reasoned that the area
of sound recordings had been left "unattended" by Congress and
therefore was open to state regulation, so long as the regulation did
not interfere with the operation of the copyright laws. 5 6 Goldstein
specifically held that the copyright clause of the United States Con-
15 7
stitution did not vest exclusive power in Congress over "writings.'
In Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp.,158 the Supreme Court simi-
larly held that the patent clause of the Constitution did not vest ex-
clusive power in Congress over "discoveries"' 1 9 and that Ohio trade
secret law was not preempted by federal patent law. 60 Moreover,
the Court held that this holding was not contrary to the
Sears/Compco cases, thereby allowing the Sears/Compco holdings
to stand.' 6 ' What is particularly interesting about both the Gold-
stein and Kewanee decisions is precisely how they distinguished
the Sears/Compco cases without overruling them. Both Goldstein
and Kewanee discuss the similarity of goals between the patent,
copyright, and trade secret laws, and the state regulation concerning
the wrongs sought to be redressed in each case; economic issues
and the public interest are also discussed. Goldstein was less
straightforward, in that the Court created a concept of national ver-

151. Goldstein, 412 U.S. at 558.

152. 376 U.S. 225 (1964).
153. 376 U.S. 234 (1964).
154. Id. at 237-38; Sears, 376 U.S. at 231-32. In Goldstein, petitioners claimed "that
Congress intended to allow individuals to copy any work which was not protected by
federal copyright." 412 U.S. at 551.
155. 412 U.S. at 569. Specifically, the Court stated that the "question [in Sears and
Compeo ] was whether a State could, under principles of state unfair competition law,
preclude the copying of mechanical configurations which did not possess the qualities
required for the granting of a federal design or mechanical patent." Id. (emphasis
added).
156. Id. at 570. "[Congress] has left the area unattended, and no reason exists
why the State should not be free to act." Id.
157. Id. at 560, 571.
158. 416 U.S. 470 (1974).
159. Id. at 479. The Court stated. "Just as the States may exercise regulatory
power over writings so may the States regulate with respect to discoveries." Id.
160. Id. at 491-93.
161. Id. at 481-83.
19841 PROTECTION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

sus local interest to justify the California regulation. 162 California is

one of the major centers in the world recording industry, and appar-
ently the Court recognized the lack of a sufficient remedy under the
copyright laws for piracy of recordings. The main thrust of the deci-
sion, however, was that Congress did not express an intent to carve
out this particular copyright area for regulation; power was there-
fore retained by the states under the Supremacy Clause of the Con-
stitution.1 63 Kewanee also focused on the economic interest and the
public benefit, but in a more pragmatic manner. The Kewanee
Court approached the issue by discussing the debilitating effect on
research and development if discoveries could not be safeguarded
by trade secret protection before patentability, and the ultimate loss
to the pubic. 64 The Court also engaged in an extensive analysis of
relative degrees of patentability vis-a-vis trade secret law, 165 holding
that trade secret law was not preempted even when the subject mat-
ter was clearly patentable because it would require the state courts
to make decisions concerning patentability.1 66 In the view of the
Kewanee Court, this would effectively "overburden" the state
courts.' 6 7 Citing Goldstein with approval, 168 the Kewanee Court
also reasoned that the same policies underlying the patent and
copyright clause of the Constitution, and that have encouraged in-
vention, justified state trade secret regulations; states can regulate
as long as the regulation is not in conflict with the operation of fed-
169
eral patent and copyright laws.
This line of cases brings us back to the meaning of "equivalent

162. 412 U.S. at 552-60.

163. Id. at 561-70.
164. The Court noted that trade secret law protects materials that would not be
proper subjects for patent protection. 416 U.S. at 482.
Since no patent is available for a discovery, however useful, novel, and non-
obvious, unless it falls within one of the express categories of patentable sub-
ject matter... , the holder of such a discovery would have no reason to ap-
ply for a patent whether trade secret protection existed or not. Abolition of
trade secret protection would, therefore, not result in increased disclosure to
the public of discoveries in the area of nonpatentable subject matter.
Id. at 483.
165. Id. at 485.
Trade secret law will encourage invention in areas where patent law does not
reach, and will prompt the independent innovator to proceed with the discov-
ery and exploitation of his invention. Competition is fostered and the public
is not deprived of the use of valuable, if not quite patentable, invention.
Id. (citation omitted).
166. Clearly unpatentable situations (Id. at 484-87); doubtfully patentable (Id. at
487-89); or clearly patentable (Id. at 489-91).
167. Id. at 492.
168. Id. at 491-92.
169. Id. at 483.
 COMPUTER/LAW JOURNAL [Vol. IV

rights" under the 1976 Act and the CONTU Amendment. It appears
that Congress seriously considered the limiting effect of Goldstein
and Kewanee on the Sears/Compco cases as section 301 evolved.
This line of cases, read in conjunction with the 1976 Copyright Act,
indicates that an expansive reading should not be given to the
Sears/Compco doctrine; had Congress intended to preempt trade
secret law, it would have explicitly done so.

VII. CONCLUSION
If possible, dual protection under both copyright and trade
secrets law should be utilized to protect software. If trade secret
protection is unavailable due to marketing or other considerations,
then software should be protected by copyright means alone. In
either event, the copyright should be registered with the Copyright
Office as an unpublished work and a notice similar to the one set
out above 170 should be included to protect against inadvertent publi-
cation of the unpublished software.

170. See supra note 115 and accompanying text.