Topic 2: Ecology

2.1 Individuals, populations, communities, and ecosystems

Guiding question: How can natural systems be modeled, and can these models be used to predict the effects
of human disturbance?
● 2.1.1 The biosphere is an ecological system composed of individuals, populations, communities,
ecosystems. A biosphere represents the parts of the Earth where life exists. 1.2
● 2.1.2 An individual organism is a member of a species. According to the biological species concept, a
species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
● 2.1.3 Classification of organisms allows for efficient identification and prediction of characteristics.
Classification is needed because of the immense diversity of species. The first name is the genus, the
second name is the species; species in the same genus have similar traits. The genus name is given
an initial capital letter. The species name is lowercase; both genus and species should be either
italicized or underlined.
● 2.1.4 Taxonomists use a variety of tools to identify an organism. Identification in this context means
determining the species of an individual organism. Tools include dichotomous keys, comparison of
specimens with reference to collections by taxonomists, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
surveys. Application of skills: Know how to use dichotomous keys, applications and databases for the
identification of species.
● 2.1.5 A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same
time, and which are capable of interbreeding. A population is an interbreeding unit. One species may
consist of any number of populations, from one to many. The term “metapopulation” is not required.
Application of skills: Investigate a local ecosystem.
● 2.1.6 Factors that determine the distribution of a population can be abiotic or biotic. Biotic refers to
the living components of an ecosystem; abiotic refers to non-living physical factors that may influence
organisms.
● 2.1.7 Temperature, sunlight, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen and soil texture are examples of many
abiotic factors that affect species distributions in ecosystems. Abiotic factors can be quantified in order
to clarify the distribution of species. Application of skills: Use methods for measuring at least three
abiotic factors in an aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem, including the use of data logging. Syllabus content
40 Environmental systems and societies guide
● 2.1.8 A niche describes the particular set of abiotic and biotic conditions and resources upon which an
organism or a population depends. An ecological niche is the role of a species in an ecosystem. The
niche comprises all biotic and abiotic interactions that influence the growth, survival and reproduction of
a population, including how food is obtained. Include some of the parameters of a niche for a named
species.
● 2.1.9 Populations interact in ecosystems by herbivory, predation, parasitism, mutualism, disease
and competition, with ecological, behavioural and evolutionary consequences. Consider one example
of each relationship and consider how the relationships influence the population dynamics of the
interacting populations and the selective pressures involved. Application of skills: Use models that
demonstrate feeding relationships, such as predator–prey.
● 2.1.10 Carrying capacity is the maximum size of a population determined by competition for limited
resources. Include examples of resources that may affect carrying capacity, including biotic and abiotic
factors. 5.2, 8.2
● 2.1.11 Population size is regulated by density-dependent factors and negative feedback
mechanisms. Density-independent factors may have significant influence on population size, but it is
the density dependent factors that tend to regulate the population around the carrying capacity. In
addition to competition for limited resources, include the increased risk of predation and the transfer of
pathogens in dense populations. These are examples of negative feedback returning a population to
equilibrium.
● 2.1.12 Population growth can either be exponential or limited by carrying capacity. If there are no
limiting factors, population growth follows a J-curve (exponential growth). When density-dependent
limiting factors start to operate, the curve becomes S-shaped. Consider population growth curves in
terms of numbers of individuals and rates of change, and populations showing an S-curve and a “boom
and bust” pattern, for example, reindeer on St Matthew Island. 5.2, 8.2
● 2.1.13 Limiting factors on the growth of human populations have increasingly been eliminated, resulting
in consequences for sustainability of ecosystems. Include the effects of elimination of natural
predators, technological advances, and degradation of the environment. 5.2, 8.1, 8.2
● 2.1.14 Carrying capacity cannot be easily assessed for human populations. This is because of the
broad and changing ecological niche of humans. Include the idea of populations achieving equilibrium
within ecosystems, but human populations being less limited due to mobility of resources. The
expansion of the human niche also takes place through technological advances and changes in
consumption. The rapidly changing human habitat leads to estimates of carrying capacity that are
disputed and that can only be estimated for “now”. 8.1, 8.2,
● 2.1.15 (HL)Population abundance can be estimated using random sampling, systematic sampling or
transect sampling. Syllabus content Environmental systems and societies guide 41 Consider reasons
for selecting which of these procedures would be most appropriate.
● 2.1.16 Random quadrat sampling can be used to estimate population size for non-mobile organisms.
Percentage cover is an estimate of the area in a given frame size (quadrat) covered by the plant or
animal in question. Percentage frequency is the number of occurrences divided by the number of
possible occurrences. For example, if a plant occurs in 5 out of 100 squares in a grid quadrat, then the
percentage frequency is 5%. Percentage cover and frequency give an estimate of abundance but not
actual population size. Application of skills: Use quadrat sampling estimates for abundance, population
density, percentage cover and percentage frequency for non-mobile organisms and measures change
along a transect.
● 2.1.17 can be used to estimate population size for mobile organisms. Consider use of the Lincoln
index in estimating population size. Population size estimate = M × N R , where M is the number of
individuals caught and marked initially, N is the total number of individuals recaptured and R is the
number of marked individuals recaptured. 1.2, 1.4 Application of skills: Students should use the Lincoln
index to estimate population size. Students should understand the assumptions made when using this
method.
● 2.1.18 A community is a collection of interacting populations within the ecosystem. Communities
comprise several populations that interact in the ecosystem. Consider the concept of community in a
local ecosystem.
● 2.1.19 Habitat is the location in which a community, species, population or organism lives. A description
of the habitat of a species can include both geographical and physical locations, as well as the type of
ecosystem required to meet all environmental conditions needed for survival. Consider the concept of
habitat in a local ecosystem.
● 2.1.20 Ecosystems are open systems in which both energy and matter can enter and exit. An
ecosystem is a community and the physical environment with which it interacts. Consider the concept
of ecosystem in a local ecosystem.
● 2.1.21 Sustainability is a natural property of ecosystems. Inputs are balanced by outputs in a steady-
state ecosystem. Consider this balance in flow diagrams of specific ecosystems. There is evidence for
some ecosystems persisting for millions of years, for example, tropical rainforests. 1.3, 7.2
● 2.1.22 Human activity can lead to tipping points in ecosystem stability. Tipping points lead to the
collapse of the original ecosystem and development of a new equilibrium. For example, deforestation of
the Amazon rainforest reduces generation of water vapor through transpiration, and consequently
reduces cooling and precipitation necessary for the maintenance of the remaining forest. 1.2 Syllabus
content 42 Environmental systems and societies guide
● 2.1.23 Keystone species have a role in the sustainability of ecosystems. There is a disproportionate
impact on community structure of keystone species and the risk of ecosystem collapse if they are
removed. Consider two examples. For example, purple sea stars controlling mussel populations on the
North Pacific coast that would otherwise overwhelm the ecosystem; elephants feeding on shrubs and
trees, and thus maintaining savannah grasslands. 1.2, 3.3
● 2.1.24 The planetary boundaries model indicates that changes to biosphere integrity have passed a
critical threshold. There is an interrelationship between ecosystems and species diversity. Disturbance
of ecosystems due to human activity has led to loss of biosphere integrity. Extinction rates provide
evidence that the planetary boundary for biosphere integrity has been crossed. 1.2.14, 3.2
● 2.1.25 To avoid critical tipping points, loss of biosphere integrity needs to be reversed. Ecosystem
damage and loss of species can be slowed by protecting the integrity of ecosystems. Protecting
ecosystems ensures the preservation of the niche requirements essential for the ongoing survival of a
species. 1.3.18, 3.3
2.2 Energy and biomass in ecosystems Guiding questions • How can flows of energy and matter through
ecosystems be modelled? • How do human actions affect the flow energy and matter, and what is the impact
on ecosystems? SL and HL 2.2.1 Ecosystems are sustained by supplies of energy and matter. Ecosystems
are open systems in which energy and matter are exchanged. 1.2 2.2.2 The first law of thermodynamics states
that as energy flows through ecosystems, it can be transformed from one form to another but cannot be
created or destroyed. Energy transformations occur, such as light to chemical and from chemical to heat. 1.2
2.2.3 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration transform energy and matter in ecosystems. Transformation of
energy is a change from one form to another, such as light to heat. Transformation of matter happens in
chemical reactions and can be summarized using word equations. Application of skills: Create system
diagrams from a set of data of ecosystems showing transfers and transformations of energy and matter. 2.2.4
Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy to chemical energy in the form of glucose, some of which can
be stored as biomass by autotrophs. Glucose can be converted into other carbon compounds contained within
biomass. Students are not required to know the biochemical details of photosynthesis. 2.2.5 Producers form
the first trophic level in a food chain. Producers are typically plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria that
produce their own food using photosynthesis. 2.2.6 Cellular respiration releases energy from glucose by
converting it into a chemical form that can easily be used in carrying out active processes within living cells.
Students are not required to know that adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the readily usable energy currency of
cells. 2.2.7 Some of the chemical energy released during cellular respiration is transformed into heat. Heat is
generated by cellular respiration because it is not 100% efficient at transferring energy from substrates, such
as carbohydrates, into the chemical form of energy used in cells. Heat generated within an Syllabus content 44
Environmental systems and societies guide individual organism cannot be transformed back into chemical
energy and is ultimately lost from the body. 2.2.8 The second law of thermodynamics states that energy
transformations in ecosystems are inefficient. The second law of thermodynamics relates to the quality of
energy, and that when energy is transformed, some must be degraded into a less useful form, such as heat. In
ecosystems, the biggest losses occur during cellular respiration. The second law of thermodynamics explains
why energy transfers are never 100% efficient. 1.2, 5.2 2.2.9 Consumers gain chemical energy from carbon
(organic) compounds obtained from other organisms. Consumers have diverse strategies for obtaining energy-
containing carbon compounds. Include, with examples, herbivores, detritivores, predators, parasites,
saprotrophs, scavengers and decomposers. 2.2.10 Because producers in ecosystems make their own carbon
compounds by photosynthesis, they are at the start of food chains. Consumers obtain carbon compounds from
producers or other consumers, so form the subsequent trophic levels. In a food chain, organic matter flows
from primary producers to primary consumers to secondary consumers, and so on. Application of skills: Create
a food chain from given data. 2.2.11 Carbon compounds and the energy they contain are passed from one
organism to the next in a food chain. The stages in a food chain are called trophic levels. Traditionally,
decomposers are not included in food chains as they typically gain carbon compounds from a variety of
sources. However, consider the role of decomposers in energy transformations in food webs. 2.2.12 There are
losses of energy and organic matter as food is transferred along a food chain. Not all the food available to a
given trophic level is harvested: of what is harvested, not all is consumed; of what is consumed, not all is
absorbed; of what is absorbed, not all is stored—some is lost as heat through cellular respiration. There is,
therefore, never 100% transference of organic matter from one trophic level to the next. 2.2.13 Gross
productivity (GP) is the total gain in biomass by an organism. Net productivity (NP) is the amount remaining
after losses due to cellular respiration. Consider values of both GP and NP from given data. Losses due to
cellular respiration are typically greater in consumers than in producers due to more energy-requiring activity.
The NP of any organism or trophic level is the maximum sustainable yield that can be harvested without
diminishing the availability for the future. 2.5 2.2.14 The number of trophic levels in ecosystems is limited due
to energy losses. Energy released by cellular respiration and lost as heat by organisms is unavailable to
organisms in higher trophic levels. Because of this and other energy losses, typically 10% or less of the energy
flowing to a trophic level is available to the next level, limiting the length of food chains. Avoid the common
misconception that organisms at higher trophic levels must eat more food to get enough energy. 4.3, 5.2
Syllabus content Environmental systems and societies guide 45 Application of skills: Work out the efficiency of
transfer between trophic levels. 2.2.15 Food webs show the complexity of trophic relationships in communities.
Arrows in food chains and food webs indicate the direction of energy flow and transfer of biomass. In a food
web, species may feed at more than one trophic level. 1.2.14 Application of skills: Create a food web from
given data. 2.2.16 Biomass of a trophic level can be measured by collecting and drying samples. Dry mass of
samples is approximately equal to mass of organic matter (biomass) since water represents the majority of
inorganic matter in most organisms. Energy in biomass can be measured by combustion of samples and
extrapolation. 2.2.17 Ecological pyramids are used to represent relative numbers, biomass or energy of trophic
levels in an ecosystem. Pyramids of number and biomass show the standing crop per unit area at a particular
time. Pyramids of energy (“pyramids of productivity” in some texts) show the amount of energy flowing to each
trophic level per unit area and per unit time (usually kJ m-2 year-1). Consider pyramid diagrams and reasons
for variations in their shape. Application of skills: Create pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy from given
data. Follow experimental procedures on how to find biomass and energy from biological samples (plant
material only). 1.2.14 2.2.18 Pollutants that are non-biodegradable, such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB),
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and mercury, cause changes to ecosystems through the processes of
bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Bioaccumulation refers to the increasing concentration of non-
biodegradable pollutants in organisms or trophic levels over time (as more are absorbed). Biomagnification
refers to the increasing concentration of non-biodegradable pollutants along a food chain (due to the loss of
biodegradable biomass through, for example, cellular respiration). 4.4, 5.3 2.2.19 Non-biodegradable pollutants
are absorbed within microplastics, which increases their transmission in the food chain. Include an example of
pollution by microplastics and its effect on the food chain. 4.3 2.2.20 Human activities, such as burning fossil
fuels, deforestation, urbanization and agriculture, have impacts on flows of energy and transfers of matter in
ecosystems. Although burning fossil fuels may lead to increased CO2 available for photosynthesis, the other
pollutants and impacts of global warming will reduce primary productivity. Deforestation, urbanization and
agriculture all lead to loss of ecosystem biomass, disruption of food webs and capacity for photosynthesis
2.3 Biogeochemical cycles Guiding question • How do human activities affect nutrient cycling, and what impact
does this have on the sustainability of environmental systems? SL and HL 2.3.1 Biogeochemical cycles ensure
chemical elements continue to be available to living organisms. Human impact on these cycles can affect the
sustainability of ecosystems. 2.3.2 Biogeochemical cycles have stores, sinks and sources. Stores (storages)
remain in equilibrium with the environment; sinks indicate net accumulation of the element; sources indicate
net release of the element. 1.2 2.3.3 Organisms, crude oil and natural gas contain organic stores of carbon.
Inorganic stores can be found in the atmosphere, soils and oceans. A store is in equilibrium when absorption is
balanced by release. Residence time is the average period that a carbon atom remains in a store. Without
human interference (that is, mining) the residence time in fossil fuels would be measured in hundreds of
millions of years. 6.2 2.3.4 Carbon flows between stores in ecosystems by photosynthesis, feeding, defecation,
cellular respiration, death and decomposition. Consider systems diagrams of the carbon cycle and the
difference between transfers and transformations in these flows. Application of skills: Create a systems
diagram of the carbon cycle. 2.3.5 Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing gaseous and atmospheric
carbon dioxide and storing it in a solid or liquid form. Trees sequester carbon naturally by absorbing carbon
dioxide and converting it into biomass. Organic matter is fossilized into coal, oil and natural gas. 6.2 2.3.6
Ecosystems can act as stores, sinks or sources of carbon. In an ecosystem, the difference between total inputs
and outputs is the net accumulation or release of carbon. If photosynthesis exceeds cellular respiration in an
ecosystem there is a net uptake of carbon dioxide, and if cellular respiration exceeds photosynthesis there is a
net release of carbon dioxide. Use the example of a young forest acting as a sink, a mature forest acting as a
store and a forest that is destroyed by fire or deforestation acting as a source. 1.2, 5.1, 5.3, 6.2 Syllabus
content 48 Environmental systems and societies guide 2.3.7 Fossil fuels are stores of carbon with unlimited
residence times. They were formed when ecosystems acted as carbon sinks in past eras and become carbon
sources when burned. Consider the concept of fossil fuels but not the detail of how and when coal, oil and
natural gas were formed. 6.2 2.3.8 Agricultural systems can act as carbon stores, sources and sinks,
depending on the techniques used. Regenerative agricultural methods, such as crop rotation, cover crops and
no till, will promote the role of soil as a carbon sink whereas drainage of wetland, monoculture and heavy
tillage will promote the role of soil as a carbon source. Cropping over a longer timescale (for example, timber
production) and the subsequent use of harvested products will also affect these roles. 5.2, HL.b 2.3.9 Carbon
dioxide is absorbed into the oceans by dissolving and is released as a gas when it comes out of a solution.
While oceans act as a carbon sink, the human use of fossil fuels releases inorganic carbon at a faster rate than
oceans can absorb it. 6.2 2.3.10 Increases in concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide cause ocean
acidification, harming marine animals. Small decreases in pH can interfere with calcium carbonate deposition
in mollusc shells and coral skeletons. 2.1 2.3.11 Measures are required to alleviate the effects of human
activities on the carbon cycle. Consider at last three of the measures that are required. These include low-
carbon technologies, reduction in fossil-fuel burning/soil disruption/deforestation, carbon capture through
reforestation and artificial sequestration. 6.3, HL.a, H
2.4 Climate and biomes Guiding questions • How does climate determine the distribution of natural systems? •
How are changes in Earth systems affecting the distribution of biomes? SL and HL 2.4.1 Climate describes
atmospheric conditions over relatively long periods of time, whereas weather describes the conditions in the
atmosphere over a short period of time. Weather refers to the specific conditions being experienced at a
particular time or over a short period, including temperature, humidity, air pressure and wind speed. Climate is
the average of these conditions over approximately 30 years. 6.1 2.4.2 A biome is a group of comparable
ecosystems that have developed in similar climatic conditions, wherever they occur. Ecosystems developed in
similar conditions in different parts of the world can have many parallel features. Precipitation, temperature and
insolation are major influences on the distribution of terrestrial biomes. 2.4.3 Abiotic factors are the
determinants of terrestrial biome distribution. For any given temperature and rainfall pattern, one natural
ecosystem type is likely to develop. Consider a graph showing the distribution of biomes with temperature and
rainfall pattern on the horizontal and vertical axes. Application of skills: Create climate graphs showing annual
precipitation/average temperature for different biomes. 2.4.4 Biomes can be categorized into groups that
include freshwater, marine, forest, grassland, desert and tundra. Each of these groups has characteristic
abiotic limiting factors, productivity and diversity. They may be further classed into many subcategories (for
example, temperate forests, tropical rainforests and boreal forests). Syllabus content Environmental systems
and societies guide 51 Include the characteristic limiting factors, productivity and resulting biodiversity of
tropical rainforests, hot deserts, tundra and at least two other biomes. 2.4.5 The tricellular model of
atmospheric circulation explains the behaviour of atmospheric systems and the distribution of precipitation and
temperature at different latitudes. It also explains how these factors influence the structure and relative
productivity of different terrestrial biomes. Latitude is the angular distance from the equator (north or south of it)
as measured from the centre of the Earth (usually in degrees). Give details of the tricellular model with the
three distinct cells: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell and the polar cell. Include reasons for the distribution of
biomes using the tricellular model. 1.2.14, 6.1 Application of skills: Use the tricellular model of atmospheric
circulation and link it to the planetary distribution of heat and biomes. 2.4.6 The oceans absorb solar radiation
and ocean currents distribute the resulting heat around the world. Details of the great ocean conveyor belt and
thermohaline circulation are HL only. 4.1, 6.1 2.4.7 Global warming is leading to changing climates and shifts in
biomes. The general trend is of biomes moving poleward and to higher altitude. 6.2

2.5 Zonation, succession and change in ecosystems Guiding question • How do ecological systems change
over time and over space? SL and HL 2.5.1 Zonation refers to changes in community along an environmental
gradient. Zonation occurs due to a range of factors, such as changes in elevation, latitude, tidal level, soil
horizons or distance from a water source. 2.5.2 Transects can be used to measure biotic and abiotic factors
along an environmental gradient in order to determine the variables that affect the distribution of species.
Consider data in tables or figures related to zonation, including kite graphs. Application of skills: Investigate
zonation along an environmental gradient using a transect sampling technique and a range of relevant abiotic
measurements. Create kite diagrams to show distribution. 2.5.3 Succession is the replacement of one
community by another in an area over time due to changes in biotic and abiotic variables. Changes occur as
one community changes the environmental conditions so another community can colonize the area and
replace the first through competition. This process may continue for hundreds of years; pollen records in peat
provide evidence of such changes. Zonation is a spatial phenomenon; succession is a temporal phenomenon.
6.2 Application of skills: Use secondary data and a mapping database to recreate or map the changes through
succession in a given area. 2.5.4 Each seral community (sere) in a succession causes changes in
environmental conditions that allow the next community to replace it through competition until a stable climax
community is reached. For example, mosses start soil formation on bare rock, allowing larger plants to
colonize. Syllabus content Environmental systems and societies guide 53 2.5.5 Primary successions happen
on newly formed substratum where there is no soil or preexisting community, such as rock newly formed by
volcanism, moraines revealed by retreating glaciers, wind-blown sand or waterborne silt. Consider an example
of primary succession, which could be a well-documented example, such as Surtsey, or a local example. Use
the following terms: seral communities or stages; pioneer and climax communities. 2.5.6 Secondary
successions happen on bare soil where there has been a pre-existing community, such as a field where
agriculture has ceased or a forest after an intense firestorm. Consider an example of secondary succession,
which could be a well-documented example, such as the Broadbalk Wilderness at Rothamsted, or a local
example. 2.5.7 Energy flow, productivity, species diversity, soil depth and nutrient cycling change over time
during succession. Consider data in tables or figures related to succession and the reasons for changes in
these factors. 2.5.8 An ecosystem’s capacity to tolerate disturbances and maintain equilibrium depends on its
diversity and resilience. Consider the links between ecosystem resilience, stability, succession, diversity and
human activity. For example, succession increases diversity which adds to resilience and stability, though
human interference can cause a reduction in these qualities. 1.2, 6.2