UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Meaning of Chemistry
Science is the systematic study of things in nature, the changes that they are
involved in and the reasons for these changes. Our world is full of wonders of
science and technology. As you continue to study science, you will learn more
about these. You might even become a great scientist yourself and come up with
your own interesting and useful discoveries.
At primary school level, science is learnt as a general subject. At secondary level,
the study of science is split into three main subjects. These are Physics, Biology
and Chemistry (Fig. 1.1). The application from these subjects is studied in related
subjects such as Agriculture, Home Science and others.

BIOLOGY PHYSICS

Biology is the study Physics is the study of

Of living things. SCIENCE Objects, forces, light, heat and
Electricity.

CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the study of structure and composition

Of substances and the way they behave under different
condition.
Fig. 1.1 Branches of science
You have already learnt some aspects of Chemistry in primary school Science. In
secondary school, we will build upon this knowledge in the various topics that are
in this book and other Chemistry books.
Branches of Chemistry
Chemistry is further sub-divided into six branches as shown in Fig. 1.2

Environmental Chemistry Analytical Chemistry

CHEMISTRY

Physical Chemistry Industrial Chemistry

Inorganic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
Fig. 1.2 Branches of Chemistry
Table 1.1 gives the description of each of the branches.
Table 1.1 Description of branches of Chemistry
Branch of Chemistry Description Example
Analytical Chemistry The study of the Food processing industry
separation, identification
and quantification of the
chemical components of
natural and artificial
materials
Industrial Chemistry The study of the Manufacture of
application of physical painkillers like Panadol.
and chemical processes
towards the change of
raw material into
beneficial products.
Organic Chemistry The study of compounds Distillation of crude oil.
of carbon apart from the
oxides and carbonates.
Inorganic Chemistry The study of properties Fertilizers’ composition
of materials from non-
biological origins
 Physical Chemistry The study of how Separation of coloured
chemical compounds and substance.
their constituents react
and interact with each
other
Environmental Chemistry The study of chemical Pollution of air, soil and
process occurring in the water.
environment which are
impacted by human
activities.

In secondary school we will learn the elements of each one of these Chemistry
branches at different depths and coverage in topics of this course. It is important
to know that each one of these branches is useful in everyday life.
Importance of Chemistry in everyday life
Chemistry is very important in everyday life. Fig 1.3 shows some applications of
Chemistry in everyday life.

Fig. 1.3 Application of Chemistry

 a. When baking powder is added to doughnut or bread and the mixtures
baked in a hot oven, the rising of the bread can be explained in Chemistry.
b. In the manufacture of soap and other detergents Chemistry is applied.
When you wash clothes using soap, the cleaning action is explained in
Chemistry.
c. Chemistry is applied in manufacture of drugs such as Panadol. Such drugs
are used in homes and hospitals.
d. Chemistry is applied in cooking especially in mixing of ingredients while
making a cup of tea and preparation of nsima.
Other application of Chemistry include:
 The industrial manufacture of plastics, glass, cement, fabrics like nylon and
polyester, soaps, insecticides, fertilizer, industrial food processing and
others require sound knowledge of Chemistry.
 The processing of crude oil.
 Discovery, testing and release of new drugs into the market.
Chemistry and career choices
We have already seen that Chemistry has a lot to offer in our day-to-day lives.
There are many careers in Chemistry to pursue after leaving school, college or
university. Some of these careers are shown in Fig 1.4a, b, c, d, e, f, and g.
 Fig 1.4 Chemistry and career choices
a) Chemical engineers
b) Veterinary officers
c) Medical nurses
d) Medical doctors
e) Chemistry teachers
f) Pharmacists
g) Beauticians
Other career include geochemist, biochemists, food chemist, quality control
personnel, environmental chemist, photochemist, assurance personnel among
others.
All careers in Chemistry contribute to the welfare of the society besides offering
employment to individuals. What is the importance of each of the careers in fig.
1.4 to our society?
Chemistry laboratory and laboratory safety rules
Chemistry experiments are done in order to learn about changes in substances.
The experiments can be carried out in special rooms, known as laboratories.
However, experiments in Chemistry can also be carried out in other rooms or
spaces not necessarily designed as being special. These include your classrooms
and open spaces. Three elements; space, apparatus and chemical must be
present in a laboratory.
A laboratory is costly to build and maintain. In addition, chemicals and apparatus
are very expensive. Some of them are even harmful or poisonous to the users and
the environment. Therefore, careful storage and usage of the laboratory,
apparatus and chemicals are needed. Symbols or warning signs have been
developed to indicate the dangers associated with the laboratory, apparatus and
chemical. Study Fig. 1.5 which shows some of these symbols.

Fig. 1.5 Students entering into the laboratory in an orderly manner

Laboratory safety rules
We have already pointed out that there are dangerous and poisonous chemicals
stored in the laboratory. Also, there are glassware, cutting instruments and even
explosives materials like gas cylinders in the laboratory. Therefore, observing
safety while in the laboratory is very important. There are a number of laboratory
safety rules to observe in order to stay safe while in the laboratory. They include:
 Do not enter the laboratory without the teacher’s permission.
 Enter the laboratory in an orderly manner
 Do not rush as you enter the laboratory or scramble for the front bench.
 Avoid unnecessary movement in the laboratory
 Do not do unauthorized experiments.
 Do not taste any of the chemicals, even those that you think are harmless.
 Do not temper with electric, gas or water fittings. Always turn off water
taps and gas taps when not in use.
 Do not smell gases directly. Hold the gas source about 15-20 cm from the
nose and waft the gas towards the nose with your palm, then sniff
carefully, Fig 1.6

Fig. 1.6 Wafting a gas towards the nose

 never interfere with other student’s experiments left in progress in the

laboratory
 Never boil a liquid while facing the test tube towards yourself, friends or
books in case of spurting.
 Keep naked flames away from inflammable substances, especially volatile
liquids or solutions.
 If chemicals get into contact with your clothes, skin, eyes or mouth, wash
the affected area with plenty of water immediately.
  In case of a burn or a cut, report the accident to the teacher or laboratory
technician immediately.
 Read the label on all reagents before you use them.
 Do not put hot materials into the waste containers.
 All solid waste should be properly disposed of. Do not pour insoluble
materials into the sinks.
 Read and follow instructions carefully before you perform any experiment.
 All experiments that emit poisonous gases should be performed in a fume
chamber, or open space.
 After finishing with a reagent bottle, replace the stopper and store it in its
proper place.
 Always clean all the apparatus and bench tops after use. Wash your hands
well before leaving the laboratory.
 Do not move anything out of the laboratory unless authorized.
Caution: we often use glassware in experiment in Chemistry. Broken glassware
can cause deep cuts. It is very important to prevent accidents in the laboratory.

When performing experiments you must protect yourself by:

 Wearing a laboratory coat to protect your clothes from dirt and chemicals.
 Wearing plastic goggles to protect your eyes from solid particles or
splashing liquids.
 Wearing plastic gloves to protect your hands from corrosive chemicals.
 Holding hot objects with holders for example tongs or improvised holders
like folded paper.
 Tying long hair at the back.
 Preparing irritating gases in the fume chamber or open space.
Common laboratory apparatus
Apparatus refers to the set of equipment used by chemists to do their work.
Apparatus may be made of metal, wood, plastic or glass. Most apparatus used in
chemistry experiments are made of glass. Can you suggest reasons for this?
It is important to know the apparatus to choose and use when performing a
particular experiment. You also need to be aware of the purpose and accuracy of
the common laboratory experiment.
Laboratory apparatus can be put into various categories as follows:
 Measuring apparatus
 Heating apparatus
 Other apparatus

a) Measuring apparatus
In Chemistry, different apparatus are used to measure volume, mass,
temperature and time.
1. Apparatus for measuring volume
Examples include:
I. Measuring Cylinders
They are used for measuring approximate volumes of liquids or solutions. They
have different capacities. Measuring cylinders may be made of glass or plastic.

Fig. 1.7 Measuring cylinders of different capacities

II. Burette
A burette is used for measuring accurate or exact small volumes of liquids or
solutions during chemical analysis.
 Fig. 1.8 Burette
III. Pipette
A pipette is used for transferring or measuring small exact quantities of liquids or
solutions during chemical analysis.

Fig. 1.9 Pipette of varying capacities

IV. Volumetric flask
A volumetric flask is used to prepare accurate volumes of liquids or solutions.
They have different capacities.

Fig. 1.10 250 𝑐𝑚3 Volumetric flask

 2. Apparatus for measuring mass
A beam balance or electric balance is used to measure accurate masses of
substances.

Fig. 1.11 Balance

Balances measure mass of substances in grams (g) or kilograms (kg)
3. Apparatus for measuring temperature
A thermometer is used to measure temperature. Examples of thermometers are
mercury and clinical thermometer.

Fig. 1.12 Mercury thermometer

4. Apparatus for measuring time

A stop watch or clock is used to measure time.

Fig. 1.13 Stop watch

b) Other apparatus
These are mainly made of glass and are also known as glassware. Examples
include
i. Tubes
There are different kinds of tubes depending on their use. Ignition tubes are used
for decomposition of compounds by strong heating, ordinary test tubes are for
heating substances and boiling tubes are used for boiling small amounts of liquids
or solutions.

Fig. 1.14 different types of tubes

ii. Beakers
They are lipped glass or plastic vessels of various capacities. Beakers have many
uses such as boiling liquids or solutions (if they are made of glass) and holding the
liquid or solution.
 Fig. 1.15 Beakers of different capacities
iii. Flasks
There are various types of flasks in fig. 1.16. They are usually used to hold liquids
or solutions when heating and in reactions where heat may be liberated.

Fig. 1.16 Different types of flasks

iv. Gas jars
Gas jars are used to collect gases that are prepared in the laboratory. They are
usually covered with glass covers to prevent a light gas from escaping.

Fig 1.17 A gas jar

 v. Evaporating dish
Evaporating dishes are used to evaporate water from solutions in order to recover
the dissolved solid substance (solute). They are usually made of porcelain.

Fig. 1.18 Evaporating dishes of different shapes.

vi. Deflagrating spoon
A deflagrating spoon is used to hold substances when burning them in air or in
gas jars.

Fig. 1.19 Deflagrating spoon

vii. Spatula
A spatula is used to scoop small quantities of solid chemicals from a container

Fig. 1.20 Spatula

viii. Tongs
Tongs are used to hold hot crucible or crucible covers.

Fig. 1.21 Tongs

ix. Tripod stand
A tripod stand is used to support apparatus like beakers when boiling or heating a
liquid.

Fig. 1.22 Tripod stand

x. Wire gauze
It is usually placed on the tripod stand to hold beakers when boiling liquids.

Fig. 1.23 Wire gauze

xi. Stand and clamp
A stand is used to mount apparatus, whereas a clamp is used to hold burettes and
other apparatus when doing an experiment.
 Fig. 1.24 Complete stand and clamp
xii. Liebig condenser
Cools the vapour as it passes the centre of the condenser during distillation when
separating miscible liquids.

Fig. 1.25 Liebig condenser

xiii. Funnels
There are different types of funnels:
a. Thistle funnel
Used to add liquids into flasks at once:

Fig 1.26 Thistle funnel

b. Dropping funnel
Used to add liquids or solutions into flasks in small quantities.
 Fig. 1.27 Dropping funnel

c. Separating funnel
Used to separate immiscible liquids.

Fig 1.28 Separating funnel

d. Filter funnel
Used to pour liquids into containers with small mouths and also filter
solutions containing undissolved solids. A filter paper is placed inside the
funnel to hold undissolved material.

Fig. 1.29 Filter funnel

e. Dropper or Teat pipette

Used to deliver a little liquid when required in drops in to another container.
 Fig. 1.30 Dropper or Teat pipette
c) Heating apparatus
There are various heating apparatus that can be used in the laboratory. Examples
include: spirit lamp, candle, gas or kerosene stove, electric heater and the Bunsen
burner.

Fig. 1.31 some heating apparatus

The most important and widely used heating apparatus in the laboratory is the
Bunsen Burner.
The Bunsen Burner
The Bunsen burner was invented in 1854 by a German chemist called Robert
Wilhelm Bunsen from where it derives its name.
 Fig. 1.32 parts of Bunsen burner
Hazard symbols and their meanings
There are hazard symbols associated with the dangers in handling laboratory
chemicals and equipment. Refer to appendix I for some of these symbols.
Hazard Symbols Meaning
Explosive substances can detonate
any time. Chemicals bearing the
Explosive explosive sign should be handled
carefully and according to
instructions.
Toxic Toxic substances are poisonous.
They can cause death. So if any
chemical pours on your skin
accidentally wash it with a lot of
water. Watch out for toxic
substance sign
Oxidizing There are some substances which
can explode in the presence of an
oxidizing agent
 Corrosive There are some substances which
can burn your skin. They corrode
bench tops, metals and floors. Pour
water on any chemical that you
may pour on the benches
accidentally to make it less
corrosive
Flammable There are some chemicals that
evaporate easily and catch fire very
easily. They should never be
brought near open flames. Once
they are removed from the bottle
the bottle must be stoppered
immediately
Irritant Irritant or harmful substances
make you sick or endanger your
health. They can endanger your
health if they come in contact with
your skin or eyes for too long.
People who are asthmatic should
be extremely careful to avoid
inhaling such substances.

Common units of measurement and their symbols

You are familiar with some physical quantities such as: length, mass, time,
density, temperature and volume. Different books depending on when the book
was written have expressed the quantities in different units. For instance, old
books expressed length in yards, instead of metre, temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit instead of Celsius or Kelvin, volume in cubic feet instead of cubing
metre among others. This is no longer the case.
The SI Unit
In modern scientific literature an international system of units has been adopted.
It is known as the SI system of units (SYSTEME INTERNATIONAL D’UNITES)
It is accepted worldwide and the units are used to express quantities. Each
quantity has an SI unit and each unit has a symbol. For example, the quantity
mass has the unit of either Kilogram symbol (kg) or with gram with symbol (g).
Representation of physical quantities
Physical quantities are represented in symbols and units. Physical quantities are
meaningless if they have no units.
Basic and derived units of measurement
In Chemistry, there are basic acceptable International system of units (SI) used for
measurements. These units are increasingly used in schools, colleges and
universities. The four basics SI units as shown in table 1.2
Table 1.2 Basic SI units of various quantities
Physical quantity Name of SI unit Symbol of SI unit
(measurement)
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K

The SI rules demand that the symbol should not be followed by full stop nor
should they be plural of the mass of substance. For example, ten kilograms is
abbreviated as 10 kg not 10 kg. or 10 kgs.
There are however, units that are not SI and are used in books for example,
centimeters (cm) or millimeters (mm) for length, grams (g) for mass, degrees
centigrade (˚C) for temperature and cubic centimeters (𝑐𝑚3 ) or litres for volume
among others.
Derived units
Other physical quantities obtained by combing (dividing or multiply) one or more
of the basic physical quantities are called derived physical quantities. They
derived physical quantities have their derived units as shown in table 1.3
Table 1.3 Some SI derived units expressed in terms of base units
Derived quantity Derived SI unit name Symbol
Area square metre 𝑚2
Density kilogram per cubic metre 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Amount of substance moles per cubic metre 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3
(concentration)

SI prefixes
Sometimes working with SI units gives challenges because you may be dealing
with very large numbers or very small values. For example, one mole of a
substance contains approximately 6.0 × 1023 particles of a substance. Imagine
counting 6.0 × 1023 particles. How many days would it take? Others for example
length of a bond between atoms in a molecule would be as small as 10−10 meter.
In order to accommodate such extreme values, multiple of units in powers of ten
are indicated by means of agreed prefixes. Table 1.4 gives some of the prefixes
and their sizes as multiples of ten.
Table 1.4 Some prefixes and their sizes as multiples of ten
Multiple Prefix
10−6 Micro
−9
10 Nano
6
10 Mega
9
10 giga
See other multiple of units as shown in Appendix II
Measuring physical quantities
Measurements are made in our everyday lives; in school laboratories, shops,
farms and many other places. The measurements taken include mass and volume
which are taken to find out the quantity of matter present in a substance.
Knowledge of quantities of measurements in very important in sciences and other
subjects. In industrial preparation of substances, definite quantities of reactants
have to be measured to produce a desired quality and quantity of a substance.
This helps us to avoid use of excess substances, to know the cost of substances
used and finally know the quantity to be produced.
Soap is a substance which is used every day. It is manufactured using vegetable oil
for example palm oil and another substance called potassium hydroxide.
Measurement of volume of these reactants to get quality soap is necessary.
Measurement of other quantities accurately for example temperature is also
important.
Scientific methods of investigation
We have stated what Chemistry is, its role in society and some careers that one
can pursue after successfully studying Chemistry. But we must now try to answer
the question “How do we study Chemistry?” people who studied Chemistry in the
18th century had very few apparatus to use.
They were kind of speculative philosophers whose main aims were:
a. Transmutation (change natural) of base metals like copper, iron and silver
to gold.
b. To discover universal cure of diseases.
c. To discover means of prolonging life indefinitely.
It is important to note that early experiments were done in a systematic manner.
Today, with modern equipment and technology we study Chemistry with
organized modern scientific methods. These modern methods are tested and
verified in the laboratory. The knowledge gained during testing or
experimentation in the laboratory is used later in scientific research, for example
in discovery of new drugs and medicines. This forms the basis of.
The following steps should be carried out when carrying out an investigation:
1. State the question.
What is it that you want to find out?
The question may refer to the explanation of a situation or a specific
observation you made. The problem you want to investigate may be for
example, why do we sleep? Why is the sky blue? Or How can I design a drug
for a particular disease for example cancer or HIV?
2. Research on the topic.
Read to find out what chemists have investigated and learned about the
topic.
 3. State hypothesis
Predict using available information, what you think will happen on testing
or in the experiment. This guess must be stated and proved right or wrong
by experimentation.
4. Testing the hypothesis
Design an experiment or method for testing if the hypothesis is true or
false.
5. Analyze the results
This involves examining the data collected and determining what the
results of the experiment show. Do the results support the hypothesis?
6. Draw a conclusion
If the results of the experiments come out as predicted, the hypothesis will
be accepted as being correct. However, if the results do not come out as
predicted, the hypothesis will be rejected as false. This means that another
hypothesis is required. A new question can be asked on the same topic and
the investigation repeated.

Formulation of theories and laws

Using scientific inquiry, theories and laws can be formulated, through
experiments. If the results of an experiment are corrected and consistent they can
be used to come up with a law. For example,
From the results, you notice that mass divided by volume gives a constant.
The two quantities; mass and volume are related.
The relationship between mass and volume is called density. This relationship can
be used to formulate a law. For example:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Revision Exercise 1
1. Why are most of the apparatus in Chemistry laboratories made of glass?

2. Name two apparatus used for accurate measurement of volume

 3. Matter occupies …………………….. and has ………………………….

4. Name the following apparatus

5. Write down the names of four common units of measurements and their
symbols.
b). What physical quantities do the following SI symbols represent?
1) s
2) k
3) kg
4) mol

6. Differentiate between basic and derived units of measurements.

7. Name four instruments used to measure physical quantities

8. (a) What is Chemistry

(b) Name two branches of Chemistry
(c) Write down three application of Chemistry
9. Name four careers one can pursue after studying Chemistry.
10. (a) State four laboratory rules.
(b) Why must students enter the laboratory in an orderly manner?

UNIT 2 Essential Mathematics Skills for Chemistry

Standard form (also known as scientific notation) is the way that scientists write
numbers that are too big or too small. For example:
In Chemistry we often have to deal with either very large numbers, such as
Avogadro’s number which is, 602,300,000,000,000,000,000,000, the speed of
light 30,000,000,000, centimeters per second or very small numbers, such as the
mass of an electron 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 911g.
Such very large and very small numbers can be conveniently written as a product
of two numbers.
Thus scientific notation is a convenient method of expressing these large and
small numbers in exponential form (that is, in powers of ten).
For example;
a. The Avogadro’s constant 602, 300,000,000,000,000,000,000, is expressed in
scientific notation as 6.023 × 1023 . The notation 6.023 × 1023 tells us to
multiply 6.023 by 10 twenty-three times.
The first is called the digit term which is a number greater than one but less
than ten.
The second number is called the exponential term and is written as 10 with
an exponent (10 raised to a power n where n is a whole number, that
is,10𝑛 ).
b. The speed of light 30, 000,000,000 cm per sec is expressed in scientific
notation as 3.0 × 1023 . The notation 3.0 × 1023 tells us to multiply 3.0 by 10
times.
c. The mass of an electron 0.000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 911g, is
expressed in scientific notation as 9.11 ×10−28 g. the notation 9.11 × 10−28
tell us to divide 9.11 by 10 twenty-eight times.
d. The co-efficient of expansion of copper 0.0000167 is expressed in scientific
notation as 1.67 × 10−5 . The notation 1.67×10−5 tells us to divide 1.67 by
10 five times.
Multiply a digit term by a positive power of 10 moves the decimal point that
number of places to the right.
Examples of scientific notation with digit terms multiplied by positive powers of
10 written as numbers:
1.23 × 104 = 12300
9.46 × 107 = 94,600,000
7.29 × 102 = 729
Multiplying by 10−𝑛 where n is negative, move the decimal point (•) the number
of places indicated by the value of n to the left.
Example of scientific notations when the value of n is negative number:
1
2.56 × 10−1 or 2.56 × = 0.256
10
1
6.42 × 10−2 or 6.42 × = 0.0642
102
1
5.745 × 10−5 or 5.745 × = 0.00005745
105

Significant figures
A number can have one or more digits. For example 20 has two digits that is 2 and
0; 231 has three digits that is 2, 3 and 1.
A significant figure is a digit in a number that shows how the number is nearer to
its exact value. Figure 2.1 is an example used to illustrate a significant figure.
The ruler in figure 2.1 is graduated in centimeters, it is used to determine the
length of the graphite rod besides it to three significant figures. One may not
agree on the exact value of the third digit which reads as 1.35 cm or 1.36 cm. in
other words, the third digit is uncertain but important in that it shows that the
graphite rod is slightly longer than 1.3 cm. the two certain digit are known as
significant figures.
 Fig. 2.1 illustrating a significant figure
All figures apart from the last are precise meaning they can be obtained again and
again in an experiment. If the uncertainty in the last figure is known, it is included
using a plus or minus after the measured value. Our ruler in fig 2.1 permits one to
measure the length of the rod to the nearest 0.01 cm, thus the uncertainty is
represented by including it in the measurement as shown 1.35 + 0.01 cm.
When a number is rounded off, the significant or important figure are not
changed.
For example, 14728 rounded off to 3 significant figures will be 14700. In this case
1, 4 and 7 are the 3 significant figures.
The scientific notation (standard numbers) in a measurement eliminates the
confusion that sometimes occurs as to whether or not zeros in a number are
significant.

Example 2.1
Avogadro constant 602, 300,000,000,000,000,000,000 written in
standard form as 6.023 × 1023 shows that the number has four
significant figures. Thus the zero present in the figure above ate not
significant.
Example 2.2
The co-efficient of expansion of copper 0.0000167 written in standard form as
notation 1.67× 10−5 shows the number has three significant figures. Thus the
zeros present in the figure above are not significant.
In any number, the first non-zero digit is the first significant figure. The zeros in
the above examples are needed only to locate the decimal point and are,
therefore, not significant.
A zero will be counted as significant figure if it comes in between other digits or
appear after digit numbers written after occurrence of a decimal point.

Example 2.3
The figure 1.907cm has 4 significant figures the “0” is counted as a
significant figure because it is in between numbers. Written in standard
form it will be 1.907 × 100 .

Example 2.4
The figure 0.0090 ha two significant figures, that is; figure ‘9’ and
‘0’ after figure 9. The reason being the zero that appear after digit
numbers written after a decimal point are significant. Written in
standard form it will be 9.0 × 10−3 .

Example 2.5
75.000 cm contain 5 significant figures. The zeros are all significant
since they are not meant to locate the decimal point. The last zero in
this case indicates an estimate made to 0.001 cm
Significant figure rules
1. Non-zero digits are always significant

Example 2.6
1976 has 4 significant figures while 1.24 has three
significant figures.
2. All zero between other significant digits are significant

Example 2.7
10078 has 5 significant figures.
10.02 has 4 significant figures.

3. The number of significant figures is determined starting with the left most
non-zero digit

Example 2.8
0.00789203
The zero on the left hand side are not significant.
The left most non-zero digit of a decimal figure is usually the most
significant in this case 7 is the most significant. The zero between digit
‘2’ and ‘3’ is significant

4. The right most digit of a decimal figure is usually the least significant figure.

Example 2.9
0.00543 the digit ‘3’ is the least significant figure

5. In a figure without a decimal point, the right most non-zero digit is the least
significant figure

Example 2.10
7900, the least significant figure is ‘9’.
 6. Zeros are significant only if they are not being used exclusively to locate the
decimal point.
Expressing the numerical results to the correct number of significant figures
Measured quantities are often used in calculations. For example
a. In additional and subtraction
When measured quantities are used in addition or subtraction, a figure in the
answer will be significant if each number in the problem contributes a significant
figure at that particular decimal level.
Example 2.11
68.043 g Three is not significant
8.22 g
+ 12. 416 g Six is not significant
88.679 g
´9´in the final answer is not significant

b. Multiplication and division

When experimental quantities are multiplied or divided, the number of significant
figures in the result is the same as that the quantity with the smallest number of
significant figures.

Example 2.12
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
Number of moles of an element =
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

The number of moles present in 24.12 g of carbon element whose relative

atomic mass is 12 g will be calculated as;
24.12 𝑔
Number of moles of carbon = = 2.01
12

The moles will be written as 2.0 (2 significant figures) because 12 had two and
the least number of significant figures, but not as 2.010 which is a 4 significant
figure.
 c. Exact number
When pure numbers used in a calculation are exact rather than approximate, the
accuracy of a calculation is not affected. Pure numbers have an infinite number of
significant figures if they do not represent measurements. Pure numbers are easy
to identify because they do not have units.

Example 2.13
Obtain the average titre volume from three burette readings recorded as
20.3, 20.5 and 20.1 respectively.
20.3+20.5+21.1
= 20.63 = 20.6
3

A three significant figure should be retained in the calculation.

d. Rounding off numbers

1. When the last digit of a figure is greater than 5, increase the last remaining
digit by 1.

Example 2.14
14.628 to 4 significant figures is 14.63

2. When the last digit is less than 5, it can be dropped, leaving the last
remaining digit unchanged.

Example 2.15
15.473 to 4 significant figure is 15.47
2.2 Application of units of measurements
The international system of units (SI) are basic units from which all other units of
measurements are formed, as products of basic units.
For example
(a) Area
The dimension of area may be derived by multiplying the fundamental dimension
of length and width. That is,
Area = l × w or
Area = l × l (if the length are equal)
Since the SI unit of length is metre, the derived unit of area is therefore square
metres as shown;
m × m = 𝑚2
The commonly used unit of length in Chemistry is the centimetre, the derived unit
of area using centimeter units is square centimetres as shown;
cm × cm = 𝑐𝑚2
(b) Volume
Volume is a three dimensional quantity that is used to characterize states of
matter.
Volume is obtained by multiplying unit of length by width by height;

Volume = l × w × h or
Volume = l × l × l = 𝑙 3 (if all length are equal).
The derived unit of volume is cubic metres m × m × m = 𝑚3
(c) Density
Density is a derived quantity that relates the mass of a substance to its volume.
 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
That is density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Given that the SI derived unit of volume is cubic metres (𝑚3 ) the SI derived unit
of density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg per 𝑚3 ).
(d) Molarity
Molarity is a derived quantity that relates the number of moles to its volume, that
is,
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

The derived unit of molarity is moles per cubic metre (mol per 𝑚3 ).

Accuracy and precision

The term precision and accuracy are widely used in sciences where
measurements are made.
Accuracy of a result is the degree to which the experimental value agrees with the
true or expected value.
For example
In the laboratory, if you measure 20.5 g of a given substance, of which the actual
or known mass is 25.0 g, then your measurement is not accurate.
Precision means that the degree of closeness of two or more measurement
results in a given experiment.

For example
a. If you obtain a titre volume of a liquid or solution from a burette three
times, and get a volume like 23.4 𝑐𝑚3 each time, then your measurement is
precise. Measurements can be precise but inaccurate. Precise results, are
results obtained using sensitive instrument that can measure small
changes.
 b. The mass weighed using an electric balance (3.162 g) will be more precise
than the mass weighed using a spring balance (3.16 g).
c. A measuring cylinder with a limited graduation (markings) on it is used to
obtain experiment readings, the same error will be obtained during the
experiment. The reading may be somewhere in between two markings, you
will have to estimates its correct position by the eye. The reading will not
be accurate.
Errors make results different each time an experiment is repeated. These random
errors are minimized by repeating an experiment and finding the average mean of
the results.
Graphs
Graphs are visual representations of data values measured in an experiment. They
can be in form of line graphs or pie charts. Graphs are made using the results got
from an experiment, to make it easier to understand and interpret the
experimental data. The different types of graphs display data in different ways for
different uses.
(a) Line graphs
They are used to compare two sets of continuous data.
For example, fig. 2.2 is a line graph showing volume of hydrogen gas evolved
against time taken, when zinc granules react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Fig. 2.2 A line graph of volume of hydrogen gas evolved agaisnt time taken when
zinc granules react with dilute hydrochloric acid
How to make a line graph
a. Use a simple scale that will make it easier to plot all the points.
b. Use the data from the table to determine a convenient scale.
c. Draw and label the scale on the vertical axis (y-axis).
d. Draw and label the horizontal axis (x-axis).
e. Locate the points on the graphs
f. Connect the points plotted using line segments.
g. Write the title of the line graph.
h. When data starts with a large value use a broken scale.
How to interpret line graphs
The data in a line graph is represented using continuous line continuous line
segments. Components on the vertical axis and horizontal axis represent values
on the table (variables).
A line graph allows one to predict values of variables that are not in the table
through drawing;
  A vertical dotted line from the x-axis to the line on the graph, then another
one from the line graph to the y-axis to predict a quantity on the y-axis or
 A horizontal dotted line from the y-axis to the line on the graph, then
another one from the line graph to the x-axis to predict a quantity on the x-
axis.
Advantages of line graphs
1. They are good at showing specific values of data, meaning that when one
variable is known the other variable can be easily determined.
2. They show trends in data clearly that is, how one variable is affected by the
other variable as it increases or decreases.
3. They can be used to predict results of data not yet recorded.

(b) Bar graphs

They are graphs that visually display information using a series of bars or
rectangles. Bar graphs enable comparisons between variables, by determining the
value of a given variable compared with others. They are used when one of the
data sets is an ordered set of data (categorized).
For example, Fig. 2.3 is a bar graph showing concentration of solute in mol of
three chromatogram samples.

Fig. 2.3 a bar graph of concentration of solute of three chromatogram samples

A bar graph is thus a graphical display of data using bars of different heights.
How to construct a bar graph
a. Write the title of the graph
b. Label the axes.
c. Use the grid lines to create the scale
d. Use each bar to show quantity of a particular category.
How to interpret bar graphs
Components of the graph namely title, axes and scale of measure are reviewed.
A title summarizes the topic, the axes shows data that has been grouped into
categories or various quantities that were measured. Scale of measure
determines the length of the bar and gives frequency within the categories. The
data is represented using vertical or horizontal bars.
A frequency axis with an actual measurement is used to determine the quantity
represented by the bar. The bar lengths are compared using the frequency
(length). Note the span of the range and the breaks included within the interval.
Advantages of bar graphs
a. Bar graphs helps us to see relationships quickly.
b. They are useful for comparing facts.
Types of bar graphs
(a) Horizontal bar graphs
Horizontal bar graph contains a horizontal axis known as x-axis, the bars on a
horizontal bar graph start at the y-axis and run parallel to the x-axis.
The numerical value (measured values) are recorded below the x-axis while the
category names (names of bar) lies on the y-axis. They are suitable when more
space is required for writing categories names that are long.
(b) Vertical bar graphs.
Vertical bar graphs contain a vertical axis known as the y-axis, the bars on a
vertical bar graph start at the x-axis and run parallel to the y-axis.
The numerical values (measured values) are recorded on the y-axis, while the
category names (names of the bar) lies below the x-axis. They are suitable when
the names of categories on a vertical bar graph are short.

(c) Pie charts

A pie chart is a circular graph divided into sectors that represents numerical
proportions. The angle of each sector is proportional to the quantity represented.
How to construct a pie chart
1. Construct all sectors or data points to percentages of the whole data set.
2. Convert the percentages into angle, by multiplying the percentage of a
sector by 360˚degrees.
3. Make sure the angle calculations are correct by adding all the angles, which
should total up to 360˚degrees.
4. Draw a circle on a blank sheet of paper, using a compass.
5. Using a ruler draw a horizontal line (radius) from the centre to the right
edge of the circle.
6. Measure the angle of the data with a protractor, starting from the radius
line, and mark it on the edge of the circle. Use the ruler to draw another
radius line to that point, use the new radius as a base line for your next
sector and repeat the procedure until you get the last data point. Measure
the last angle to verify its value since both lines will already be drawn.
7. Label and shade the sections of the pie chart to highlight the important
data.
Example 2.16
Study the data in the table below and draw a pie chart.
Gas Percentage composition by volume in
air
Nitrogen 78.10%
Oxygen 20.90%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Argon 0.90%
Other noble gases 0.07%
Solution

Interpreting pie charts

Pie charts are graphs that measure part of variable in relation to the whole.
Interpretation of a pie chart depends on the title, the key and graph itself.
Pie charts are coloured by categories, which are distinguished by use of line or
shapes for purposes of correct interpretation.
 The title should be read correctly to avoid misinterpretation
 The key helps to interpret the pie chart by assigning unique colours to each
of the variables.
 Sizes of the sectors are compared percentage wise.
Advantages of pie charts
a. We can compare one quantity with another easily.
b. We can compare each quantity with the total (whole).
c. It is easy to understand and interpret the data.
Graph data interpretation
Data interpretation problems usually requires two basic steps:
a. One has to read a graph in order to obtain certain information
b. The information is manipulated in order to make conclusions.
Interpreting graphs
To interpret a graph one reads the title, looks at the key, reads the labels and
then studies the graph to understand it. The title is important, because it tells
what information is being displayed.
A key will explain symbols and colours used in the graph. In graphs, use of
different colours will help us to quickly compare different variables because each
variable has a unique and different colour representing it.
Labels of a graph tell us what variables are being displayed. Conclusions are made
faster using graphs than using data table or written data.
Table 2.0 shows a data table from a reaction between different volumes of
potassium hydroxide and different volumes of hydrochloric acid and Fig. 2.4 shows
a graph representation of the same data.
Table 2.0 Data from the reaction between different volumes of potassium
hydroxide and different volumes of hydrochloric acid
Volume of 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
potassium
hydroxide
Volume of 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
hydrochloric
acid (𝑐𝑚3 ) +
Volume of
potassium
hydroxide
(𝑐𝑚3 )
Temperature 21.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 25.0 24.0 23.0
(˚C)

Fig. 2.4 a graph of temperature against volume produced when different volumes
of potassium hydroxide react with different volumes of hydrochloric acid
From the graph, the highest temperature is 25.5, read where the extrapolated
lines meet.
 (a) Extrapolation
This is the process of obtaining new data points outside a known set of data
points.
Example 2.17
Using the data set of variables in the table below, draw a graph of temperature
against time taken for the magnesium ribbon to react completely with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(minutes)
Temperature 21.0 21.0 21.0 X 26.0 25.0 24.0 23.5 22.0
(˚C) of
hydrochloric
acid
Temperature Time Temperature
of the acid Mg is of the acid
before added with time
adding the after adding
ribbon magnesium

Fig. 2.5 A graph of temperature against time taken for magnesium ribbon to react
completely with dilute hydrochloric acid
From the extrapolated graph the highest temperature reads 27.0 ˚C whereas the
lowest temperature reads 21.0 ˚C
(b) Interpolation
This is an estimation of a value that lies within two known values that are in a
sequence of values.
Examples 2.18
Using the data set variables in the table draw a graph of change in volume (in
litres) against change in temperature in (kelvin).
Volume(𝑑𝑚3 ) 1 2 3 4 5
Temperature 120 240 360 480 600
(Kelvin)

Fig. 2.6 A graph of volume against temperature

Use the above graph to interpolate (predict) the volume occupied by the gas in
litres when temperature is 300K. This is done by drawing a vertical dotted line
from the x-axis to the straight line of the graph, and then drawing a horizontal
dotted to the y-axis. They y-value at this point, reads 2.5 𝑑𝑚3 which is equal to
the volume occupied by the gas at 300 K.
Review Questions
1. Write these numbers in standard form.
(a) 0.057
(b) 9

2. Write out these numbers in ordinary notation.

(a) 7.46 × 10−2
(b) 1.5 × 103

3. Indicate the number of significant figures in each of the given numbers.

(a) 0.008
(b) 477.0
(c) 1.8 × 103
(d) 0.5 × 102
(e) 1800

4. Perform these operations and express the answer to the proper number of
significant figures.
(a) 223.46 + 119.32
(b) 76 ×0.0000023
(c) 1.67 ÷ 52.8

5. Round off these numbers to 3 significant figures.

(a) 348.6
(b) 1989
(c) 0.0008297

6. Round off these numbers to 1 significant figure.

(a) 157
(b) 80.77
(c) 0.09483
 7. Convert,
(a) 5689 g to kg
(b) 770000 𝑐𝑚3 to 𝑚3
(c) 0.016 𝑚2 to × 𝑐𝑚2

8. The table below shows the temperature at which crystals appeared when 6
g of oxalic acid were dissolved in different volumes of hot water. Use the
data to draw a graph of temperature against volume of water.
Volume of 4 6 8 10 12
3
water in 𝑐𝑚
Temperature 62.0 58.0 53.0 48.0 42.0
at which first
crystal
appear (˚C)

Use the graph predict (interpolate);

(a) Temperature at which crystals would first appear if the total volume of
water was 7 𝑐𝑚3
(b) Mass of solid that would dissolve in 100 𝑐𝑚3 at 60 ˚C.

UNIT 3 COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Matter
In primary school science, we learnt about matter. Matter is defined as anything
that has mass and occupies space. For example a pencil, book, bicycle, water,
paraffin, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Give two more example of matter.
How can we show that matter occupies space and has mass? Mass is related to
weight or heaviness. The heavier the substance is the more mass it has. Space is
related to volume. The larger the volume, the more space it occupies.
Experiment 3.1
Aim: To show that matter occupies space
Apparatus and chemicals
 Beaker
 Boiling tube
 Water
Procedure
1. Fill the beaker or boiling tube completely with water
2. Add more water.
What happens when you add excess water?
Was your beaker initially empty?
Liquids and solids fill a container. Once the container is completely full, if you add
more of the liquid or solid it will spill over. Before the container is filled with a
liquid or a solid, it is not as empty as it appears. It is usually full of air. It is only
that we cannot see air. The liquid or solid displaces the air in the container! This
experiment shows that liquids, solids and gases occupy space.
 Fig. 3.1 (a) and (b) to show that matter occupies space
Matter exists in three different forms namely:
 Solids – for example stone, 10 tambala coin and wood.
 Liquids – for example water, paraffin and cooking oil.
 Gases – for example air, oxygen, hydrogen and carbon dioxide
Properties of matter
What is the main difference between these states of matter? Check your
differences with your friend’s differences.
In Chemistry we study how matter behaves and how the state of a substance can
be changed from one form into another under certain conditions. For instance,
the volume of a gas can be reduced by increasing the pressure at a given
temperature. A gas can be compressed, liquids can only be slightly compressed
but the volume of a solid cannot be changed by pressure.

Properties of the three states of matter

  A solid has a definite shape and a fixed volume.
 A liquid has no definite shape. It takes up the shape of the container in
which it is put, but it has a fixed volume.

 A gas (or vapour) has no definite shape or volume – it takes up all the space
in a container.
These properties are physical properties of the states of matter.
The following table shows a summary of the properties of the three states of
matter.
Table 3.1 Summary of differences in properties of states of matter

Property Solid Liquids Gas

1. Shape Definite shape No definite shape No definite shape
2. Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No definite
volume
3. Density Very high high Low
4. Flow Does not flow Flows easily Flows easily
5. Packing of Closely packed Some spaces left Particles are far
particles apart
The three states of matter will respond to certain changes. For example, when
temperature is increased, they all expand (increase in volume). The effect is much
bigger for a gas (which will occupy a much bigger volume) than a solid or a liquid.

Experiment 3.2
Aim: To show that matter has mass
Apparatus and chemicals
 2 empty tins
Discussion
You will realize that the tin, although initially full of air is lighter than when it is
full of other substances like sand or water.

Fig 3.3 to show that matter has mass

How matter is put together
Perhaps you wonder why solids keep their own shape but liquids and gases do
not. To find out why you have to study and understand how matter is put
together.
What happens when you break a piece of chalk into smaller pieces? The smaller
pieces you made could be broken into still small pieces that are sometimes called
particles. Each particle is too small to be seen.
When many particles group together you are able to see the substance (matter).
The particles in solids, liquids and gases are grouped together in different ways. In
Fig. 3.4 the little dots represents the particles. It shows the particles might look in
a solid, liquid and gas.

Fig. 3.4 Arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gas

The particles in a solid are in fixed positions and are arranged in a regular pattern.
In liquid and gas, the particles are not in fixed positions, hence a liquid and a gas
flow. Later on you will observe that the particles in a gas are always moving in
different direction all the time.
You can measure the mass of an object in units called grams. A gram is a small
amount of mas. What is the mass of your pencil in grams?
The mass of larger objects is measured in units called kilograms. A kilogram is
1000 grams. What is the mass of this text book in grams? How many exercise
books would you need to have a mass greater than a kilogram? Use a balance and
a set of gram weights to find out that air has mass and therefore it is a matter. We
can also measure the volume of matter. How?

Fig. 3.5 measuring the mass of matter

The particulate nature of matter
We learnt that matter occupies space and has mass. We learnt that under
different conditions, matter can exist as a solid, liquid or gas. By now you should
be familiar with the properties of the three states of matter.
In this sub-unit, we shall learn about what makes up matter. We shall also learn
about the behavior of matter under different conditions of temperature.
Experiment 3.3

Aim: To show that matter is made up of tiny particle

Apparatus and chemicals:

 A beaker
 Sucrose (sugar)
 Glass rod
 Water
Procedure
1. Put about 20 𝑐𝑚3 of water in clean beaker.
2. Add 1 tablespoonsful of sugar.
3. Stir the solution
 What do you observe?

Fig. 3.6 dissolving a sample of sugar.

4. Repeat the experiment with coffee instead of sugar
Sugar disappears because it has dissolved in the water. The sugar breaks down to
tiny particles which we cannot see. These particles are distributed throughout the
solution.
The coffee will also break down to tiny particles which will also be distributed
throughout the solution. The solution will be coloured black.
Other coloured substances can be used to show the distribution of particles in
water as shown in the experiment below.
Experiment 3.4
Aim: To investigate movement of colour (particles) in a liquid
Apparatus and chemicals
 Beaker
 Glass tube
 Potassium permanganate or blue copper (II) sulphate crystals
 Water
Procedure

Fig. 3.7 placing a crystal of potassium permanganate in water

1. Put 30 𝑐𝑚3 of water in a beaker
2. Place a crystal potassium permanganate at the bottom of the beaker with
the help of a glass tubing as shown in Fig. 3.7
3. Close the end of the glass tubing with the index finger and remove the glass
tubing
4. Leave the beaker undisturbed for an hour.
 What do you observe?
The water slowly turns purple.
Both the potassium permanganate crystal and water are made of particles. The
purple colour of potassium permanganate spreads out because the particles leave
the crystal and mix with water particles. They are distributed throughout the
solution which eventually becomes purple.

Fig. 3.8 Potassium permanganate particles distribute in water evenly.

The solute particles move throughout the liquid. This experiment shows that
matter is made up of tiny particles. The potassium permanganate particles move
slowly from the crystal into the water because they keep on colliding with water
particles as they move, eventually becoming evenly distributed and colour of
water turns purple. This is called diffusion.
The movement of particles also takes place in air. You may have smelled the
aromas of various plants or fruits for example pineapples, bananas, rose flowers
among others. The same things happens when we smell a nice perfume, or a foul
smelling gas like from a rotten egg.
Experiment 3.5 also shows how gas particles spread in the air.
Experiment 3.5
Aim: To show that gases consist of particles that move
Apparatus and chemicals
 Gas jars
 Bromine
 Glass tubing
Procedure
1. Using a pipette or glass tubing, place a drop of bromine into a gas jar A as
shown in fig. 3.9 (a).
2. Invert another gas jar B over gas jar A. (See fig. 3.9 (b)
 3. Wait for a few minutes. What do you observe?
 Why do we have to wait for a few minutes?
 Bromine in a vacuum will spread very fast. Explain why?

Fig. 3.9 Bromine particles spread in air

Note: Caution should be given to the poisonous nature of bromine gas.
Experiment should be performed in a fume chamber.
Both gas jar will be filled with a red-brown colour. Air is colourless while bromine
vapour is red-brown. It is also heavier than air. When the jar of air, (B) is inverted
over a jar of bromine, the red-brown colour spreads up into it. After a few
minutes, the gas in both jars is red-brown.
The reason for this observation is that both air and bromine are made of tiny
particles that are in motion. As they move, these particle collide with one another
and with the walls of the jars. These collisions cause the particles to change
direction. Eventually they become evenly distributed hence the red-brown colour.
This experiment shows that the gases are made up of particles. The particles of
bromine diffuse from the lower gas jar where they are more concentrated to the
upper jar where they are less concentrated. This is called diffusion. The smaller
stable particle of matter is known as an atom. So matter is made of atoms.

Change of state of matter

Change of state occurs through either.
 Melting of freezing
 Evaporation or condensation
Changes in temperature can cause a substance to change its physical state. Water
can be a solid (ice), a liquid (water) and a gas (vapour or steam). Its state can be
changed by heating or cooling.
Experiment 3.6
Aim: to investigate what happens when ice heated to boiling
Apparatus and chemicals
 Beaker
 Tripod stand
 Bunsen burner
 Thermometer
 Wire gauze
 Ice cubed
Procedure
1. Arrange the apparatus as in fig. 3.10
2. Place some ice cubes in a beaker. Place a thermometer in the beaker
containing the ice cubes and record the temperature.
3. Warm the beaker and its contents gently as in Fig. 3.10 (b). Note and record
the temperature at which the ice changes to liquid water.
4. Continue heating until water changes to vapour as shown in fig. 3.10 ©.
5. Record the temperature at which bubbles appear.

Fig. 3.10 Heating ice

6. Describe your observations as you were heating ice to change into vapour.
What conclusion do you draw from this experiment?
When ice is heated, its temperature rises steadily until it all changes to liquid. The
change is called melting and this temperature is melting point. It is 0˚C for pure
water. On further heating, the temperature rises steadily, and some of the water
changes to water vapour (or steam). This change is called evaporation. The hotter
the water gets, the quicker it evaporates and soon bubbles appear. The change is
now known as boiling and this temperature known as boiling point of water. At
sea level the boiling point of pure water is 100˚C.
The change of state from solid (ice) to liquid (water) and then from liquid to gas
(vapour) can be reversed by cooling. On cooling, the gas changes into water. This
process is called condensation. On further cooling (to below 0˚C), the liquid
changes into solid. The process is called freezing. The freezing point of water is
the same as the melting point of ice (0˚C). All these changes can be represented
as in Fig. 3.11

Fig. 3.11 Changes in physical state of water

We can conclude from the changes observed that something happens to cause
changes in state of matter. The readings we note on the thermometer enable us
to predict that the changes in temperature must, in a way be responsible for
determining the state of matter.
But what determines whether a substance is solid, liquid or gas? The explanation
of the state in which it is likely to be found under a given set of conditions is
known as kinetic theory of matter.
Changes of state and kinetic theory
Changes of state involves heat energy being absorbed or given out. Kinetic theory
explains the changes of state of matter.
 Intermolecular forces of attraction

Fig. 3.12 Arrangement of particles in the three states of matter

(a) Solids
 Solids have strong forces of attraction between particles.
 Particles are held in fixed positions by the attractive forces.
 When a solid is heated, the energy is gained by the particles. The extra
energy makes the particles vibrate more and more, but within the same
positions.
Further heating weakens the forces of attraction between the particles
even more and the solid changes to liquid. This is melting.

(b) Liquids
 Liquids have moderate forces of attraction between particles
 The particles are free to move randomly but tend to stick together. So, all
liquids do not have definite shape and fill the bottom of any container Fig
3.13 (a).

(c) Gases
 When a liquid is heated, the heat energy goes to the particles and makes
them move faster.
 The fast-moving particles at the surface overcome the forces of attraction
from the other particles in the liquid and escape into the air. This is
evaporation. Fig. 3.13 (b).
 Fig. 3.13 Movement of particles in a liquid
The above changes of state can be summarized as in fig. 3.14

Fig. 3.14 Movement of particles in the three state of matter

 When the liquids get hot enough all the particles acquire enough energy
and speed to overcome the forces of attraction between them and most
escape from each other to the air.
 During boiling big bubbles of gas from inside the liquid as the particles
break away from each other.
It is possible to compress gases easily because there is a lot of free space
between the particles, unlike in solids and liquids.

Fig. 3.15 Compressing a gas

During condensation, the kinetic energy of the particles of gas is decreased. The
particles come closer together, and the forces of attraction between them
increase. A liquid is formed. This process is called condensation.

Fig. 3.16 Heating curve showing changes of state

A thermometer is used to measure temperature. Water freezes when the

temperature drops to zero degrees Celsius. This can also be written as 0˚C. This
temperature is called the freezing point of water.
Ice melts when temperature of ice rises to 0˚C on a thermometer. So 0˚C is both
the freezing point and the melting point of water.
This involves decreasing the kinetic energy of liquid particles even more. Particles
come even closer together and the forces of attraction between them increase, so
that they only vibrate within the same positions. A solid is formed. This process is
called freezing.

Fig. 3.17 Effect of heat on ice

Elements, atoms, molecules, compounds and mixtures
Experiment 3.7
Aim: To distinguish between elements, compounds and mixtures
Apparatus and chemicals
 Watch glass
 Splint
 Iron filings
 Dilute hydrochloric acid
 Test-tube
 Magnet
 Sulphur powder
Procedure
1. Mix some iron filings and sulphur powder in any proportion and place the
mixture in a watch glass.
2. Pass a magnet over the mixture and note what happens.
3. Put half of the mixture in a test tube, add water and shake. Does it
dissolve?
4. Allow the mixture to settle. How many layers can you see? Which is the
bottom layer?
5. Put the rest of the mixture in a test tube and add a few drops of dilute
hydrochloric acid. Apply a burning splint. What do you observe?
6. Now place a mixture of 7 g of iron filings and 4 g of sulphur powder in a test
tube. Heat the bottom of the tube.

Fig. 3.18 preparing iron (II) sulphide

 7. When the mixture states to glow, remove the flame and note that the glow
starts to spread slowly through the mixture without further heating. Allow
the product to cool, and then remove it.
8. Note the colour of this product. Pass a magnet over it. Is there any
attraction? To half of this product in a test tube, add some water and
shake. Is there any sign of separation?
9. Put the rest of the product in a test tube and add a few drops of dilute
hydrochloric acid. Smell the gas produced cautiously. Describe the smell.
From the experiment, the observations are as follows:
 Before heating, the iron could be separated from sulphur by sedimentation
or using a magnet. These are physical methods. These methods could not
separate iron and sulphur after heating.
 Before heating, iron reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid to form a gas
(that produces a “pop” sound with a burning splint). Sulphur was not
affected. The product of heating iron and sulphur produced a gas with a
pungent smell (rotten egg smell).
 The mixture of iron and sulphur was an average of grey (for iron) and
yellow (for sulphur) before heating. After heating, the product has a dark
grey almost black colour.
 In mixing iron and sulphur no heat was produced. But after heating the
mixture, the formation of the new substance produced enough heat
resulting in a bright red glow.
Elements
There are substances that cannot be split (broken down) into simpler substances
by any chemical means for example the iron and sulphur which form iron (II)
sulphide. The two substances are called elements.
An element can therefore be defined as a pure substance which cannot be split
into anything simpler by any chemical process.
There are about 118 known elements. About 90 of these occur naturally on the
earth and its atmosphere while the rest have been made in the laboratories. Most
elements can be classified as;
 Metals or
  Non-metals.
All metals, except mercury, are solids at room temperature. They are also good
conductors of electricity. (Graphite is a non-metal but is a good conductor of
electricity).
In the following tables 3.2 is a list of elements that you will come across
frequently in your chemistry course.
Table 3.2 some examples of elements
Metals Non-metals
Sodium Carbon
Magnesium Nitrogen
Calcium Silicon
Zinc Oxygen
Iron Sulphur
Lead Chlorine
Copper Bromine
Silver Iodine
Gold Fluorine
Platinum Hydrogen
Tin Neon
Barium Argon
Beryllium Boron
Mercury Phosphorus
Uranium Helium
Cobalt
Chromium
Manganese
Aluminium

(a) Atoms
In Chemistry, these particles can be divided even further until no further division
is possible. The smallest particle that cannot be divided further is called an atom
of that element.
We have seen that matter is made of tiny particles. These particles can be divided
further by chemical means. When they cannot be divided any further without
changing the properties of the element, the particles at this stage are called
atoms.
An atom is the smallest particle into which an element can be divided without
losing the properties of the element.
Single atoms are far too small to be seen, even by the most powerful microscope
for example, about four billion iron atoms would fit side on the full stop at the
end of this sentence.
An atom of one element is different from an atom of another element. That
means that an iron atom is different from a copper atom. A copper atom is
different from a zinc atom and so forth.
We can therefore conclude that there are as many atoms as there are elements.
There are about 188 different types of elements and therefore there are also 118
different types of atoms.
Atoms do not exist on their own; they usually take part in a chemical reaction.
(b) Compounds
We have already seen that when substances like iron and sulphur are heated,
they combine chemically to form a new substance called iron (II) sulphide. A
substance formed by chemically combining two or more elements together is
called a compound.
Therefore, we can define a compound as a substance made up of two or more
elements combined together by chemical means. For instance, when magnesium
(one element), is burnt in air, it combines with oxygen (another element) to from
magnesium oxide. Magnesium oxide is therefore a compound of magnesium and
oxygen elements.
Other examples of compounds are water, a compound of hydrogen and oxygen;
common salt, a compound of sodium and chlorine; copper carbonate a compound
of (copper, carbon and oxygen). A compound has different chemical and physical
properties from those of the elements of which it is composed of.
Table 3.3 gives examples of compounds and the elements that they are made of.
You will learn more compounds in Chemistry later.
Table 3.3 Examples of compounds and the elements that they are made up of
Name of the compound Elements in the compounds
1. Magnesium oxide (white ash) Magnesium – grey metal
Oxygen – colourless gas
2. Water (liquid at room Hydrogen – colourless gas
temperature) Oxygen – colourless gas
3. Copper carbonate (green Copper – red-brown metal
powder) Carbon – black solid
Oxygen – colourless gas
4. Carbon monoxide (colourless Carbon – black solid
gas) Oxygen – colourless gas
5. Copper (II) oxide (black powder) Copper – red-brown metal
Oxygen – colourless
6. Copper (II) nitrate (green solid) Copper – red-brown metal
Nitrogen – colourless gas
Oxygen – colourless gas

Chemical symbols of elements

In Chemistry, names of elements are written in shorthand form known as
chemical symbols. This system of writing symbols uses letters taken from the
name of the element. This could be the English or Latin name of the element. The
symbol of an element consists of one or two letters. The first letter of a chemical
symbol must always be a capital letter. The letters should not be joined like in
handwriting. They must be printed. These symbols are an international code.
This means that all over the world, symbols are written in the same way no
matter how people spell the name of the element.
The names of several elements begin with the same letter. In such cases, the
second or third letter of the English or Latin name is included. This is always a
small letter. Table 3.4 shows some elements whose chemical symbols take up the
first letter of their English name.
Table 3.4 some elements and their symbols
 Elements Chemical symbols
Carbon C
Hydrogen H
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Phosphorus P
sulphur S
Table 3.5 shows some elements whose chemical symbols use two letters from
the English name of the element.
Table 3.5 some elements and their symbols
Element Symbol
Calcium Ca
Cobalt Co
Chlorine Cl
Magnesium Mg
manganese Mn

Table 3.6 shows elements whose chemical symbols use one or two letters from
the Latin name of the element.
Element Latin name Chemical symbol
Potassium Kalium K
Sodium Natrium Na
Iron Ferrum Fe
Lead Plumbum Pb
Silver Argentum Ag
Copper Cuprum Cu
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Gold aurum Au

We do not expect you to learn the Latin names. But you should learn the symbols
and read them in English. For instance, Cu is read as Copper.
Note: The symbol of each element represents one atom of that element. For
instance:
Mg represents one atom of magnesium.
2Mg represents two atoms of magnesium.

Molecules
All compounds consists of two or more elements chemically combined together
and exist as single particles. The smallest particle of an element or a compound
which can normally exist in a free and separate state is called a molecule. This
means that there are some elements whose molecules consist of one atom while
others have two or more. Molecules of a compound have two or more different
atoms.

Fig. 3.19 Atoms and molecules

Note: Molecules composed of one atom. Like argon and the other noble gases are
called monatomic. Molecules composed of two atoms like oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen and other are known as diatomic. Molecules composed of three atoms
like ozone are known as triatomic.
There are molecules which are made by combining different elements like in
water.
Determining type and number of atoms in chemical formulae of compounds
A correct formula of a compound or substance shows the atoms present in
compound in their simplest ratio. For example, the formula of copper (II) sulphate
is 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 . It contains 1 atom of copper, 1 atom of sulphur and 4 atoms of oxygen.
We will learn more on chemical formula in unit 6. Below is the table with other
compounds and the type and number of atoms they contain.
Table 3.7 some compounds and type and number of atoms they contain
Compound name Formula Atoms of elements present
Common salt (sodium NaCl 1 Sodium (Na) and 1
chloride) Chloride (Cl)

Water 𝐻2 𝑂 2 Hydrogen (H) and 1

Oxygen (O)

Calcium 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 . 1 Calcium (Ca), 1 Carbon (C)

and 3 atoms of Oxygen (O)

Pure substances and mixtures

We say something is pure if it consists of one substance only. We are familiar with
clean water. If you filter muddy water the filtrate is clear. Is the filtrate pure
water? Is clean water from rivers, streams and well pure?
Often it is difficult to tell by mere appearance whether a substance is pure or not.
A substance may appear as one, yet it is a mixture of two or more substances.
Name substances that you know that appear as a single substance but are
mixtures. Are the following substances pure?
 Tap water
 Rain water
 Well or spring water
 Alcohol (ethanol)
 Brass or bronze
 Metals – copper, gold, iron
 Common salt (sodium chloride)
Criteria for purity
We can use the melting or boiling to test the purity of a solid or liquid. A pure
substance melts and boils at a definite, a sharp temperature.
Experiment 3.8
Aim: To determine the melting point of naphthalene
Apparatus and chemicals
 A thermometer
 Stand and clamp
 Burner
 Boiling tube
 A melting point tube
 Naphthalene
 Beaker
 Stirrer
 Water
 Camphor

Fig. 3.20 Apparatus for measuring the melting point of a solid

1. Set up the apparatus as in Fig 3.20
2. Using a rubber band, tie the thermometer and the melting-tube together.
3. Place the thermometer and the tube in a water-bath and heat the water
gently while stirring continuously.
4. Note and record the temperature at which naphthalene melts.
5. Repeat the experiment using a mixture of naphthalene and camphor
(camphor is an impurity in this case).
 6. Copy Table 3.9 and fill the empty column
Which of the two has a sharp melting point?
Table 3.8 Temperature results of melting Naphthalene and Naphthalene +
Camphor mixture
Substance Temperature ˚C
Melting point of Naphthalene
Melting point of naphthalene +
camphor
What effect does camphor have on melting point of naphthalene?

When naphthalene is melting, the temperature stops rising. It will only rise again
when all naphthalene has melted. Naphthalene as a single pure substance melts
at 80˚C. An impure substance melts over a range of temperature, not at a
particular point.
Note: if a solid has a melting point above 100˚C, an oil bath is used instead of a
water bath. This makes it possible for melting points above 100˚C to be measured.
It is possible to follow the temperature of a solid before and after melting. The
results can then be used to plot a graph and produce a heating curve as in Fig
3.21.

Fig 3.21 (a) The heating curve for naphthalene (b) The heating curve for impure
naphthalene
Portion AB: Naphthalene absorbs heat energy and the temperature increases
steadily.
Portion BC: Pure naphthalene changes its state from solid to liquid. The
temperature stays constant at 80˚C until all naphthalene melts. All the heat
absorbed is used to change solid naphthalene into liquid therefore no
temperature rise.
Portion CD: The liquid absorbs more heat energy. The temperature rises. It stops
rising when the boiling point of the liquid is reached.
Note: The heating curve of the impure substance has no horizontal portion
because impure substances melt over a range of temperatures.
Experiment 3.9
Aim: To determine the boiling point of pure water
Apparatus and chemicals
 Boiling tube
 Thermometer
 Burner
 Stopper
 Stand and clamp
 Water

Fig. 3.22 Apparatus for measuring boiling point of pure water.

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 3.22
2. Put distilled water in a boiling tube and heat.
3. Note and record the highest steady temperature reached on the
thermometer.
4. Repeat the procedure using ordinary water and salty water.
Which one boils at a higher temperature, pure water or tap water? Explain.
The boiling point of pure ethanol can be in a similar manner. But ethanol is gently
heated to the boiling point using a water bath instead of direct flame because
ethanol is a volatile liquid and flammable and therefore can catch fire (see Fig.
3.23).

Fig. 3.23 Apparatus for measuring boiling point of ethanol

Ordinary water boils at a slightly higher temperature than distilled water because
it contains dissolved substances. Salty water will boil at an even higher
temperature because of the salt added. It will boil over a range of temperatures
because as water evaporates, the solution becomes more concentrated, and the
boiling point slowly rises.
The boiling point of pure ethanol is 78˚C. If it contains any impurities, it will boil at
a slightly higher temperature.
From the previous experiments, we can see that impurities raise boiling points of
liquids and lower melting points of solids. Therefore boiling points and melting
points can be the purity of used to test a substance.
Another method that can be used to test purity is chromatography. A coloured
substance if pure, will give only one ring or spot on a chromatogram. If it contains
impurities (other dyes), it will give several rings or spots; depending on the
number of dyes present.
Applications of impurities
The effect of impurities on melting point has been used in:
a. Extraction of metals
1. Extraction of aluminium metal – the ore containing this metal must
be melted first. It has a high melting point of about 2000˚C. An
impurity called cryolite is mixed with the ore before melting. This
impurity lowers the melting point to 850˚C.
2. Extraction of sodium – calcium chloride is added to lower the melting
point from 1465˚C to 600˚C.
b. In countries which experience winter, crude salt is poured on the roads to
lower the freezing point of water. This prevents ice from forming on the
roads. Water freezes at 0˚C. With some impurities like salt, it freezes at a
lower temperature.
Mixture
Many of the materials that we see around us are not pure but are mixtures of a
number of substances. A pure substance contains only one kind of matter. There
are many ways in which pure substances can mix with each other. The air we
breathe is not a single pure substance. It is a mixture of gases. Milk is a mixture
which contain droplets of fats and proteins. Spread in water. Muddy water
contains soil particles spread in water.
In Chemistry and in everyday life, we often need to separate mixtures obtain pure
substances. This is because in some cases only a pure substance, and not a
mixture will give us the desired results. For instance, you will prefer to add pure
salt to your rather than salt that has sand in it.
Types of mixture
 There are two types of mixtures:
1. Homogenous (uniform) mixture is one in which the particles are evenly
distributed into each other for example common salt solution, milk among
others.
2. Heterogeneous mixture is one in which the particles are not evenly
distributed into each other for example mixture of common salt and sand.
A mixture has at least two parts or components. There are different types of
mixtures as shown below.

Mixture

Solid- Liquid-
solid Solid-liquid
liquid

Immiscible Miscible solids solids

insoluble soluble
in liquids in liquids

Fig. 3.24 Types of mixtures

(a) Solid – Liquid mixtures
Solid-liquid mixtures can be in solution form or suspension.
(i) Solutions

Experiment 3.10
Aim: To investigation types of solid – liquid mixtures
Apparatus and chemicals
Beakers
 Sugar
Flour
 Potassium permanganate Stirring rods
Table 3.9 Types of solid - liquid mixtures
No substance Water
Particles of the solid particles of the solid have not
Spread in water and can b seen
Have spread in water
And cannot be seen
When Sugar
salt, sugar, potassium permanganate and copper (II) sulphate crystals
2 Sodium Chloride
dissolve in water, the particles of these solids spread throughout the water
3 cannotFlour
be seen. The mixture formed is called a solution. Therefore, a solution is a
4 Sand
uniform mixture of solids and liquids. It may be coloured or colourless.
5 Potassium
The substance
permanganate that dissolves is called a solute. In the above experiment, salt,
6 sugar, potassium
Copper permanganate and copper (II) sulphate crystals are solutes. The
(II) sulphate
liquidcrystals
in which the solute dissolves is called a solvent. Water, in this case, is the

When salt, sugar, potassium permanganate and copper (II) sulphate crystals
dissolve on water, the particles of these solids spread throughout the water and
cannot be seen. The mixture formed is called a solution. Therefore, a solution is a
uniform mixture of solids and liquids. It may be coloured or colourless.
The substance that dissolves is called a solute. In the above experiment, salt,
sugar, potassium permanganate and copper (II) sulphate crystals are solutes. The
liquid in which the solute dissolves is called a solvent. Water, in this case, is the
solvent. When a substance is dissolved in water the solution is called an aqueous
solution.
(ii) Suspensions
In experiment 3.10, we observed that flour does not dissolve in water. Instead,
particles of flour spread throughout the water. Some particles eventually settle at
the bottom (sediment) of the beaker if it is left to stand for a long time. Particles
which have not settled at the bottom form a suspension. They make the mixture
cloudy. In muddy water, suspended soil particles make the water appear brown.
Note: do not confuse a suspension with a solution. Particles suspended in liquid
can be seen but, in solutions, the particles are invisible.

Fig. 3.25 Particles suspended in a liquid

(b) Liquid – liquid mixtures
Liquid – liquid mixtures can be miscible or immiscible.
Experiment 3.11
Aim: To investigate types of liquid-liquid mixtures
Apparatus and chemicals
 Test tubes
 Test tubes rack
 Kerosene
  Oil
 Alcohol (ethanol)
 Water
 Propanone
Procedure
Mix a small quantity of each of the following pairs of liquids in a dry test tube and
shake well. Place each mixture in a test tube rack as shown in Fig. 3.26.
(a) Water and ethanol
(b) Water and oil
(c) Oil and kerosene
(d) Ethanol and oil
(e) Ethanol and propanone
What do you observe?

Fig. 3.26 Test tubes in a test tube rack

Copy Table 3.10 in your notebooks and record your observations.
Table 3.10 Types of liquid – liquid mixtures
Mixture Observation
(a) Water and ethanol
(b) Water and oil
(c) oil and kerosene
(d) ethanol and oil
(e) ethanol and propanone

Ethanol mixes completely with water. Kerosene and oil mix completely. In each of
the above examples, one is the solute and the other a solvent. In the process of
forming a solution, ethanol and the water particles spread uniformly in each other
to form a solution.

Fig. 3.27 Liquid dissolving in water

Liquids that mix completely to form a solution are said to be miscible. Other
examples of miscible liquids are beer, wine, vodka and whisky which are solutions
of ethanol in water.
Other liquids do not mix but form layers. Examples include, water and kerosene,
water and oil. Such liquids are said to be immiscible.

Fig. 28 Immiscible liquids

(c) solid-solid mixtures
Some solids can also form uniform mixtures with each other. For instance, when
some metals are heated together at high temperatures, they melt. Before
solidifying, the liquid metals can mix together. This is dissolving one metal in
another. When such a mixture solidifies, it forms an alloy which is a uniform
mixture of the metals.
Brass is alloy of copper and zinc. Copper and tin form an alloy called bronze.
Copper + zinc brass
Copper + tin bronze
 Fig. 3.29 Solid – solid mixture
(d) gas – liquid mixture
Some common examples are Carbon dioxide dissolved in fizzy drinks for example
soda, air (oxygen) dissolved in water is for aquatic animals and plants.
(e) Gas – gas mixtures
Air is a mixture of several gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water
vapour and noble gases.
Factors that affect solubility
Water is a common solvent. It is sometimes called universal solvent because it
dissolves many substances. Substances that dissolve in a specific liquid are said to
be soluble in that particular liquid.

Fig. 3.30 Dissolving a solid in a solvent

If they do not dissolve, they are said to be insoluble. Insoluble substances finally
settle at the bottom of the liquid.
 Fig. 3.31 Insoluble particles in a liquid
The extent to which a solid dissolves in a liquid is known as its solubility. Solubility
of a solid depends on several factors.
Experiment 3.12
Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature on solubility
apparatus and chemical
 Cold water
 Beaker
 Potassium nitrate
Procedure
1. Add about 100 𝑐𝑚3 of cold water in a beaker.
2. Add potassium nitrate a little at a time and stir.
3. Repeat until no more salt dissolves.
4. Place the beaker with the solution on tripod and heater while stirring. What
can you observe?
When you added more salt and it dissolved, it showed the solution was
unsaturated. The water dissolved more solids because it did not have enough salt
particles. A solution which has dissolved enough solute in the presence of some
undissolved solute at a given temperature is called a saturated solution. If a
saturated solution is warmed, it usually dissolves more solute, that is, it becomes
unsaturated. In other words, some salts are more soluble in hot water or other
solvents than they are in the cold solvents.
The amount of substance which dissolves in a specified amount of solvent, for
example 100 𝑐𝑚3 water to form a saturated solution (at any given temperature)
is known as its solubility.
Note: Solubility of a solid can be increased by raising the temperature or adding
more solvent.
Methods of separating mixtures
Various methods can be used to separate mixtures of two or more substances.
These methods depend on the physical properties of the substances which make
up the mixture. These include solubility, density, boiling point, miscibility and
others.
Separating an insoluble solid from a liquid
An insoluble solid can be separated from a liquid by three separation techniques:
(a) Decantation
(b) Filtration
(c) Evaporation

(a) Decantation
Experiment 3.13
Aim: To separate sand from a mixture of sand and water
Apparatus and chemicals
 Beaker
 Sand
 Water
Procedure
1. Place some sand in a beaker
2. Add water and stir
3. Allow the sand to settle to the bottom of the beaker.
4. Pour off water as shown in Fig. 3.32 (c)#
 Fig. 3.32 Decantation
When the insoluble sand particles settle to the bottom of the beaker (sediment),
the water can simply be poured off. Sand is left in the beaker.
This process is called decantation. However, in some cases, we cannot obtain all
the water from the mixture by decanting.
(b) Filtration
Experiment 3.14
Aim: To separate soil from a mixture of soil and water
Apparatus and chemicals
 Beaker
 Filter paper
 Soil
 Conical flask
 Filter funnel
 Water mixture
Procedure
1. Fold a circular filter paper into two form a semi-circle, then again to form a
quadrant.
2. Open the paper into a hollow cone
 Fig. 3.33 making a cone
3. Wet the paper cone with a little water so that is sticks to the funnel.
4. Place it inside a filter funnel. Place the funnel on a conical flask as shown in
fig 3.34
5. Stir the mixture of soil and water with a glass rod and pour it into the filter
paper cone.
What happens to the mixture?
Describe the contents of the filter paper and that of the conical flask.

Fig. 3.34 separation of soil from water by filtration.

The heavy soil particles will remain in the beaker.

Filtration is generally a more useful method than decantation for separating
insoluble solids from liquids. Infiltration, both the solid and liquid can be
obtained in one process. We use a porous type of paper called filter paper,
which acts like a fine sieve, allowing the liquid to pass through but retaining
solid particles. The liquid which passes through is called the filtrate and the
solid that remains or the filter paper is called the residue.
Application of filtration in purifying water
Filtration is important in the process of obtaining clean water for use in our
homes. In this process from a source if first stored in reservoirs where most
of the solid particles settle out. It is then filtered through sand and gravel
which trap smaller particles of mud and other suspended solids (see Fig.
3.36). The filtered water is treated with chlorine to kill germs before being
pumped for use in homes and industries.
 Fig. 3.35 main stages in the purification of water

List other processes at home that involves filtration.

(C) Evaporation
Experiment 3.15
Aim: To separate salt from sand
Apparatus and chemicals
 Beaker
 Filter funnel
 Glass rod
 Tripod stand
 Conical flask
 Filter paper
 Wire gauze
 Evaporating dish

Procedure
1. Place the mixture of salt and sand in a beaker
2. Fill the beaker half way with water
3. Stir with a glass rod to make the salt to dissolve faster (see 3.35)
 4. Pour the mixture through a filter funnel fitted with a filter
5. Put the filtrate into an evaporating dish
6. Heat the filtrate gently and evaporate to dryness as shown in (c) or (d) what
is the name of the white solid in the evaporation dish?

Fig. 3.36 steps of obtaining salt from sand

Caution: Do not taste unless instructed to do so by your teacher. Remember one
of the safety rules – you do not taste anything in the laboratory unless asked to
do so.
This experiment has employed three technique:
(a) Dissolving
(b) Filtration
(c) Evaporation
Sand was left on the filter as the residue. After evaporating all the water from the
salt solution (filtrate), salt was left in the evaporating dish.
The gaseous form of a substance at room temperature is called vapour. The
process of changing a liquid to gas or vapour is called evaporation. Evaporation
can be used to separate a dissolved solid (solute) from its solution.
Evaporation is an essential process in drying wet clothes. During evaporation, only
the solute is recovered while the solvent is let to escape as vapour. Evaporation
takes place at any temperature.
Separation of immiscible liquids separating funnel
This can be done by either simple or fractional distillation.
Experiment 3.16
Aim: To separate kerosene and water using a separating funnel
Apparatus and chemicals
 Separating funnel
 Kerosene
 Two beakers
 Water
Procedure
1. Place the mixture of kerosene and water in a separating funnel.
2. Leave the mixture for some time until there is a clear dividing line between
the two liquids.
3. Remove the stopper and open the tap to let the lower layer run out slowly
into a beaker. Close the tap when the upper layer reaches the tap.
4. Run out a small quantity of the remaining liquid into a separate container
and discard it.
5. Using a different beaker, open the tap to let the upper layer run into it.

Fig. 3.37 separating two immiscible liquids using a separating funnel

 Why should a small portion of the liquid between the first collection and
the second one be discarded?
The discarded portion was a mixture of kerosene and water. Two liquids that do
not mix, such as kerosene and water, are said to be immiscible. Their separation is
based on differences in their densities. The less dense liquid (kerosene) floats on
the denser liquid (water). The device used is called a separating funnel.
Separation of soluble solid-liquid mixtures
This can be done using either simple distillation or fractional distillation.
(a) Simple distillation
Experiment 3.17
Aim: To obtain both salt and water from a salt solution using simple distillation
Apparatus and chemicals
 Distillation flask
 Bunsen burner
 Thermometer
 Sodium chloride (common salt)
 Round bottomed flask
 Stand and clamp
 Beaker or conical flask
 Water
Procedure
1. Prepare some salt solution.
2. First try to separate the components by filtration method. Does it work?
3. Pour the solution into the first and add pieces of broken porcelain. Arrange
the apparatus as in Fig. 3.3.8. Boil the solution.
 Fig. 3.38 simple distillation of salt solution
The residue left in the flask is salt.
The salt solution can be separated as shown in Fig. 3.39.
 What is the purpose of adding broken pieces of porcelain?

Fig. 3.39 simple distillation of salt solution

 What is the use of the thermometer in Fig. 3.39?
 Which of the two set-ups provides a better way of cooling the vapour?
Explain
 Look at Fig. 3.39 again. What do you think would happen if the direction of
cooling water is reversed? Give a reason for your answer.

The pieces of broken porcelain in the flask prevent “bumping” of the solution
during boiling. Glass beads or pieces of porous pot can also be used to achieve
smooth boiling.
The thermometer is used for noting the temperature at which the solution boils.
The set up in Fig. 3.39 is more efficient in cooling the vapour. This is because of
the cool water circulating in the condenser.
If the direction of cooling water is reversed, the water circulating in the condenser
would flow down through the condenser a bit warm. Therefore it would not cool
the vapour as efficiently as before.
During simple distillation, evaporation and condensation take place at the same
time but at different parts of the apparatus. The liquid is evaporated in the
distillation flask. It is condensed by passing it through a condenser, which is
cooled by water. The condensed liquid is transferred into a container usually
referred to as a receiver. The pure liquid collected is called the distillate. The
process is called simple distillation.
Note simple distillation can also be used to separate miscible liquid mixtures
whose components have a difference in their boiling points of 40˚C and above.
In areas where the available water is salty, like in coastal regions, pure water can
be obtained by distilling the salty water.
(b) Fractional distillation
Experiment 3.18
Aim: To separate a mixture of ethanol and water by fractional distillation

Apparatus and chemicals

 Round-bottomed flask
 Bunsen burner
 Fractional column
 Ethanol
 Condenser
 Thermometer
 Receive (beaker)
 Water
 Fig. 3.40 separating a mixture of ethanol and water by fractional distillation
Procedure
1. Set up apparatus as shown in fig. 3.40 to separate a mixture of ethanol and
water.
2. The mixture is heated. At about 78˚C ethanol whose boiling point is lower,
(more volatile) begins to boil. Some water evaporates too, so a mixture of
ethanol vapour and water vapour rises up the fractionating column.
3. Continue heating and collect the liquid that drips between 80˚C and 100˚C
in a different receiver and discard it.
Why should we discard this portion?
4. When the thermometer reading eventually rises to 100˚C, the water is
boiling and the liquid collected now is water collect it in another receiver.
5. Perform the following tests on each of the two distillates:
(a) Smell each distillate.
(b) Place a little of each on a watch glass and test with a lighted splint with a
lighted splint or matchstick. Record your observations.
The fractional column is packed with glass beads to increase the surface area for
condensation. When the vapours rise, they condense on the glass beads in the
column, which become hot.
When temperature of the beads reaches about 78˚C, ethanol vapour no longer
condenses on them. Only the water vapour condenses. The water drips back to
the lower parts of the column or into the distillation flask, while the ethanol
vapour enters the condenser.
Ethanol condenses. Liquid ethanol drips into the receiver as the first distillate.
The first distillate is flammable (burns) and has a characteristic smell. This is
ethanol (alcohol). The second distillate is not flammable and has no smell. It is
water. We have, therefore, separated the mixture into pure ethanol and pure
water. The portion discarded is a mixture of ethanol and water.
Miscible liquids can be separated by fractional distillation especially if they have
different, but close boiling points.
Fractional distillation separates mixture into two or more components (or
fractions).
Industrial application of fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is used industrially or on a large scale to:
 Separate various fractions from crude oil.
 Manufacture oxygen and nitrogen from air, for instance at the British
Oxygen Company (BOC).
 Manufacture spirits such as gin and whisky.
An example of fractional distillation is separation of crude oil in a refinery as
shown in Fig. 3.14
 Fig. 3.41 fractional distillation of crude oil in a refinery
Separation of solid-solid mixture
Solid-solid mixture can be separated using either sublimation or by use of a
magnet (magnetism)
(a) Sublimation
We have seen that some solids generally melt when heated. However, a few
substances change directly from solid to gas on heating, and from gas to solid on
cooling, without passing the intermediate liquid state. This change is called
sublimation.

Heat
Solid Gas
Cool
Substances that sublime include; iodine ammonium chloride and solid carbon
dioxide (dry ice). Sublimation can be used to separate a mixture of two solids as
long as one of the solids sublimes on heating.
Experiment 3.19
Aim: To demonstrate sublimation
Apparatus and chemicals
 Boiling tube
 Bunsen burner
 Flakes of iodine
 Test tube holder or a strip of paper
 Ammonium chloride
Procedure
1. Place a little ammonium chloride in a boiling tube.
2. Hold the tube with a test tube holder or a folded strip of paper
3. Heat gently over the non-luminous Bunsen flame and observe what
happens.
4. Repeat the experiment with one flake of iodine and record your
observations.

Fig. 3.42 sublimation of ammonium chloride and of iodine

Ammonium chloride does not melt. It turns into white fumes which condense
back to a white solid on reaching the cooler parts of the boiling tube. The white
solid is called a sublimate. Solid iodine forms purple vapour which condenses on
the cooler parts of the boiling tube to form a sublimate of pure iodine (see Fig.
3.42(b)).
Experiment 3.20
Aim: To separate a mixture of sodium chloride and ammonium chloride
Apparatus and chemicals
 Bunsen burner
 Sodium chloride (common salt)
 Funnel
 Ammonium chloride

Fig. 3.43 separation of sodium chloride and ammonium chloride

Procedure
1. The apparatus is arranged as in Fig. 3.43.
2. Mix equal amounts of common salt and ammonium chloride (both salts are
white and soluble in water).
3. Place the mixture in an evaporating dish and cover with an inverted glass
funnel. Why should we not use a plastic funnel?
4. Heat the water to produce steam which heats the mixture. Observe what
happens
5. Repeat the experiment with a mixture of iodine and sodium chloride.
Ammonium chloride sublimes to form white fumes which cool to form a white
solid on the inside surface of the funnel. Sodium chloride is left in the evaporating
dish. Iodine also sublimes leaving the solid white sodium chloride behind.
Note: we can also use a magnet to separate a mixture if it contains a magnetic
substance. For example, in a mixture of iron and sulphur, iron can be attracted by
a magnet.
(b) Magnetism
It is a separation technique that involves the use of magnet property. In industries
an electromagnet is used to separate iron from other materials in the crushed
ore. The electromagnet attracts iron a magnetic substance from non-magnetic
materials thereby achieving separation.
Experiment 3.21
Aim: To separate a mixture of iron and sulphur
Apparatus and chemicals
 Iron filings
 Beaker
 Sulphur powder
 Magnet
Procedure
1. Mix iron filings and sulphur powder in a small beaker
2. Put the mixture on a white paper
3. Pass a magnet (separated from the mixture with another white paper as
shown in Fig. 3.44) over the mixture.

Fig. 3.44 separation of mixtures by magnetism

The iron filings are attracted by the magnet thereby separating them from
sulphur powder.
Chromatography
The name of this technique comes from the Greek word chromes, which means
colour. This is because the early work was done with coloured substances.
Chromatography is a technique for the separation of components of a solution by
passing it through a medium. The components move at different rates over an
absorbent material such as filter paper. In paper chromatography, the absorbent
material is the filter paper and different solvents, such as water, ethanol,
propanone and other organic solvents can be used.
Are you writing with blank ink? Is it a one-colour substance?
Look outside! Do you see those trees, that grass, those flowers? What colour do
you see on each of them?
What solvent can we use to extract these colours? Water? No. the rain would
have long washed them out. Think of other solvents that we can use.
Paper chromatography
Experiment 3.22
Aim: To investigate whether black ink is one single colour
Apparatus and chemicals
 Teat pipette
 A beaker
 Black ink
 Filter paper
 Water
Procedure
1. Place a filter paper on a beaker
2. Use a teat pipette to put a drop of blank ink at the centre of the filter
paper.
 Fig. 3.45 paper chromatography

3. Wait for the drop of ink to spread and dry

4. Using a clean pipette, carefully add a drop of water to the ink spot.
5. Wait until the water has spread outwards and then add another drop.
6. Wait patiently until the water stops spreading.
7. Keep on adding drops of water until there is no further change.
8. Make a list of the different colours observed on the filter paper.
9. Finally, let your paper dry. Compare your result with those of the other
groups.
You must have observed a number of different dyes. This indicates that the black
ink is made of several dyes. The different dyes in the ink dissolved in water and
spread out with the water to form a series of coloured rings, called a
chromatogram (see Fig. 3.46).
Two factors are necessary for the chromatogram to form:
a. The dyes must be soluble in the solvent used
b. The dyes must be retained by the absorbent material.
The degree of solubility in water is different for the dyes found in ink. The filter
paper also retains the dyes at different rates. This is the reason why they move at
different rates and are finally separated. The dyes immediately after the solvent
front is the most soluble. It is also the least retained.
 Fig. 3.46 a chromatogram of black ink

The green dye found in the grass and various coloured dyes in flowers can be
separated by a similar process. You could also use ascending chromatography as
described in the next experiment. This method is called ascending paper
chromatography because the solvent travels upwards.
Experiment 3.23
Aim: To separate the components of chlorophyll in leaves
Apparatus and chemicals
 Mortar
 Boiling tube
 Pestle
 Methylated spirit (or any other suitable solvent)
Procedure
1. Crush a handful of green leaves using a pestle and mortar. Add 3-4𝑐𝑚3 of
methylated spirit. Continue crushing until you get a green extract.
 Fig. 3.47 crushing green leaves in mortar

2. Make a strip of filter paper 15 ×2 cm. draw a pencil line on the paper about
2.5 cm from one end. Make a pencil mark in the middle of this line.
3. Using a teat pipette, place a drop of the green extract solution on the mark
on the pencil line. Wait for the spot to dry. Add another drop on exactly the
same place and wait for it to dry.
4. Place the paper strip in a boiling tube containing methylated spirit. Make
sure the surface of spirit is about 1.5 cm below the pencil line.
5. Set apparatus as in Fig. 3.48 below and leave it for a few hours.

Fig. 3.48 ascending paper chromatography

When the solvent moves up, it dissolves the substances in chlorophyll and then
takes with it along at different rates. The most soluble and least retained dye is
just behind the solvent front. Any insoluble substance remains at the original
spot.
6. Repeat the experiment with any other types of ink or coloured substances.
Compare your results with those obtained in the previous experiment
Application of chromatography
The main use of chromatography is separating the dyes, for example, the dyes
that make black ink. It is also used to analyze and identify mixtures of substances
which are difficult to separate by other means. We can also use it to analyze dyes
used in food colouring.
Solvent extraction
Aim: To extract oil from nut seeds
Apparatus and chemicals
 Pestle and mortar
 Nut seeds
 Propanone
 A white paper
Procedure
1. Crush nut seeds in a mortar using a pestle
2. Add a suitable solvent such as propanone and continue crushing.
3. Pour the resulting solution into an evaporating dish
4. Vaporize the solvent using energy from the sun.
What is left on the evaporating dish?
5. Put a piece of plain paper in the liquid left in the evaporating dish. Record
your observations.

Fig. 3.49 extracting oil from nuts

Oil from the nut seeds dissolve in propanone. The solvent evaporates in the sun
leaving oil. This method of extracting substances using suitable solvents is called
solvent extraction.
The paper is used to test for oil. It becomes translucent after being dipped in oil.
Propanone has a lower boiling point than oil and therefore vaporizes when left in
the sun, leaving oil (high boiling point).
Crystallization
Crystallization involves use of a saturated solution. A saturated solution is one
that cannot dissolve any more of the solute at a given temperature and contains
undissolved solute. We can make crystals from a saturated solution.
Experiment 3.25
Aim: To prepare a saturated solution
Apparatus and chemicals

 Beaker
 Stirring rod
 Sodium chloride
 Water
Procedure
1. Put 100 𝑐𝑚3 of water in a beaker
2. Add sodium chloride a little at a time while stirring well with a glass rod
until no more can dissolve. One can tell it is saturated when undissolved
salt settles down even after vigorous stirring.
3. Filter off the undissolved salt.
The filtrate is called a saturated solution.
When saturated solutions loss more water (solvent) a solid is left behind. The
solid has a regular shape. Such a solid is called crystal. The process of obtaining
crystals from a solution is called crystallization.
 Fig. 3.50 crystallization
Note: Hot water will dissolve more sodium chloride than cold water.
Experiment 3.26
Aim: To prepare big crystals of copper (II) sulphate
Apparatus and chemicals
 Beaker
 Water
 Copper (II) sulphate
 Glass rod
Procedure
1. Prepare about 50 𝑐𝑚3 of a saturated solution of copper (II) sulphate
solution using the method in Experiment 3.25.
2. Put the filtrate in a beaker and cover it with a filter paper pierced with a
few holes.
3. Leave the content of the beaker undisturbed for 2-3 weeks. After this time
very beautiful crystals are obtained.

Fig. 3.51 preparation of Copper (II) sulphate crystal

Application of crystallization
This process of natural evaporation is used to separate trona and sodium chloride.
Trona is double salt of sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Sodium chloride is found in the water trapped between trona crystals.
Most of the sodium chloride for our consumption is obtained by evaporation of
seawater and other salt works near the coast region.
Difference between mixtures and compounds
We have learnt about the different methods of separating mixtures. A mixture is
formed as a result of bringing particles of different substances into close contact
with each other, without chemically combining them. Usually the substances
making up a mixture can be mixed in any proportions and each component
retains its original physical and chemical properties.
A mixture, therefore, shows the properties of its components. For instance, a
mixture of sand and salt has the properties of both salt and sand. Similarly, sugar
solution (a sugar and water mixture) has the properties of both sugar and water.
A mixture may contain elements or compounds. Air is an example of a mixture.
Air consists of a mixture of elements (nitrogen, oxygen and noble gases); and
compounds (water vapour and carbon dioxide). We have already seen that
mixture can be separated by simple means such as filtration, chromatography,
crystallization, distillation (simple and fractional) and sublimation.
Which other methods of separation of mixture do you know?
We saw earlier in this unit that a compound also consists of more than one type
of substance. However, compounds are different from mixtures.
From Experience 3.7, we learnt that iron filings and sulphur can be separated by
physical means, using a magnet. This is possible because the two elements were
not chemically combined, but were not mixed.
We can conclude from these observations that different kinds of matter can be
made to combine together in two ways to form complex substances. They can
merely be brought together in any proportion to form a mixture or they can be
heated or allowed to react chemically to form a compound. A compound contains
two or more different atoms chemically joined together.
Table 3.11 gives a summary of the main difference between a compound and a
mixture. Study and understand the difference. Name two substances that can be
distinguished by these differences.
Mixture Compound
1. The substances in a mixture can 1. The substances in a compound
be separated by physical cannot be separated by physical
methods. methods.
2. The properties of a mixture are 2. The properties are different
the average of the properties of from the properties of the
the substances in it. substances which made it.
3. The substances which make the 3. The substances in a compound
mixture need not be in fixed are in fixed proportions.
proportions. 4. A compound is formed by a
4. Mixtures are formed by physical chemical method; a new
methods;’ no new substance is substance is formed.
formed 5. Energy (heat and light) is
5. No energy (heat and light) is liberated or absorbed during the
liberated out or absorbed during formation of the compound.
the formation of the mixture.

Unit 4 Atomic Structure

Characteristics of particles that make up an atom
Atoms are very small particles of an element, they contain even smaller particles
called sub-atomic particles. These are three kinds of sub-atomic particles. These
are the protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are found in the
nucleus. The nucleus is the middle part of the atom. It is very dense and
extremely small part of the atom. Outside the nucleus is a much larger region of
the atom where electrons occur in energy levels at different distances from the
nucleus of the atom. Electrons can be imagined as circulating the nucleus, at great
speeds in those energy levels.
Note: An electron is represented by a dot (•) or cross (x).
We can represent the structure of an atom simply as follows:

Fig. 4.1 an atom showing nucleus and a cloud of electrons

Electrons are negatively charged (-ve), protons are positively charged (+ve) and
neutrons have no charge. Therefore, the nucleus has a positive charge because of
the protons as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
If we magnify the nucleus, we can show the sub-atomic particles (protons and
neutrons) as in Fig. 4.2

Fig. 4.2 a nucleus containing protons and neutrons

Since protons have similar charge (+ve) they repel each other. However, the
repulsion is minimised by the presence of the neutrons as illustrated in Fig. 4.3
 Fig. 4.3 atomic structure showing protons and neutrons in the nucleus and
electrons in the energy level

In a neutral atom: Number of protons = Number of electrons

This means that each proton (+ve) has an electron (-ve) as a partner.
Table 4.1 particles present in an atom
Sub-atomic Mass Charge Where found in
particle atom
Proton 1 + (positive) Inside the nucleus
Neutron 1 0 (neutral) Inside the nucleus
Electron 1 -(negative) Outside the
1840 nucleus

Arrangements of elements in shells of an atom

To understand the atomic structure, let us look at a suggested analogy of atomic
‘city’. In a well planned town or city, houses are constructed according to the
plan. The house rent also varies. Those people who live in some neighbourhoods
of the city are wealthy people and therefore pay a lot more than those who live in
other areas.
Peculiarity of the ‘atomic city’
These are found in a country where people live according to the following city
plan.
1. There are three suggested types of houses that are allowed in each
neighbourhood. Only 2 people are allowed to occupy a single house.
1st neighbourhood – has one low cost stone house only
2nd neighbourhood – has four middle cost stone houses only
3rd neighbourhood – has one high cost stone house only
2. All houses must be built away from the city/town centre.
How many people are in:
a) Low cost houses in the 1st neighbourhood?
b) Middle cost houses in the 2nd neighbourhood?
c) What is the maximum number of high cost houses expected to be in
the 3rd neighbourhood?
We notice that the further the houses are from the city centre, the more
expensive they are. The cheapest houses are in the first neighbourhood. So the
people who live in the 3rd neighbourhood are very wealthy. We mentioned that
the houses are settled according to wealth and ability to pay higher rent. This
implies that the 3rd neighbourhood has wealthy people. The 2nd has poor people
and the 1st has the poorest people. In other words the house rent increases as we
move from the city centre.
The city plan (vocabulary list) is as follows:
City = Atom
People = Electrons
Neighbourhoods = Energy levels (shells)
Wealth = Energy
City centre = Nucleus
Look at Fig. 4.4. What would you get if you completed the dotted lines?
The neighbourhoods are represented by energy levels where an energy level is
the path of an electron around a nucleus in an atom.
 Fig. 4.4 Atomic ‘city’ showing the neighbourhoods
The various energy levels in an atom are represented by a series of circles sharing
the same centre (nucleus), separated from other by roughly equal distances. The
nucleus of an atom is at the centre of the circle. The electrons in the energy levels
are represented by dots (•) or crosses (x). The energy levels are labelled 1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th and so on starting from the one nearest to the nucleus as shown in Fig. 4.6
3rd
2nd
•●
1st
Nucleus (protons and neutrons)
The electrons that occupy the 1st energy level have lower energy than those in the
2nd energy level. Subsequently those in the 2nd energy level have lower energy
than those in the 3rd energy level and so on. The 1st energy level usually has a
maximum of two electrons while the 2nd energy level has a maximum of eight (8)
electrons. The maximum numbers of electrons that an energy level can hold are
given by2𝑛2 . Where n = number of energy levels; 1st, 2nd, 3rd among others. This
means that when we draw the atomic structure, we should never put more than
two electrons in the 1st energy level or more than 8 in the 2nd level. The third
energy level is usually not fill but can accommodate one to eight electrons. (it
holds a maximum of 8 electrons for the first 20 elements). The first twenty
elements of the periodic table have 1 to 20 protons and 1 to 20 electrons. We can
summarise the electrons in each energy level as shown in table 4.2
Elements Symbol Number 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Electron
of Energy Energy EnergyEnergy arrangement
protons level level level level
Hydrogen H 1 • 1
Helium He 2 •• 2
Lithium Li 3 •• • 2.1
Beryllium Be 4 •• •• 2.2
Boron B 5 •• ••• 2.3
Carbon C 6 •• •••• 2.4
Nitrogen N 7 •• ••••• 2.5
Oxygen O 8 •• •••••• 2.6
Fluorine F 9 •• ••••••• 2.7
Neon Ne 10 •• •••••••• 2.8
Sodium Na 11 •• •••••••• • 2.8.1
Magnesium Mg 12 •• •••••••• •• 2.8.2
Aluminium Al 13 •• •••••••• ••• 2.8.3
Silicon Si 14 •• •••••••• •••• 2.8.4
Phosphorus P 15 •• •••••••• ••••• 2.8.5
Sulphur S 16 •• •••••••• •••••• 2.8.6
Chlorine Cl 17 •• •••••••• ••••••• 2.8.7
Argon Ar 18 •• •••••••• •••••••• 2.8.8
Potassium K 19 •• •••••••• •••••••• • 2.8.8.1
Calcium Ca 20 •• •••••••• •••••••• •• 2.8.82

Arrangement of electrons in an atom helps us to explain the patterns in

properties of the elements. These properties are the basis of the periodic table
which we will discuss later.
Now let us illustrate the electron arrangement of the following atoms. Hydrogen,
helium, lithium, fluorine, neon, sodium and chlorine respectively.
 Fig. 4.7 Atomic structure of H, He, Li, F, Ne, Na and Cl
Atomic characteristics
Atomic number and mass number
We have learnt how to draw atomic structure showing the nucleus and
arrangement of electrons in various energy levels. It is important at this stage to
know how to calculate the number of protons and neutrons inside the nucleus.
This will enable us to show the number of these sub-atomic particles when we
draw atomic structure diagrams. Atomic number and mass number are two
simple numbers that tell us something about an atom.
Note the following points:
The atomic number tells us how many protons are there in a nucleus. It is
denoted by letter Z. It also tells us the number of electrons in an atom

The atomic number (Z) The number of protons in The number of electrons
 The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons, therefore it is always
of an element = the nucleus of its atom = in an atom

bigger than the atomic number. Mass number is denoted by letter A.

Roughly the mass number is double the atomic number.
  To get the number of neutrons, we just subtract the atomic number from
the mass number, that is A – Z.
Study Table 4.3 which shows the relationship between atomic number, number of
neutrons and mass number for some elements.
Table 4.3 Relationship between the number of protons, neutrons and mass
number of some elements
Atom Symbol Number of Neutrons Mass number
protons A
Atomic
number Z
Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Carbon C 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 14
Sodium Na 11 12 23
Chlorine Cl 17 18 35
From Table 4.3, we notice that mass number, A, is a sum of protons and neutrons
that is;

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons

If we represent neutrons by N, we see that A = Z + N

Using letters A, Z and N, how can we get the number of neutrons (N), in the
nucleus of an atom?
The answer to this question is N = A – Z
Example 4.1
Calculate the number of neutrons in a chlorine atom given that the atomic
number, Z =17 and mass number, A = 35
Solution
The number of neutrons = A – Z
= 35 – 17 = 18
Therefore, a chlorine atom has 18 neutrons.
Remember that since the number of protons and electrons are equal in an atom,
once you know the atomic number which represents the number of protons, you
automatically know the number of electrons in the atom.
Suppose you are required to draw the atomic structure of an atom structure of an
atom showing the sub-atomic particles as in following example:
Example 4.2
A certain X has atomic number 6 and mass number 14.
Draw the atomic structure of element X showing all the sub-atomic particles and
their numerical values.
Solution
The sub-atomic particles to show are protons, neutrons and electrons.
Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons = 6
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number or A – Z
= 14 – 6 = 8 neutrons
This means that we will show 6 protons and 8 neutrons in the nucleus. The 6
electrons will be indicated in the energy levels as shown in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Atomic structure of X

Usually, the atomic number, Z, and mass number, A, of an atom of an element X

can be written alongside the symbol of that element, one as a superscript and the
other as a subscript as shown below:
Mass number → A

Atomic number → Z X element

Note: the top number is referred to as the superscript and bottom number is the
subscript. So the symbol for an atom of sodium would be written as;

Mass number
23

Atomic number 11 Na
We can also represent the sub-atomic particles using symbols with the mass of
the particle as a superscript and the charge as a subscript as follows:
Proton - 1

P
1

Neutron n
0

Electron 0
 e
-1
An electron has zero mass and a charge of -1. Can you tell what the letters p and n
stand for?
Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass
We are all familiar with charcoal. May be some of us know how charcoal is
formed. Burning of charcoal should be discouraged because cutting down of trees
to make charcoal interfere with our water catchment areas. What is the colour of
charcoal? What is charcoal in chemistry?
Charcoal is black in colour. In Chemistry charcoal is simply carbon.
A piece of charcoal has millions and millions of carbon atoms. Let us represent a
piece of charcoal as in Fig. 4.9

Fig. 4.9 Millions of carbon atoms that make charcoal

Carbon atoms exist in three forms represented as Carbon 12, Carbon 13 and
Carbon 14.
C12 and C14 can be represented using diagrams as shown in Fig. 4.10
 Fig. 4.10 Different forms of Carbon
What difference do you notice between the two carbon atoms?
The subscript numbers are the same but the superscript numbers are different.
This means that they have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
What cause the difference in mass number?
Calculate the sub-atomic particles for each of the carbon atoms.
You will notice that the difference masses are caused by 2 extra neutrons in the
nucleus of carbon -14. Such atoms are called isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have the same number of protons
in the nucleus (atomic number) but different mass numbers.
Some elements are made up of just one type of atom, while others exist as
mixture of isotopes. Some of these elements are listed in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Examples of elements with isotopes
(a) Hydrogen
Hydrogen Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium (Trace)
(99.99%) (0.01%) heavy
hydrogen
1 2 3
Symbols of 1H 1H 1H
isotopes of
hydrogen
No. of protons 1 1 1
No. of neutrons 0 1 2
No. of electrons 1 1 1
Mass number (p + 1 2 3
n)

(b) Carbon

Carbon Carbon-12 Carbon-13 Carbon-14

(98.9%) (1.1%) (Trace)
12 13 14
Symbols of 6C 6C 6C
Carbon
isotopes
No. of 6 6 6
protons
No. of 6 7 8
neutrons
No. of 6 6 6
electrons
Mass number 12 13 14
(p + n)

(c) Chlorine
Chlorine Chlorine-35 (75%) Chlorine-37 (25%)
35 37
Symbols of chlorine 17Cl 17Cl
isotopes
No. of protons 17 17
No. of neutrons 18 20
No. of electrons 17 17
Mass number (p + n) 35 37

(d) Oxygen
Oxygen Oxygen-16(31.4%) Oxyge-17 (33.3%) Oxygen-18(35.3%)
16 17 18
Symbols of 8O 8O 8O
oxygen isotopes
No. of protons 8 8 8
No of neutrons 8 9 10
No. of electrons 8 8 8
 Mass number (p + 16 17 18
n)

Relative Atomic Mass

Atoms, molecules and ions are single particles that are so tiny that their masses
cannot be measured on a balance or scale directly. We cannot weigh an atom!
Hydrogen is the lightest known element. A hydrogen atom is therefore the
lightest. Originally, the mass of hydrogen atom was taken as the standard
reference atom. Its atomic mass was arbitrarily and fixed as one unit that is, H = 1.
The mass of other element was found by comparing its mass with that of
hydrogen. The idea was to find out how many times the atom of another element
was as heavy as one atom of hydrogen hence relative atomic mass (R.A.M) with a
symbol (𝐴𝑟 ). This can be expressed mathematically as follows:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Relative Atomic Mass =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

For instance, an oxygen atom, (O), has a mass of 16. This means one oxygen atom
is 16 times heavier than one atom of hydrogen.
Sometimes the symbol 𝐴𝑟 is used for R.A.M with the symbol of the atom in
parenthesis after the symbol. For example, 𝐴𝑟 (O) means relative atomic mass of
oxygen.
Many changes have occurred since the hydrogen scale was introduced. In the
twentieth century, the hydrogen scale was replaced by oxygen as the standard
reference atom since oxygen combines with most elements. But later the oxygen
scale was found to be unsatisfactory because oxygen have several isotopes which
would have different masses depending on which oxygen isotope was being
considered (see table 4.4) (d).
In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
recommended the most abundant of the carbon isotopes, carbon – 12 (12 6C).
as the standard reference atom. It has an abundance of 98.9%.
1
Nowadays, the atomic mass of an elements is measured by comparing it with
12
12
of the mass of one atom of a carbon- 12 ( 6C).
One atom of 12 6C isotope is taken to have a mass of 12.00 units.
1
of the mass of one atom of carbon – 12 = 1.00 units
12
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑟 of an element = 1
× 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
12

The relative atomic mass(𝐴𝑟 ) of an element, is defined as the average mass of

1
one atom of the element compared with of the mass of one atom of carbon –
12
12
Note: relative atomic mass has no units. It is a ratio of two masses. The relative
atomic masses are not whole numbers like mass numbers. This is because the
abundance of isotopes of an element is of different. For example, a sample of
chlorine is a mixture of two isotopes, 35 Cl and, 37Cl in the ratio of 3:1 respectively,
75% is, 35 Cl and 25% is, 37 Cl.
Calculation of the relative atomic mass
As mentioned earlier, many elements naturally consist of a mixture of isotopes.
The abundance in which the isotopes occur in an element differs in different
elements. This is why the term ‘average’ mass of one atom is used in the
definition above. The proportions (abundance) in which the isotopes occur in an
element may be stated as:
- a ratio
- percentage of the total
- a fraction of the total
Example 4.3
(You are given ratio abundance)
Chlorine consists of two isotopes, chlorine – 35 and chlorine 37 in the ratio 3: 1.
Calculate the Relative Atomic Mass (R.A.M) of chlorine.

Solution
Suppose the sample contains 4 atoms of chlorine in the ratio 3 : 1 respectively,
then 3 atoms will each have a mass of 35 and 1 atom will have a mass of 37.
The total mass of 35 Cl = 35 × 3
While the total mass of 37 Cl = 37 × 1
Therefore, the average mass of chlorine atoms will be:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 (35 ×3)+(37 ×1)
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 4

= 26.25 + 9.25
The R.A.M = 35.5
Note: The value of the R.A.M is closer to the mass number of the most abundant
isotope, that is, 35 Cl
Example 4.4
(You are given percentage abundance)
Silicon (Si = 14) consists of three isotopes: silicon – 28, 92.2%, silicon -29, 4.7%
and silicon -30, 3.1%. Find the Relative Atomic Mass of silicon.
Solution
Percentage abundance simply means that if we have 100 atoms of an element
called silicon, 92.2 atoms will each have a mass of 28
28 ×92.2
Therefore, the total mass of these =
100

25.81 atoms will be silicon – 28

29 ×4.7
Therefore, the total mass of these =
100

1.36 atoms will be silicon – 29

30 ×3.1
Therefore, the total mass of these =
100

0.93 toms will be silicon – 30

The average mass of a silicon atom is;
 28 × 92.2 29 ×4.7 30 ×3.1
Total mass of all atoms = + +
100 100 100

= 25.81 + 1.36 + 0.93

Therefore, R.A.M of silicon = 28.1

Example 4.5
(Abundance is given as a fraction of the total)
9
A sample of an element X consists of of 188X, show that the Relative Atomic
10
Mass of X would be 16.2
Solution
9 1
R.A.M = (16 × ) + (18 × )
10 10

= 14.4 + 1.8
= 16.2

Revision Exercise 4
1. Here is a symbol of Beryllium atom:
9
4Be
(a) What is the name given to the superscript (top number)?
(b) What is the name given to the subscript (bottom number)?
(c) In the Beryllium atom shown above, calculate the number of protons,
neutrons and electrons in the atom.

2. Select the pair which represents two atoms with the same number of
neutrons.
(a) 126C and 2412Mg
(b) 188O and 199F
(c) 2311Na and 2010Ne
 3. Explain briefly why some elements have Relative Atomic Mass which are
not whole numbers?
4. An atom is the smallest particle of an element. Name the sub-atomic
particles found in an atom and state where they are found.
5. Explain the following terms:
(a) Atomic number
(b) Mass number
(c) Isotopes
6. The following symbols refers to isotopes of oxygen.
(a) 168O
(b) 188O
What is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of each
isotope?
7. A class was asked to select from the list below the elements whose
electrons arrangements were impossible to write down
Which elements did the class select?
23 10 12 25
11Na; B; 6C; 6C; Mg; 2612Mg

8. Write down and complete the following table:

Atom Mass number Number of Number of Number of
protons neutrons electrons
F 19 9
Na 12 11
Ne 20 10
C 12 6

9. An atom of element X can be represented by the symbol 166X.

(a) State the:
(i) Number of electrons of atom X
(ii) Mass number of X
(iii) Atomic number of X
(b) Element X contains 90% of 16X, and 10% of 18X. Calculate the Relative
Atomic Mass of X.
Unit 5 The Periodic Table

The main features of the Periodic Table

In Unit 4 ‘Atomic structure’ you were introduced to energy levels as a series of
circles in an atom, sharing the same centre (nucleus) separated from each other
by equal distances. Energy levels are usually labelled 1st, 2nd, 3rd and so on
depending on the number of electrons of an element. The 1st energy level can
accommodate a maximum of (2) two electrons. The 2nd and 3rd energy levels can
accommodate a maximum of (8) eight electrons. In this unit, we shall discuss how
the number of electrons in the outermost energy level and the total number of
energy levels are used to describe the groups and periods of elements in the
Periodic Table.
Activity 5.1
Consider the electronic configuration of the following elements:
Lithium (Li) 2.1
Carbon (C) 2.4
Sodium (Na) 2.8.1
(a) What is the similarity between electronic configuration of:
 (i) Li and C
(ii) Li and Na

(b) What is the difference between electron configuration of Lithium and

Sodium
In activity 5.1, you will note that lithium and carbon have 2 energy levels only.
Lithium and sodium atoms have one electron in their outer most shell or energy
level although they have different numbers of energy levels. Elements can be
classified or grouped according to the number of electrons in the outer most
shell. They can also be grouped according to the number of shells. Such an array
of elements is called a Periodic Table.
Structure of the Periodic Table
The Period Table is organized as a grid. In a grid, there are rows and columns. The
Periodic Table has rows and columns. The elements are placed in specific columns
because of the way they behave. They have similar chemical properties because
they have the same number of electrons in their outer most energy level.
In a Periodic Table, each of the rows is called a period. See Fig. 5.1

Fig. 5.1 Periods in the Periodic Table

All the elements in the same period have the same number of energy levels. If we
want to know in which period to find an element we count the number of energy
levels. If it has 4 energy levels; it is in the 4ht period.
The two elements at the top row (the first period) have one energy level. All of
the elements in the second row (the second period) have two energy levels. The
third row elements have three energy levels and so on.
The Periodic Table has a special name for its columns too. A column in the
Periodic Table is called a Group. The elements in a Group have the same number
of electrons in their outermost energy levels.

Fig. 5.2 Groups in the Periodic Table

An element in the first column belongs to Group I. it has one electron in its
outermost energy level. An element in the second column belongs to Group II and
has two electrons in the outermost energy level. The element in Group III has
three electrons in the outermost energy level and so on. Therefore the Group
number indicates the number of electrons in the outermost energy level.
Distribution of Elements in the Periodic Table
The principal characteristics of the Periodic Table are:
a. The elements are arranged in an order which depends on one of their
fundamental characteristics.
b. The elements are divided into groups in such a way that similar elements lie
in the same group.
c. The elements within the same group will not necessarily have identical
properties. But the way in which properties differ from one element to
another (gradation of properties) conforms to some pattern; so knowing
the properties of one element in a group, it should be possible to predict
the properties of another in the same group.
d. Similarly, the gradation of properties from one group of elements to the
next group of elements conform to some pattern.
 The general structure of the table is:
 The elements are arranged in the order of the atomic number starting
with hydrogen atomic number 1.
 The elements are divided into eight groups running vertically. Some
groups of elements are given names:
Group I – the alkali metals
Group II – the alkaline earth metals
Group VII – the halogens
Group VIII – the noble gases.
 The three rows of elements forming the large block in the centre of the
table are called the transition metals.
 The elements are also divided into periods which run horizontally. The
number of elements in each complete period is significant:
Period 1 has 2 elements
Period 2 has 8 elements
Period 3 has 8 elements
Period 4 has 18 elements
Period 5 has 18 elements
Period 6 has 32 elements
Period 7 has 17 elements
Note: you will notice that this arrangement corresponds to the number of
electrons in successive energy levels for the first twenty elements.
 Metals are on the left-hand side of each period. The properties of the
elements in the Group become more metallic as the atomic number
increases (that is, down the Group).
Distribution of metal and non-metal elements in the Periodic Table
It is possible to predict which elements are metals and which elements are non-
metals depending on how they are arranged in the Periodic Table. In general, the
elements on the left of the Periodic Table are metals while those to the right are
non-metals. In between the two are a special group of elements known as
metalloids or semi-metals. This is because their properties are in between those
of metals and those of non-metals. Fig. 5.3 shows the positions of these blocks of
elements in the Periodic Table.
 Fig. 5.3 Blocks of elements in the Periodic Table.

 Elements which are gases at room temperature and pressure are in the top
right corner of the Periodic Table.
 The number of electrons in the outermost energy levels of any element is
the same as the Group number of the Group containing the element, with
an exception of the noble gas family.
 The most reactive elements are in Group I, the most non-reactive elements
are in Group VIII
 The most reactive non-metals are in the earlier periods, for example,
fluorine is more reactive than chlorine. The most reactive metals are in
later periods, for example, potassium is more reactive than sodium.
Electron configuration and the Periodic Table
Electron configuration refers to how the electrons are arranged in the energy
levels of an atom.
Given the atomic number of an element, we can write the electron arrangement
in shorthand. We shall illustrate this in the following example.

Example 5.1
The atomic numbers of X, Y and Z are 12, 13 and 17 respectively. Write
the electron arrangement of each.
Solution
X 2.8.2
Y 2.8.3
All the three elements are in period 3 because each has three energy levels. X is in
Group II, Y in Group III and Z in Group VII, following the number of electrons in
their outermost energy levels.

Fig. 5.4 Electron arrangement of the first 20 elements of the Periodic Table

Hydrogen is a unique element. It is placed in Group I as its atoms have one

electron in the outermost energy level. It also fits in Group VII because its atoms
have one electron short of a fully filled outermost energy level.
Helium is different from all other elements. It has two electrons in its single
energy level which can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons. Therefore, its
outermost energy level is full and cannot accommodate extra electrons.
Note: The atomic number also gives you the number of electrons. The electronic
configuration gives you the number of energy levels hence the period. The
valence electrons (in the outermost energy level) gives you the group of the
element.
The atomic structure diagrams below show how you can determine the group
number and the period of an element given the atomic number.

(a) Hydrogen
 Atomic Number 1
Electronic configuration 1
Group 1
Period 1

(b) Helium
Atomic Number 2
Electronic configuration 2
Group VIII
Period 1

(c) Lithium
Atomic Number 3
Electronic configuration 2.1
Group 1
Period 2

(d) Fluorine
Atomic Number 9
Electronic configuration 2.7
Group VII
Period 2

(e) Sodium
Atomic Number 11
Electronic configuration 2.8.1
Group I
Period 3

(f) Neon
Atomic Number 10
Electronic configuration 2.8.2
Group VIII
Period 2
5.3 Family names of some elements in the periodic table
Elements belonging to particular groups are given different family names as
follows:
 Group I elements – Alkali metals
 Group II elements – Alkali earth metals
 Group VII Elements – halogens
 Group VIII elements – Noble gases
Examples of Alkali metals are sodium, potassium and lithium.
Examples of alkali earth metals are beryllium, magnesium and calcium
Examples of halogens are fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
Examples of noble gases are neon, argon and krypton.

Revision exercise 5
1. Name:
(a) Three alkali metals
(b) Three halogens
(c) Three noble gases
(d) One alkaline earth metals
2. Which of the following elements belong to the same Group of the Periodic
Table? Lithium, magnesium, potassium, beryllium, helium and argon.
3. Which of the following elements belong to the same period of the Periodic
Table? Sodium, lithium, fluorine, argon, hydrogen, helium.
4. Some elements (denoted by letters A and F which are not their chemical
symbols) have atomic numbers as follows: A = 3, B = 9, C = 12, D = 16, E =
18, F = 20
(a) Which letter represents a halogen?
(b) Which letter represents a noble element?
(c) Which two elements are in the same Group of the Periodic Table?
5. An element is in period 3, Group VI. Draw its atomic structure.
6. Copy the puzzle below on a piece of paper then for each description below,
write the missing letters of the world that best fits the description.
(a) An alkali metal.
(b) A gas found in the air whose atoms have an electronic configuration of
2.5.
(c) An element with an atomic number of 17
(d) An element whose atom has one electron in the outermost energy level.
(e) An element in the period number 3 and Group number V.
(f) A noble gas.
(g) An element with electronic configuration of 2.4
(h) A horizontal row in the Periodic Table.
(i) A halogen whose atom has 7 electrons in the outermost energy level.

C_ _ _ _ _
_H_ _ _ _ _ _
_E_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _M
_ _ _ _ _I_ _
_ _ _S_ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _T_ _ _ _ _
_ _R_ _ _
_Y_ _ _ _ _ _
Unit 6 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Introduction
Heat causes many substances to change. Do you remember what happens to ice
and water when they are heated? What happened when these substances were
cooled? We shall learn more about the effect of heat on substances in this
section.
Heat can be dangerous, even fatal, if mishandled, not just in the laboratory, but at
home as well. Always exercise caution whenever you are using heat. In chemistry,
observations can be made on experiments that involves heating substances.
This section gives some guidelines to follow when heating substances in the
laboratory. In addition, always follow the instructions given for specific
experiments.
Safety rules to remember when heating substances
 Ensure that the test tube or boiling tube is dry before use.
 Make use of test tubes to heat solids, but, boiling tubes are preferred when
boiling liquids or solutions. For large quantities of liquids or solutions,
beakers are preferred. Hold the test tube or boiling tube with a test tube
holder or folded paper.
 Boil liquids or solutions in boiling tubes or test tubes that are less than a
fifth full. See Fig. 6.1.
 While boiling liquids or solutions, face the mouth of the test tube away
from yourself, friends or books in case of spurting.
 Always heat gently at first, holding the tube at an angle to the flame. From
time to time, move the tube away from the flame. If you have no smell any
gases, hold the tube some distance from the nose, then using your hand,
waft some gas above the tube towards your nose.
In this way you can safely smell any gas that might be given off as shown in Fig.
1.6 in Unit 1.
 When heating solids, look for changes in colour, or the colour of gas being
produced, listen out for sound too.
 Also look out for water droplets condensing and sublimating (sublimate) on
the cooler parts of the tube.
 If necessary, heat strongly and repeat the observation for smell and any
other evidence for change. Note the change when the residue cools.
 Always use a small non-luminous flame so that blackening of the glass does
not occur. Blackening of the tube makes it difficult to make accurate
observations.

Fig. 6.1 The amount of liquid boiled in a test tube should be a firth or less

6.1 Difference between physical and chemical changes

Experiment 6.1 (a)
Aim: To investigate the changes that take place during the heating and cooling of
a substance
Apparatus and chemicals
 Test tubes
 Candle wax
 Iodine crystals
 Bunsen burner
 Ice
 Test tube holder
 Zinc oxide
Procedure
1. Place pieces of candle wax in a test tube. Hold the test tube with the test
tube holder and heat. Allow it to cool.
2. Repeat the experiment with small quantities of the substances. Use a clean
dry test tube in each case. Copy Table 6.1 in your notebooks and fill in the
empty columns. These are your observations.
Table 6.1 Changes occurring in some substances on heating and cooling
Substance Appearance Result on heating After heating
Iodine crystals
Candle wax
Zinc oxide
Ice

Fig. 6.2 (a) Heating and (b) cooling wax

Experiment 6.1 (b)

Aim: To determine what happens when a substance is dissolved in water
Apparatus and chemicals
 Test tubes
 Sucrose
 Water
  Bunsen burner
 Test tube holder
 Common salt (sodium chloride)
Procedure
1. Place some common salt in a test tube. Add water to fill about the test tube
and shake well.
2. Place the mixture in an evaporating dish
3. Heat to evaporate the water
4. Copy Table 6.2 in your notebook and record your observations.
5. Repeat the experiment with a little sugar. Record your observation in Table
6.2.
6. Pour the mixture in an evaporating dish. Heat to evaporate the water.
Table 6.2 Dissolving some substances in water and the effect of heat on them
Substance Observation after Observation after
shaking in water evaporation
Common salt (sodium
chloride)
Sugar (sucrose)

You may have noted the following observations when the various substances are
heated:
(a) Wax
When wax is heated, it melts. On cooling, it solidifies to form the solid wax again.
(b) Iodine
Iodine forms a purple gas when heated. On cooling, the gas forms solid iodine
again. We refer to such change as sublimation.
(c) Sugar
Sugar dissolves in water. When water is evaporated, it is not easy to recover the
sugar. Why is this so?
(d) Zinc oxide
Zinc oxide is a white solid when cold. When heated, it does not melt but just turns
yellow. On cooling, it turns to the original white substance.
 (e) Common salt
When common salt is shaken with water, it dissolves. When water is evaporated
the salt sample was recovered.
In the above experiments, the changes which took place are reversible. This
means that the original substances were obtained upon cooling. None of the
substances heated formed a new substance. Changes like melting, boiling,
evaporation and sublimation are reversible. They are called non-permanent or
physical changes. Some substances change colour when heated and return to the
original colour when cooled; for example, zinc oxide. It is yellow when hot and
white when cold. Note that zinc oxide changed in colour only. It undergoes a
physical change.
Experiment 6.2
Aim: To investigate the effect of heat on hydrated copper (II) sulphate
Apparatus and chemicals
 Test tubes
 Test tube holder
 Hydrated copper (II) sulphate
 Bunsen burner
 Thermometer
Procedure
1. Place some small hydrated copper (II) sulphate in a dry test tube (if crystal
are wet, dry them with a blotting filter paper). Note the colour of the
crystals.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 6.3
3. Heat hydrated copper (II) sulphate until there is no further changes.
4. Remove the delivery tube while still heating, otherwise the collected liquid
will be sucked into the cooling tube.
5. Allow the test tube to cool and divide the residue solid into two portions.
6. Label the test tube containing the collected liquid as ‘A’. measure and
record the temperature of the liquid. Put an equal amount of water in
another test tube and label it as ‘B’. Measure the temperature of the water
and record it.
 Fig. 6.3 Set-up to show what happens when hydrated copper (II) sulphate is
heated.
7. Add the first portion of the residue into liquid in test tube A and record the
temperature change. Add the second into test tube B containing water and
record the temperature as shown in (fig. 6.4).
8. Draw Tables 6.3 and 6.4 and fill them.
(a) Why should we remove the delivery tube from the liquid collected while
still heating?

Fig. 6.4 Temperature changes on adding heated copper (II) sulphate to different
liquids
(b) From your results in Table 6.3, what is the liquid collected?
(c) How can we check whether this liquid is pure?
(d) From the change in temperature recorded in Table 6.4, is heat energy
released or absorbed? Give a reason.
(e) How can we classify the changes in this experiment? Give reasons.
Table 6.3 Effect of heat on copper (II) sulphate
Hydrated copper (II) Before heating After heating
sulphate
Colour

Table 6.4 Heat absorbed or released on addition of heated copper (II) sulphate to
different liquids
Test tube A Test tube B
Final temperature ˚C
Initial temperature ˚C
Change in temperature
˚C
When hydrated copper (II) sulphate is heated, a colourless liquid is given out i.e.
water. It turns white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate blue.
water
Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate Hydrated copper (II) sulphate
Heat
Hydrated copper (II) sulphate contains water molecules. Note that we are using
heat energy to drive the water molecules out of the crystals. This water is known
as water of crystallization. It is the one that gives the crystals a blue colour.
Without water of crystallization, copper (II) sulphate is a white powder. It is said
to be anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.
When we add water to anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, it turns blue, that is
becomes hydrated. The reaction that takes place is as follows:

Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate + water hydrated copper (II) sulphate

(White) (Blue)
This is an example of a reversible chemical change. If we kept anhydrous copper
(II) sulphate in a moisture-free place, it will remain white. We can write the above
reaction as follows:
 Heat (removes water)
Hydrated copper (II) sulphate anhydrous copper (II) sulphate + water
Add water
There are other reversible chemical changes that you will study later
Chemical changes
All the reaction given above are examples involving physical change. Let us now
find out what happens during chemical change.
Experiment 6.3
Aim: To investigate the effects of burning a piece of paper, wood and magnesium
ribbon.
Apparatus and chemicals
 A piece of wood
 Paper
 Magnesium ribbon
Procedure
1. Cut a piece of paper
2. Hold with a pair of tongs or a split piece of wood.
3. Light a burner and the piece of paper.
4. Repeat the experiment using a piece of wood.
5. Then cut a piece of magnesium ribbon about 4-5cm.
6. Hold the magnesium ribbon securely with a pair of tongs.
7. Then hold the end of tongs in the flame until the magnesium ribbon
catches fire.

Fig. 6.5 Burning magnesium in air

 Caution: Do not look at the flame of burning magnesium directly.
8. Draw Table 6.5 in your notebook and record your observations.
Table 6.5 Effect of heat on some substances
Substance Describe the type of flame Colour of substance formed
produced during burning
Paper
Wood
Magnesium
What is the difference between the original substance and the substance formed?
Can one re-form the original substance from the product formed?

The substance, in experiment 6.3, burnt with different types of flames. The paper
and wood burnt with a luminous yellow flame. Magnesium burnt with a very
bright dazzling flame. It forms white ash which is a new substance called
magnesium oxide. You cannot get magnesium from the oxide. It is an irreversible
reaction. The reaction that takes place is as follows:
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
The substances formed are totally different from the original substances. This
indicates that new substances are formed after burning. It is impossible to reverse
the products formed to the original substances. The change that has taken place
is permanent. Such changes are also called chemical changes or chemical
reactions and are difficult to reverse.
There are many examples of chemical changes. They include oxidation of food in
our bodies, rusting of iron, burning of kerosene, petrol and charcoal.
Table 6.6 Difference between physical and chemical changes
Physical change Chemical change
1. No new substance is formed A new substance is formed
1. No energy is either given out or Energy is usually given out or absorbed
absorbed.
2. The mass of the substance does The mass of the substance changes
not change.
 3. The change is usually reversible The change is usually irreversible

However, there are some exceptions to difference 2 and 4. For example, there are
some chemical reactions which are reversible.
Example 6.1
heat
(a) Calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
This reaction can be reversed as follows:
Heat
Calcium oxide + carbon dioxide Calcium carbonate
heat
(b) Ammonium chloride ammonia + hydrogen chloride
This can be reversed as follows:
heat
Ammonia + hydrogen chloride ammonium chloride
We will learn more about reversible chemical changes later.

Chemical reactions
In chemistry the substances we burn or heat are generally called reactants and
the substances formed are referred to as products. When burnt substances
usually combine chemically with oxygen in the air.
Reactant(s) product(s)
Simple word equations
When a chemical reaction takes place, we can represent it in form of word
equation. When magnesium burnt in air, it combined with the oxygen in the air to
form magnesium oxide. We can summarize this in form of a word equation.
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
 The plus sign (+) in chemistry when used in an equation means ‘reacts with’
(when used on the left)
 The arrow ( ) means to form the products on the right.
When there is only one substance on the left as in in the following equation:
Calcium carbonate calcium + carbon dioxide
This means when calcium carbonate is heated it decomposes (splits up) to form
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
 Two full-headed ( ) arrows mean it is reversible chemical reaction.
Remember, you cannot write chemical equations if you do not know the common
symbols and valences.
The number of electrons an atom requires to attain the stable noble gas electron
arrangement is known as valency or combining power of the atom or group of
atoms. A group of atoms which occur in compounds but cannot exist on their own
are called a radical, for example sulphate, SO42-or hydroxide, OH-. In metals, the
valency is just the number of electrons in the outermost energy level. For non-
metals it is the difference between Group VIII and Group number of the element,
for example the valency of oxygen is 8 - 6 = 2, valency of phosphorus is 8 – 5 = 3
etc. Valencies of various elements are given in the table 6.7
Table 6.7 Valencies of the first twenty elements in the Periodic Table
Atomic Element Symbol Electron To gain stability of a Valency
number arrangement noble gas atoms gain or
lose electron
1 Hydrogen H 1 Not stable, can lose 1e- 1
2 Helium He 2 Stable, cannot lose/gain 0
3 Lithium Li 2.1 Not stable, loses 1e- 1
4 Beryllium Be 2.2 Not stable, loses 2e- 2
5 Boron B 2.3 Not stable, loses 3e- 3
6 Carbon C 2.4 Not stable, loses 4e- 4
7 Nitrogen N 2.5 Not stable, easy to gain 3
3e-
8 Oxygen O 2.6 Not stable, easy to gain 2
2e-
9 Fluorine F 2.7 Not stable, easy to gain 1
1e-
10 Neon Ne 2.8 Stable, cannot gain or 0
lose electron
11 Sodium Na 2.8.1 Not stable, loses 1e- 1
12 Magnesium Mg 2.8.2 Not stable, loses, 2e- 2
13 Aluminium Al 2.8.3 Not stable, loses 3e- 3
14 Silicon Si 2.8.4 Not stable, loses 4 or 4
gains 4e-
15 Phosphorus P 2.8.5 Not stable, gains 3e- 3 or 5
16 Sulphur S 2.8.6 Not stable, gains 2e- 2
17 Chlorine Cl 2.8.7 Not stable, loses 1e- 1
18 Argon Ar 2.8.8 Stable (octet) cannot gain 0
or lose electron
19 Potassium K 2.8.8.1 Not stable, loses 1e- 1
20 calcium Ca 2.8.8.2 Not stable, loses 2e- 2

Table 6.8 Valencies of other common elements

Name of metal Symbols Valency
Zinc Zn 2
Iron Fe 2 or 3
Tin Sn 2 or 4
Lead Pb 2 or 4
Copper Cu 1 or 2
Silver Ag 1
Barium Ba 2

Table 6.9 Valencies of common radicals

Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3
Radical Formula Radical Formula Radical Formula
Ammonium NH4+ Carbonate CO32- Phosphate PO43-
Hydroxide OH- Sulphate SO42-
Nitrate NO3- sulphite SO32-
Chloride Cl-
HCO3-
 Hydrogen
carbonate HSO4-
Hydrogen
sulphate

We already mentioned that valency is the combining power of an element or

radical. However some elements have varying valencies, for example, copper can
have valency of 1 and 2. The valencies of these elements are indicated in Roman
numbers in brackets after the name of the element when naming compounds.
This is illustrated in Table 6.10.
Table 6.10 Valencies of elements in compounds
Compound Elements Valency
Copper (I) oxide Copper 1
Copper (II) oxide Copper 2
Iron (II) sulphate Iron 2
Iron (III) chloride Iron 3
Sulphur (IV) oxide Sulphur 4
Sulphur trioxide Sulphur 6
Carbon (IV) oxide Carbon 4
Carbon (II) oxide Carbon 2

Writing chemical formulae

Every subject has its own special language as you might have realized now. For
example, in Chemistry we have substances with names like sodium chloride.
However, we have a short notation of writing names called formula. The formula
of a compound shows the atoms present in the compound in their simplest ratio.
The formula of sodium chloride is NaCl. The formula for water is H2O. Why then
do we write the number 2 in the formula for water whereas we do not in sodium
chloride? These are some of the questions we shall answer in this section as we
discuss how to write chemical formulae.
Activity 6.2
Aim: To write a chemical formulae using a game of cards
1. Get a piece of plain paper.
2. For group 1 elements or cations, with valency 1, cut these piece of paper
into the following shape but make sure that they are of the same size.
Indicate the symbol and the name of the element.

3. For group 2 elements or cations with valency 2, cut the paper such that it
has two projections as shown as in the figure below.

4. For group 3 elements or cations with valency 3, your piece of paper will
have three projections as shown below.

5. For group 7 elements or anions with valency 1, cut the piece of paper so
that it has groove as shown below.

6. Group 6 elements or anions with valency 2, will be represented by a piece

of paper with two grooves.
 7. For elements with valency 3, cut out three grooves.

Note: It is important to take care of the following point before you play this game.

 When writing the formula, metals are always written first. For example, it is
not correct to write ClNa or Br2Ca even though it gives us the same
information. The correct way is NaCl and CaBr2 respectively.

Now let us use another simple method of wring chemical formulas. Always
remember that write a correct formula we must write down the;
 Correct symbol of the element or radical
 Correct valency of the symbol or radical

Let us write the formula for sodium sulphate again following the steps below:
Step 1
Write the symbols of the elements and radical.
Na SO4
Step 2
Write the valencies of the element and radical above and to the right side of each.
 Na1 SO42
Step 3
Exchange the valencies by writing them below the symbols as shown by the
arrows.
Na1 SO42
Step 4
Write the symbols close together
Na2SO4
Use the card game for the above worked examples and to see whether you get
the same formulae.
Activity 6.3
Write the formulae for the following compounds:
(a) Calcium carbonate
(b) Lead oxide
(c) Iron oxide
(d) Iron hydroxide
(e) Lead chloride
(f) Sodium dioxide
(g) Copper bromide
(h) Iron chloride
Writing simple balanced chemical equations
Chemical equations are short, clear and accurate descriptions of chemical
reactions. A reaction process can be explained using an equation. For example,
when oxygen reacts with magnesium ribbon, a white solid of magnesium oxide is
formed. We have been using a word equation to describe such a reaction. Thus:
Magnesium + Oxygen magnesium oxide
The (+) sign here is not used to mean addition, but in chemistry it is used to mean
‘reacts with’. The sign is used to indicate formation of a product. Using equal
sign instead of an arrow, is wrong.
Names of starting substances like magnesium and oxygen in the above example
are written on the left side of the arrow; these substances are called reactants.
The new substances produced by the chemical reaction are called products and
are written on the right side of the arrow.
Magnesium + Oxygen magnesium oxide
(Reactants) (Products)
Chemical equations have various notations that indicate the physical states of the
reactants and products. These notations are very important. In fact, whenever
one writes an equation and misses to write them, the equation is not complete.
These notations are as follows:
Table 6.11 State symbols
Physical state Representation of state Description
Solid (s) A solid can be a
precipitate or suspension
Liquid (l) A pure liquid like water
and paraffin
Aqueous (aq) A solute or liquid
dissolved in water
Gas (g) A gas or vapour

Balancing chemical equations

In order for an equation to describe a reaction accurately, the equation must be
balanced. Chemical reactions should always follow the law of conservation of
mass so that the total mass of reactants must be equal to the total mass of
products.
Reactants Products

Fig 6.17 Conservation of mass in a balanced chemical reaction

Let us consider our previous example of magnesium ribbon reacting with oxygen.
We can write an initial equation containing the formulae of reactants and
products.
Mg + O2 MgO
This equation is not balanced. Count the number of atoms of the reactants and
the products.
Reactants Products
1 magnesium atom 1 magnesium atom
2 oxygen atoms 1 oxygen atom
The left side (reactants) has two oxygen atoms but the right side (product) has
only one oxygen atom.

Fig. 6.18 Unbalanced equation, more oxygen atoms on the left

An equation can be balanced using a number of steps. Let us follow these steps to
balance the above equation:
Step 1
Write the equation using correct formulae for the reactant and products.
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
Mg + O2 MgO
Step 2
Count the number of atoms of each element in the reactants and in the products.
Check whether they are equal as in Table 6.13.
Table 6.12 Balancing number of atoms for each element in the reactants and
product
Atoms Reactants Product
Mg 1 1
O 2 1

We notice that the oxygen atoms are not equal. We have 2 atoms on the left and
only one on the right.
Step 3
To make oxygen atoms equal, balance the equation by writing numbers in front of
the formula. Remember that 1 is assumed to be there already. Therefore start by
inserting 2. If this does not balance, go to 3, 4 until the equation is balanced.
Usually we do not go to very big numbers.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
The number 2 now balances the equation. When you have 2O2 it means two
oxygen molecules. The number in front of a formula means, everything following
is multiplied by that number.
Example 6.3
2Mg means 2 × Mg that is why we have 2 Mg atoms on the left and 2 Mg on the
right. This equation 2Mg + O2 2MgO means 2 atoms of Mg react with 1
molecule of oxygen (containing 2 atoms) to form 2 molecules of magnesium
oxide.
Step 4
Count again the number of atoms of each element on the reactants and product
side. Note that all atoms are balanced as illustrated in Table 6.14
Table 6.13 Balancing number of atoms for each element in the reactants and
products
Atoms Reactants Product
Mg 2 2
O 2 2

Step 5
Insert the correct state symbols for each substance.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
In a chemical reaction you are supposed to learn the reactants and products in
words. Then change the words into correct formulae and finally balance the
equation. Do not memorize chemical equation.
Examples
(a) Magnesium
When magnesium metal burnt in oxygen if formed a white ash called magnesium
oxide. So we summarize the above statement in a word equation followed by a
balanced chemical equation:
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)

Other metals that react with oxygen to from metal oxides include:
(a) Zinc + oxygen zinc oxide
2Zinc(s) + O2(g) 2 ZnO(s)

(b) Calcium + oxygen calcium oxide

2Ca (s) + O2(g) 2CaO (s)

(c) Iron + oxygen iron dioxide

2Fe (s) + O2(g) 2 FeO (s)
Non-metals combine with oxygen to from non-metal oxides for example charcoal
(carbon), hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus among others. Their chemical reactions
are shown below:

(b) Carbon
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
(c) Hydrogen
Hydrogen + Oxygen water
2H2 (g) + 02 (g) 2H2O
(d) Sulphur
Sulphur + Oxygen sulphur dioxide
S (s) + O2 SO2 (g)
6.3 Calculation of masses from equations
As we have suggested earlier, it is important to write correct balanced equations.
When correctly written they show quantities that react and quantities produced.
Given the relative atomic masses of the various elements in a compound, we add
them up to get the mass of the formula. We can express the masses in grams.
Let us find the formula masses of the following compounds, using the relative
atomic masses given in Table 6.15.
Table 6.14 Relative Atomic Masses of some compounds
Name of compound Formula Formula mass expressed in
grams
Water H2O (2+16) = 18g
Magnesium oxide MgO 24+16 = 40g
Sodium hydroxide NaOH 23+16+1 = 40g
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 40+12+ (3×16) = 100g

R.A.Ms H = 1, O = 16, Mg = 24, Na = 23, Ca = 40, C = 12

Calculation of mass of a reactant and mass of product
Balanced chemical reactions give the ratios of reacting masses of the products
formed. From such information we are able to calculate the mass of a reactant
used and also the mass of product formed.
Let us see how you can determine masses of products from a given chemical
reaction.
Example 6.4
What mass of carbon dioxide will be given off when 10 g of calcium carbonate re
heated? (Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16)
Solution
a) Write a balanced equation
b) Write the reacting mass in grams below the formula
heat
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
100 g 44 g
10 g yg

c) Cross multiply and solve for y

100 × y = 10 × 44
10 ×44
Y =
100
= 4.4 g
Therefore 10 g of calcium carbonate produce 4.4 g of carbon dioxide.
Note: We did not write the mass of Carbon dioxide (CO2) below the equation
because it is not mentioned in the problem.
Example 6.5
What mass of sulphur would be required to convert 15 g of oxygen to sulphur
dioxide?
(S = 32.0, O = 16.0)

Solution
Sulphur + Oxygen sulphur dioxide
S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
32 g 32 g
Xg 15 g
X ×32 = 32 × 15
32 × 15
32x =
32

= 15 g
Example 6.6
How many grams of copper would be deposited if Ann added 6.5 g of zinc into
copper (II) sulphate solution?
(Zn = 16, Cu = 63.5)
Solution
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq)
65 g 63.5 g
6.5 g yg
6.5 ×63.5
Y=
65

= 6.35 g
Experiment 6.4
Aim: To show that in a chemical reaction the mass of the reactants is equal to the
mass of products
Apparatus and chemicals
 250 cm3 conical flask with rubber stopper
 Small test tube
 A piece of cotton thread
 Barium chloride (common salt) solution
 Dilute sulphuric acid
 Access to a balance
Procedure
1. Pour some barium chloride solution in a clean conical flask
 2. Tie a piece of cotton thread tightly around the neck of a test tube and leave
so that some thread hanging loose so that it hold the test tube as shown in
Fig. 6.18
3. Add dilute sulphuric acid into the test tube until it is nearly full. Wipe the
outside of the tube.
4. Lower the test tube carefully into the flask using the thread.
5. Push the rubber stopper into the flask so that it holds the thread firmly. The
two solutions must not mix.
6. Weigh the flask and its contents and record its mass in a table like table
mix.
7. Open the stopper so that the thread is free and test tube drops and the two
solutions mix. Replace the stopper. What do you observe?
8. Again weigh the flask and its contents. Draw Table 6.15 in your notebook.
Record the mass in the table.
Table 6.15 masses of substance before and after reaction
Mass of flask before reaction xg
Mass of flask after reaction yg

Are the value x and y equal or different?

Fig. 6.19 To illustrate the law of conservation of mass

The solutions are colourless at the beginning of the experiment. Bu when mixed
they form a white substance. This indicates that a reaction has taken place.
The values of x and y are equal. This shows the mass of reactants and products
are equal. In other words nothing is lost or gained during reaction we say that
matter is conserved. This shows a law known as h law of conservation of matter.
The law states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
This explains why we must write balanced chemical equations for chemical
reactions because the reactants are equal to the products.
Percentage composition by mass of elements in a compound
We have seen that to write a correct chemical formula we have to know the
symbols of elements as well as their valencies. A correct formula gives us the ratio
of the elements in that compound. For example, the correct formula of
magnesium oxide is MgO, water is H2O and calcium carbonate CaCO3.
The last formula carries the following; 1 molecule of calcium carbonate contains;
1 atom of Calcium, 1 atom of Carbon and 3 atoms of oxygen. Study example 6.8
to learn how you calculate the parentage composition by mass of each atom in
the formula.

Example 6.7
Calculate the percentage composition of each element in calcium carbonate. (Ca =
40, C = 12, O = 16)
Solution
First write the correct formula of the compound and find the formula mass.
The formula mass of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100
Therefore,
𝐶𝑎 ×100 40 ×100
The % of Ca = = = 40%
CaCO3 100
𝐶 ×100 12 ×100
The % of C = = = 12%
CaCO3 100
 𝑂 ×100 16 ×3
The % of O = = × 100 = 48%
CaCO3 100

REVISION EXERCISE 6
1. Calculate the percentage by mass of each element in each of the following
compounds:
(a) Water
(b) Calcium oxide
(c) Carbon dioxide

2. List difference between physical and chemical changes.

3. When Zinc oxide and lead dioxide are heated, they change colour when hot
and when they cool. Is this a chemical or physical change? Explain
4. When a heap of an orange powder of substance X is touched with a hot
wire, a large quantity of a green powder is formed, the mass glows red-hot
and steam is given off. Is this a chemical or physical change? Explain your
answer.
5. Balance the following equations:
(a) Mg (s) + O2 (g) MgO (s)
(b) S (s) + O2 (g) SO2
6. How many grams of copper would be deposited if you added 13.0 g of zinc
into copper (II) sulphate solution? (Zn = 65, Cu 64)
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq)
Unit 7 Organic Compounds

Meaning of organic compounds

Organic compounds are studied under a branch of chemistry called organic
chemistry. They are mainly known as hydrocarbons meaning they are compounds
of carbon and hydrogen. In addition, they are known to link to form long chain
carbon compounds. Other compounds such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
and those of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are studied under the branch
of chemistry known as inorganic chemistry. Although such compounds contain
carbon atoms these atoms as we will see later in this course, do not link to form
chains.
Therefore organic compounds are mainly hydrogens such as petrol, diesel,
kerosene and liquid petroleum gas (LPG) etc. and their derivatives.
Natural sources of organic compounds
(a) Plants and animals
These organisms synthesize many organic compounds. These include sugar,
starches, fats, dyes, drugs among others.
(b) Petroleum
This is fossils fuel which originates from dead organisms such as algae buried
under rocks and has undergone chemical changes over millions of years.
(c) Natural gas
This is a hydrocarbon found underground on top of crude oil deposit. It is also
found under the sea. Natural gas is 95% methane.
(d) Coal
This is a fossil fuel formed from decayed plant materials that has been subjected
to heat and pressure over millions of years.
Organic compounds as fuels
A substance that undergoes combustion readily and gives out heat energy is
known as a fuel. A fuel can be in form of a solid, liquid or gas.
Substances used as fuels in homes
(a) Solid fuel
 Charcoal
 Wood
 Coal

(b) Liquid fuel

 Petrol
 Kerosene
 Diesel
 Fuel oil
 Alcohol (ethanol)
 Methylated spirit (ethanol mixed with methanol in spirit lamps and
stoves)

(c) Gas fuel

 Natural gas for example methane
 Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) for example propane and butane
(d) Biogas
Methane is also a by-product of the metabolism of some living organisms. In
developing countries, such as India and China, farmers build digesters. A digester
is an apparatus that makes methane from waste organic matter, such as animal
cow dung. In the absence of air, bacteria feed and give off methane. The local
people use the gas for heating and lighting. Such biogas systems are also being
investigated in developed countries.
They may provide a productive means of disposing of large amounts of waste
form the intensive raising of livestock animals.
(e) Liquefied alkanes
This is a convenient form of portable fuel supply. Butane, for example, is used in
cigarette lighters camping stoves and lamps. Auto-mobiles and trucks can also be
fuelled by liquid alkanes. Such alkanes are called liquid petroleum gas (LPG) in
automotive applications.
Note: when we burn a fuel, the process is called combustion. Combustion of a
substance requires oxygen. In actual fact, it is oxidation. During the process of
combustion, energy is released. For example, when biogas (methane) is burned it
produces carbon dioxide, water and heat energy.
Composition and uses of fractions of petroleum
In unit 3, we saw that petroleum is a mixture of compounds which can be
separated into fractions of different hydrocarbons by fractional distillation.
Uses of fractions of petroleum
Some of the fractions and their uses are indicated in the following table:
Table 7.1: Factions of petroleum and their uses
fraction Use
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)  Fuel
 Petrol (gasoline)  Powering vehicles
 Kerosene (paraffin)  Jet fuel, heating and lighting
 Diesel  Powering heavy vehicles for
example lorries
 Lubricants (for example  Reducing friction in moving
lubricating oil or grease) parts of machines and vehicles
 Bitumen  Tarmacking roads, repairing
leaking roofs

Revision Exercise 7
1. Define the following terms;
(a) Organic chemistry
(b) Organic compound
(c) Hydrocarbons
2. What is formed when a hydrocarbon is burnt in sufficient supply of air or
oxygen?
3. What is the test for water and carbon dioxide?
4. Poisonous gas and soot are produced during incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels. Give the chemical names of the two products.