CHAPTER II

HUM AN RESOURCE M ANAGEM ENT TOOLS

Objectives
At the end of studying this chapter, Students should be able to:
 Define job analysis
 Discuss tools of job analysis
 Explain the required data for job analysis
 Describe job analysis methods
 Discuss job analysis outputs
 Discuss the elements and process of job design
 Describe techniques of job design

JOB ANALYSIS

A job in an organization is created when tasks, duties and responsibilities

justify hiring of one or more people for accomplishing the organizational
purposes. A Job according to Mondy and Noe (1990) consists of a group of
tasks that must be performed for an organization to achieve its goals. A job
may need the services of one individual, such as that of the Prime Minister or
the services of ten or more, as might be the case with ministers in a country.
In a work group consisting of an auditor, two chief accountants, and three
accounting clerks, there are a total of three jobs and six positions. A
position is the collection of tasks and responsibilities performed by one
person; there is a position for every individual in an organization (Mondy &
Noe, 1990). If a job is so fundamentally important in an organization, what
then is a job analysis?

Job analysis is the systematic process of determining the skills, duties and
knowledge required for performing jobs in an organization (Mondy & Noe,
1990). It is an important human resource technique and is also a method that
enables to obtain information regarding jobs available in the organization.

The major purpose of job analysis is to provide answers to the following six
important questions ( Mondy & Noe, 1990).
1. What physical and mental tasks does the worker accomplish?
2. When is the job to be completed?
3. Where is the job to be accomplished?
4. How does the worker do the job?
5. Why is the job done?
6. What qualifications are needed to perform the job?

The job facts are gathered, analyzed and recorded with respect to the job as it
exists. Moreover, job analysis is conducted after the job has been designed, the
necessary training has been given to the employees to perform job. According
to Mondy & Noe, 1990, job analysis is performed on three different accessions.

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These are:
1) It is done when the organization is founded and a job analysis
program is initiated for the first time.
2) It is performed when new jobs are created
3) It is used when jobs are changed significantly as a result of new
technology, methods, procedures, or systems.

In most cases, job analysis is carried out because of changes in the nature of
jobs. It is used to prepare both job descriptions and job specifications. The
job description is a written statement that explains the title, duties,
responsibilities, working conditions, and other aspects of a specified job. Job
specification, on the other hand, describes the skill, knowledge, work
experiences required to perform the job. (Milkovich & Bourdean, 1991)

Reasons for Conducting Job Analysis

Data obtained from job analysis has an impact on every aspect of human
resource management as shown in figure (Mondy & Noe 1990) below.

Job Analysis: The Most Basic Human Resource Management Tool

As can be seen above, a major use of job analysis data is in the area of human
resource planning. Since jobs in an organization are different in nature, each
requires different knowledge, skills and experiences. Hence, effective human
resource planning can only take place when these job requirements are taken
into account.

Human resource activities, such as recruitment and selection largely depend

on job information. In order to match the personnel to the job, the recruiter
must know the qualifications and other pertinent features of the job

Job specification information, such as the knowledge, skills and abilities an

employee need to perform a task is crucial in identifying human resource
training and development requirements. Mondy & Noe (1990) state that if
the specification suggests that the job requires a particular knowledge, skill, or
ability and the person filling the position does not possess all the qualifications
required-training and/or development is probably in order.

Performance standards are developed from job information and then actual
employee performance is measured (Werther & Davis, 1996). It is important to
note here that employee would be evaluated in terms of how well they
discharge their responsibilities specified in the job descriptions. Thus,
performance appraisal, which is based on job analysis information, enables
organization to measure employee performance against written standard and
provide feedback concerning their contribution.

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Jobs that require greater knowledge, skills, and abilities should be worth more
to the organization. For example, the relative value of a teaching job that calls
for doctorate's degree normally would be higher than that of a teaching job that
requires a master's degree.

Human Resource
Planning

Recruitment

Tasks Responsibilities Duties Selection

Human Resource
Development

Job Performance
Description Appraisal

Job Compensation
Analysis and Benefits
Job
Specifications Safety and
Health

Employee and
Labour Relations
Knowledge Skills Abilities
Human Resource
Research

Equal
Employment

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Information obtained from job analysis is also important in identifying safety
and health considerations. It, according to Chatterjee, (1995), enables
management to provide for special measures for the physically handicapped or
infirm employee, the pregnant mother or other vulnerable sections among
workers. Job analysis information is also important to employee and labor
relationships. Management relies on job description to consider promotion,
transfer, or demotion, on the basis of comparison of talent.

In general, job studies are undertaken in order to bring about improvement in

work methods, reduction in errors, elimination of handling unnecessary
materials and duplication of effort, reduction in fatigue, increased
employee commitment and responsibilityand consequently to improve the
performance of the employee. These studies, therefore, enable the job
analyst to think in terms of designing/ redesigning jobs to achieve the above
objectives (Chateerjee, 1995).

Types of Data Normally Gathered in Job Analysis.

Job analysis information is used to define staffing needs of an organization. It,

according to Baird et.al., (1990), includes analysis of:
 Work activities - What needs to be done?
 Work tools and technology - What machines, tools and technology people
will use.
 Knowledge requirement - What people must know to perform the job?
 Personal requirement - What skills and experience people must possess to
perform well?
 Job context - the work schedules, physical conditions, and social
environment of the job.
 Performance Standards - expected results.
This information enables the job analyst to determine the type and level of
education, training and work experience.

Job Analysis Methods

Methods used to conduct job analysis are different; this is because
organizational needs and resources for conducting job analysis differ.
However, some of the most common methods of obtaining information for job
analysis are:
1) Questionnaires
2) Interviews
3) Observation
4) Employee Log
5) Combination of Methods

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Conducting Job Analysis
The expert who conducts job analysis is interested in collecting information on
what is involved in doing a particular job. Job analysis is not one man affair; it
requires the participation of employees and their immediate supervisors.
Organizations may use employed human resource experts or use outside
consultants to perform job analysis. Before conducting job analysis, the
analyst seeks to gain general understanding of the organization and the
job/jobs to be studied. Then, the analyst develops the desired job analysis
methods to gather information about the jobs; employee characteristics, and
job performance standards. Before starting to gather data, the employees'
supervisor should introduce the analyst to the employees and explain the main
purpose of the job analysis. The job information collected by using one or more
job analysis methods allow management to draw up a job description, job
specifications and job standard.

 Job Descriptions
Information collected by using one or more job analysis techniques allows
management to develop job descriptions. A job description is a written
statement of what employee does, how it is done and why it is done. In other
words, the job description contains the total requirements of the job, i.e. who,
what, where, when why and how.

According to Mondy and Noe (1990), among the items frequently included in a
job description is:
- Major duties performed
- Percentage of time devoted to each duty.
- Performance standards to be achieved.
- Working conditions and possible hazards.
- Number of employees performing the job and how they report to.
- The machines and equipment used on the job.

Within an organization, all the job descriptions should follow the same format,
although the form and content may differ from organization to organization. A
sample of job description for a secretary in an-organization is provided in the
exhibit (Mondy & Noe, 1990) below.

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 POSITION TITLE POSITION NUMBER
SECRETARY II

DIVISION OR STAFF DEPARTMENT REPORTS TO EFFECTIVE DATE

January 2000
DEPARTMENT SECTION GRADE
REVISES
6

JOB SUM MARY

Performs clerical and administrative duties for a manager and often one
or more staff members of a major function.

NATURE OF W ORK
Performs a wide variety of office duties including most of the following:
a. Typing correspondence, report, manuscripts, graphs, charts, etc., from
notes, dictating machine, and/or hand written drafts proficiently and
with minimum, direction and instructions.
b. Receiving telephone calls and visitors skillfully and handling incoming
mail efficiently.
c. Originating routine correspondence and handling inquiries, and routing
& non-routine inquiries and correspondence to proper persons.
d. Establishing and maintaining department files and records.
e. Assuming responsibility for arranging appointments and meetings,
screening calls, and handling personal and confidential matters for
superior.
f. Assembling, organizing, processing, and evaluating data and reports;
operating office machines needed for accomplishing this.
g. Performing administrative duties and special projects as directed, such
as collecting and compiling general reference materials and information
pertaining to company, division, or department practices and
procedures.
QUALIFICATIONS
h. High school education or its equivalent plus three years of clerical
experience, and a typing skill of at least 60-WPM. Demonstrated
proficiency in English grammar, punctuation, spelling, and proper word
usage.

A Job Description
Job description outlines what the jobholder is actually supposed to do how he
does it and why it is done. Although the contents of the job description vary,
most job descriptions include:

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 - Job Identification
- Date of the Job Analysis
- Job Summary
- Duties Performed

 Job Specification
Job description and specification are essential documents when management
begins recruiting and selecting employees. According to Werther and Davis,
1996, a job description defines what a job is; it is a profile of the job, on the
other hand, job specification describes the job demands on the employees
who do it and the human skills that are required. It is a profile of human
characteristics needed by the person performing the job. These requirements
include experience, training, education, and the ability to meet physical and
mental demands (Werther & Davis 1996). In other words, job specification is
identification of knowledge, skill and attitude needed to perform a particular
job. It is important to not here that since job descriptions and specifications
both focus on the job, job specifications are often included as one section of job
description. For example, the qualifications required for the job of "secretary II"
include typing at least sixty words per minute and demonstrated proficiency in
English. This type of information, as stated earlier, is extremely important in
recruiting and selection process.

 Job Performance Standards

Job performance standardis the third application of job analysis. Job

descriptions as stated earlier are statements of what activities are to be
performed, where as performance standards make explicit the quantity and/or
quality of performance expected in basic tasks indicated in the job description.
Job performance standards, according Chatterjee (1995), are statements of the
acceptable as well as attainable levels of achievement on a particular job. Job
performance standards serve three functions. These are:

1) Standards become objectives or targets for employee effort. The

challenge or pride of meeting objectives may serve to motivate
employees. Once standards are met, workers may feel a sense of
accomplishment and achievement. This outcome contributes to
employee satisfaction.

2) Standards are criteria against which job success is measured. Without

standards, no control system can evaluate job performance (Werther &
Davis, 1996). When measured performance strays from the job
standard, corrective action is taken. As illustrated in figure below, the
action serves as feedback, which in turn can lead to change standards if
they are in appropriate or improve the actual performance.

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3) Job Actual
Actual Correction of
Job
Job Performance
Performance Deviations

standard
A job control system

4) Performance standards benefit both the jobholder and the superior who
evaluates him. The more the employee understands what is expected of
him, the more likely it is that he or she will be able to carry out the
responsibilities of the position successfully. On the other hand, in
evaluating the performance of each employee, the supervisor can compare
the actual performance of each person with the written standard.
Performance appraisals can never become fully objective, but the usage of
written standards helps to make them more objective (Chatterjee, 1995).

JOB DESIGN
Jobs are the foundation of organizational productivity and employee
satisfaction. How well jobs are designed will play an important role in the
realization of organizational objectives. Well-designed jobs, therefore, enable to
attract and retain motivated employees capable of discharging their work
responsibilities.

Job design is the process of determining the specific tasks to be performed,

the methods used in performing these tasks, and how the job relates to other
work in the organization (Mondy & Noe, 1990). It specifies how the job is to be
done and how workers can be satisfied doing the job. Workers must also
sense that they are accountable for specific results and feel that the job has
meaning beyond pay (Mondy & Noe, 1990). According to Werther and Davis
(1996), the design of a job reflects the organizational, environmental, and
behavioral demands placed on it

Elements of Job Design

 Organizational Elements

Organizational elements of job design according to Werther and Davis (1996),

includes:

- Mechanistic approach

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 - Work flow
- Work practices
- Ergonomics

Mechanistic Approach

This approach involves identifying every task in a job so that task can be
arranged to minimize the time and expended by workers. Once task
identification is complete, a limited number of tasks are grouped into a job.
The result is specialization: Specialized jobs lead to a short job cycle, the time
to complete every task in a job. The mechanistic approach stresses efficiency
in effort, time, labour costs, training and employee learning time.

Work Flow

The product or service usually suggests the sequence of and balance between
jobs if the work is to be done efficiently. For example, the frame of a car must
be built before doors can be added. Once the sequence of jobs is determined,
the balance between jobs is established.

Ergonomics

Optimal productivity requires that the physical relationship between the

worker and the work be considered in designing jobs. Ergonomics is the study
of how human beings physically interface with their equipment. The apparatus
and other related work product must be modified for ease of work process.

 Environmental Elements

Environmental elements of job design are concerned with ability and

availability of potential employees and their social expectations (Werther
& Davis, 1996).

Employee Abilities and Availability

Efficiency considerations must be balanced against the abilities and availability

of the people who are to do the work. The level of technology and the type of
work in an organization should not exceed the abilities of the organization's
workforce.

Social and Cultural Expectations

Job design can also be influenced by workers social and cultural expectations.
Working hours, holidays, religious beliefs, management styles, are some of the
factors that must be considered when designing jobs. Failure to consider these
social expectations can create dissatisfaction, low motivation, low quality of
work life and the like.

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  Behavioral Elements

Jobs cannot be designed by using only the elements that aid efficiency.
Instead, job designers draw heavily on behavioral research to provide a work
environment that helps satisfy individual needs. Any job, according to
Scarrpello and Ledvinka (1988) can be described in terms of five core
dimensions. These are:

 Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires a variety of activities,
skills, and talents to carry out the work.

 Task identity. The extent to which the job allows its employees to
complete whole tasks rather than just parts of tasks.

 Task significance. The extent to which the job can be regarded as

important to others inside and outside the organization.

 Autonomy. The extent, to which the job provides freedom to plan,

schedules and decides about work procedures.

 Feedback. The extent to which the job allows its employees to obtain
clear and direct knowledge about how well they perform.

Further more, there are factors that play a vital role in job design or
redesign. These are:

Technology

Technology has an impact on job design. The type of machines, tools,

equipment, and other work aids, as well as particular work layout and
methods, used in producing goods and/or services tend to act as
constraints.

Economic Factors

Economic factors also affect job design. If management believes that job
redesigning can improve output and the level of workers satisfaction, it
must consider the adequacy of the firm's other resources. Since job
redesign is an expensive undertaking, the management must carefully
balance the benefits of job design or redesign with its costs.

Laws and Government Regulations

Job design or redesign is also affected by government regulations.

Management needs to observe whether or not laws relating to labour,
environment and the like are being violated.

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 Union Pressure

The philosophy, policy, and strategy of the union can affect Job desig n or
redesign. The contact between union and management specifies and
defines the type of jobs and the duties and responsibilities of employees. In
most cases, unions may perceive job redesign to be attempts by
management to squeeze more work out of the workers without increasing
wages.

Employees' Potential

The abilities, attitudes, and motivation of the organization's workers must

be considered when planning to design or redesign a job. Designing a job
that would be far more complex than the ability level of employees available
to do it wouldn't make sense unless they are willing to be trained or new
employees with the necessary capabilities can be hired (Mondy & Noe,
1990).

M anagement Philosophy

The general organizational policies and strategies can determine the degree
to which job redesign is possible. Top management must be convinced
regarding the beneficial outcomes of the job redesign before it is
undertaken.

Techniques of Job Redesign

The major purpose of job design and redesign is to improve employee

performance. There are many methods of enhancing jobs through job
design/redesign. The following represent the more viable techniques of job
redesign.

 Job Rotation

This technique refers to the movement of employees from one job to another. It
is important to bear in mind that jobs themselves are not actually changed only
the employees are rotated. As Werther and Davis (1990), stated rotation
breaks the monotony of highly specialized work by calling on different skills
and abilities. The organization benefits because workers become competent in
several jobs rather than one. Learning and developing new skills,
 helps the worker's self -image
 provides personal growth, and
 Makes the worker more valuable to the organization (Werther & Davis,
1996).

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On the other hand, according to Chatterjee (1995), job rotation is not without
its drawbacks. The main drawbacks are:

 Apart from costs involved in the movement of personnel, productivity

inevitably drops in the initial phase of a worker's taking on a new job. Also,
efficiencies derived through experience are lost as a result of job rotation
and these can be substantial.

 Job rotations also create disruptions. Members of work groups have to

adjust to the new employees as much as he/she to them. The supervisor
has to spend more time answering questions and monitoring the work of the
recently rotated employee.

 Job rotation is a weak solution to jobs that score low on motivation

potential. Critics point out that this approach involves nothing more than
having people performing several boring and monotonous jobs rather than
one.

 Job Enlargement

Job enlargement is a technique used to expand the number of related tasks in

a job. In other words, it increases job scope. According to Beard Well and
Holden (1999), job enlargement gives greater variety in job content and thereby
helps to relieve monotony in repetitive jobs. For example, instead of knowing
how to operate only one particular machine, a worker is taught to operate two
or even three with the same level of responsibility. Here, through job
enlargement, management can reduces monotony, and increase job
satisfaction by creating task variety.

 Job Enrichment

Job enrichmentis a technique is which employees are given autonomy to set

their own work pace, design their own work methods, participate in making
decisions affecting their work units, and evaluate their accomplishments
(Baird, et.al, 1990). It refers to basic changes in the content of the job and
increasing the level of responsibility, autonomy, and control. It is a means of
expanding jobs vertically. Job enrichment, add more planning and control
responsibilities. These additions to the job, in-turn, can lead to increased
motivation.

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