MODULE I

Servomotor
• Motor to rotate a certain angle for a given electrical input (signal) – Servomotor
• Servomechanism – A feedback control system which is used to control the position
of the object (Closed loop control)
• controlling shaft position
• controlling angular speed of the shaft
• Motor driven by control signal based on the error information supplied to the
controller
• Motors and can drive the load directly; usually coupled by gear train
• It should have linear torque-speed characteristics
• Output torque at any speed should be proportional to the applied control signal
• Quickly reversible
• Operation should be stable without any oscillations or overshoots
• Response should be very fast with respect to error signal
• Inertia of rotor should be as small (servomotor must stop running without any time
delay when control signal is stopped)

Servomotor – Feedback Control

Servomotor Types
• A DC motor with servomechanism is referred as DC servo motor.
• A AC motor with servomechanism is referred as AC servo motor.
• AC servo-motors are generally preferred for low power use.
• For high-power use DC servomotors are preferred because they operate more
efficiently in high-power than AC servo-motors.

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 • There are various types of DC servomotors which are
Armature and field controlled DC Servomotor
Series motors; Split series motors; Shunt control motor; Permanent magnet shunt motor.
AC Servomotor
• Basically two phase induction motor
• Output power – fraction of watts to few hundred of watts
• Operating frequency is 50 Hz to 400 Hz

• AC servomotor – Stator & Rotor

• Stator – 2 windings; displaced by 900
• Main/fixed/reference winding – constant voltage supply
• Control winding – variable voltage from servo amplifier – 900 out of phase with main
winding voltage – rotating magnetic field
• Reduce loading on amplifier – control winding input impedance is increased – tuning
capacitor in parallel to control winding
• Rotor
• Squirrel cage rotor

▪ The usual squirrel cage rotor has aluminium bars which are shorted at the ends with
the help of the end rings.
▪ The overall construction looks like a cage. The construction is similar to the squirrel
cage rotor used for the three phase induction motors

• Drag cup rotor

▪ To reduce the inertia further, a drag cup type of rotor construction is used. There are
two air gaps in this construction.
▪ The drag cup is made up of nonmagnetic material like copper, aluminium or an alloy.
The slotted rotor laminations used in this construction.

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 ▪ These are wound for as many number of poles as possible so that operating speed of
motor is very low. Such a construction is used in very low power applications.
Operating Principle
▪ The operating principle of two phase a.c. servomotor is same as that of normal three
phase induction motor.
▪ The control voltage applied to the control winding and the voltage applied to the
reference winding are 90degree out of phase.
▪ Hence the flux produces by current through control winding is also 90o out of phase
with respect to the flux produced by the current through the reference winding.
▪ The resultant flux in the air gap is hence rotating flux sweeps over the rotor, the e.m.f.
gets induced in the rotor.
▪ In the two phase a.c. servomotors, the polarity of the control voltage determines the
direction of rotation.
▪ A change in the sign of the control voltage reverses the direction of rotation of the
motor. Since the reference voltage is constant, the torque and the angular speed are
the functions of the control voltage.
Torque-Speed Characteristics
A servomotor must have
▪ Linear torque-speed characteristics
▪ Slope of the torque-speed characteristics must be negative.
▪ The characteristics must be parallel to one another for various values of the control
voltage applies.

Features (Adv.) of A.C. Servomotor

▪ Light in weight for quick response.
▪ Robust in construction.
▪ It is reliable and its operation is stable in nature.

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 ▪ Smooth and noise free operation.
▪ Large torque to weight ratio.
▪ Large resistance to reactance ratio.
▪ No brushes or slip rings are required. Hence maintenance free.
▪ Driving circuits are simple to design.
▪ The negative slope of the torque-slip characteristics adds more friction improving the
damping. This improves the stability of the motor. This features is called internal
electric damping of two phase AC servomotor.
AC Servomotor Application

The other applications of a.c. servomotors.

▪ Instrument servos
▪ Process controllers
▪ Robotics
▪ Self-balancing recorders
▪ Machine tools
▪ The DC servomotors is more or less same as normal DC motor. There is some minor
constructional difference between the two. All DC servomotors are essentially
separately excited type. This ensures the linear nature of torque-speed characteristics.
Basic Working Principle
▪ The DC servomotor is basically a torque transducer which converts electrical energy
into the mechanical energy. The torque developed on the motor shaft is directly
proportional to the field flux and the armature current.
Tm=KmΦIa …….(1)
where Tm = Motor Torque
Km = Proportionality torque constant
Φ = Field flux and Ia = Armature current
In addition to the torque developed, when armature conductors rotate in the
field flux, they cut the flux and e.m.f. gets induced in the armature. This e.m.f. is
called as back e.m.f. in case of DC motors. It is directly proportional to the shaft
velocity ωm rad/sec.
Em=KbΦωm …..(2)
where Eb = Back e.m.f. and Kb = Back e.m.f. constant
ωm = Motor angular speed in rad/sec
As back e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage, the voltage equation of the DC motor is
given by
V=Eb+IaRa ….(3)

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 where V = Supply voltage
Ra = Armature resistance
The equations (1), (2) and (3) form the basis of DC servomotor operation.
Basic Classification DC Servomotor
The DC servomotors are classified as
1. Variable magnetic flux motors i.e., Field controlled motors.
2. Constant magnetic flux motors i.e., Armature controlled motors.
Field controlled DC Servomotor

Features of Field Controlled DC Servomotor

It is preferred for small rated motors. It has large field inductance to resistance
ratio. The ratio of inductance to resistances determines the time constant and hence
the time constant of field controlled DC servomotor is large. The overall operation is
an open loop system. The control circuit is simple to design.
Armature controlled DC Servomotor

Features of Armature Controlled D.C. Motor

It is suitable for large rated motors. The value of armature inductance is small.
Hence its time constant is small. Hence motor can give quick response to the changes
in the control signal. The overall operation is a closed loop system. The back e.m.f.
provides internal damping which makes the motor operation more stable. The
efficiency and overall performance is better than field controlled motor.
Characteristics of a DC Servomotor

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Other Performance Characteristics

Applications of dc servomotor
Servo-stabilizer

Position Control System

The other applications of DC servomotors are:

▪ Air craft control systems
▪ Electromechanical actuators
▪ Process controllers
▪ Robotics
▪ Machine Tools

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Comparison between AC servomotor and DC servomotor

Comparison between Armature Controlled and Field Controlled Servomotors

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 MODULE 2
STEPPER MOTOR
• Stepper motor are also called stepping motors or step motors.
• A stepper motor is a special electrical machine which rotates in discrete angular steps
in response to a programmed sequence of input electrical pulses.
• The stepper motor works on the principle that a magnetic interaction takes place
between the rotor and the stator , which makes the rotor move.
• Step Angle β = ( 3600 / No. of stator phases x No. of rotor teeth
β = (3600 / m Nr )
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
➢ When Stepper motor receives a step, it will rotate through some precise angle which
depends upon the type of stepper motor and the stop until the next pulse is received.
➢ The total angle of displacement of shaft is equal to step angle multiplied by the
number of pulses.
➢ Consider a rotor with two permanent poles and four( 1,2,3,4) stationary electro
magnets surrounding the rotating rotor, the four electro magnets are called as stator.
➢ When Magnet 1 is activated by applying a voltage pulse, the rotor will get aligned to
Magnet 1.
➢ When Magnet 1 is de-activated and Electro magnet 2 is activated, this will cause
rotor to move 900 in clockwise direction towards right electro magnet, aligning itself
with the active magnet.
➢ This process will be repeated in the same manner when magnet 3 ,4 and 1 gets
activated until the rotor reaches the starting position
➢ It requires 4 steps to complete one revolution.

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Types of Stepper Motors
• Variable reluctance (VR) stepper motor
1) Single stack VR stepper motor
2) Multi stack VR stepper motor
• Permanent magnet stepper motor
• Hybrid stepper motor
Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor
• VR stepper motor works on the principle that a magnetic material placed in a
magnetic field experiences a force to align it in a path of minimum reluctance.
• A stator with salient poles that have concentric windings which form different phases.
The stator phases are excited by current pulses to establish a magnetic field.
• Rotor has salient structure with projecting teeth and has no windings or permanent
magnet.
• Classified as
1) Single stack VR stepper motor
2) Multi stack VR stepper motor
Single stack VR stepper motor
CONSTRUCTION
STATOR
➢ Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings.
➢ Projecting poles.
➢ Poles carry concentric windings.
➢ There are four independent stator circuits or phases A,B C and D ,each one can be
energized by a direct current pulse from the drive circuit.
➢ Eight stator coils are connected in 2 coil groups form has four separate circuits called
phases.
➢ Each phase has its own independent switch
➢ Diametrically opposite pairs of stator coils are connected in series such that when one
tooth becomes a N- pole , the other one becomes a S-pole.
ROTOR
➢ Made up of laminated silicon steel.
➢ Projecting teeth on its outer periphery.
➢ Permanent magnets.

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 ➢ No. of rotor teeth and the stator poles should not be equal. This is to make the motor
self starting and also have a bidirectional rotation of rotor.
WORKING
• Rotor teeth can assume any position until the stator winding is energized.
• All switches S1 to S4 in OFF position initially.
• Turn ON S1 , so that phase A is energized. This will make stator poles A and A’ as
north and south magnetic poles.
• The stator poles attract rotor teeth moves to occupy a position of minimum reluctance.
Thus rotor teeth 1 and 4 take the rest positions as shown below

• Next switch S2 is turned ON and S1 is turned OFF.

• This operation de energizes phase A and excites phase B.
• The rotor will move in such a direction to occupy the minimum reluctance path by
travelling minimum angular distance. This is achieved by the movement of the rotor
in counterclockwise direction by 150 . The rotor takes its equilibrium position.

• The angle through which the rotor moves for a switching operation is called step
angle by
• β = ( 3600 / No. of stator phases x No. of rotor teeth
• β = (360 / (4x6)) = 150
• With S2 OFF and S3 ON , the rotor moves again by 150 in the CCW direction and
comes to rest in the as shown below figure.

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 •

• By switching S4 ON and S3 OFF, the rotor rotates by 150 in CCW direction and takes
the root position shown in figure below. By continuing this switching operation in the
sequences S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 , S1 , …….. Rotor moves in CCW direction with step angle
of 150 .

Multi stack VR stepper motor

➢ A multi stack (or m-stack) variable reluctance stepper motor can be considered to be
made up of ‘m‘ identical single stack variable reluctance motors with their rotors
mounted on a single shaft.

➢ The stators and rotors have the same number of poles (or teeth).

➢ All the stator pole windings in a given stack are exited simultaneously and, therefore
the stator winding of each stack forms one phase.

➢ Motor has the same number of phases as number of stacks.

➢ In each stack, stator and rotors have 12 poles (teeth. The stator teeth in each stack are
aligned. When the phase winding A is excited rotor teeth of stack A are aligned with
the stator teeth.
➢ When phase A is de-energized and phase B is excited the rotor teeth of stack B are
aligned with stator teeth. The new alignment is made by the rotor movement of 10° in

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 the anticlockwise direction. Thus the motor moves one step due to change of
excitation from stack A to stack B
➢ Step angle : (360/ (3 X 12)) → 10°
➢ Next phase B is de-energized and phase C is excited. The new alignment is made by
the rotor movement of 10° in the anticlockwise direction.
➢ Another change of excitation from stack C to stack A will once more align the stator
and rotor teeth in stack A.
➢ During this process (A → B → C → A) the rotor has moved one rotor tooth pitch.
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
➢ In a permanent magnet stepper motor, the rotor is made up of permanent magnet and
the stator is same as that of variable reluctance stepper motor. It operates on the
reaction between a permanent magnet rotor and the electromagnetic field.
➢ Similar to that of a VR stepper motor.
➢ Stator consists of salient poles wound with concentric coils. The coils are grouped and
connected in series to form different phases.
➢ The rotor carries no windings but has permanent magnets. The rotor can be made in
the form a PM spider cast integral or an assembled structure.

WORKING
➢ Consider two phase motor, it has four stator poles and two rotor poles.
➢ When a phase is energized, it sets up a magnetic flux and rotor will position to lock its
N pole and S pole to stator S pole and N pole respectively.
➢ Different modes of operation
1) Single phase ON mode
2) Two phase ON mode
3) Alternate one - phase and two - phase mode
1) Single phase ON mode
• When phase A is energized , the N pole of the rotor S pole formed by stator phase A
get interlocked and further movement of the rotor is arrested. Then phase B is

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 energized and de energizes the phase A , thus the rotor is moves by 900 in clockwise
direction and takes the position.
• This sequence of switch operations is repeated so that for each operation the rotor
moves in clockwise direction with step angle 900 .

2) Alternate one - phase and two - phase mode / half step mode
• Initially phase A is energized , the stator and rotor poles attract but the rotor remains
in equilibrium position.
• Then the phase B is also energized, the rotor moves by 450 in clockwise direction
and occupies the position.
• De-energizes the phase A ,thus the rotor moves by 450 in clockwise direction and
occupies the equilibrium position.
• This sequence of switch operations is repeated so that for each operation the rotor
moves in clockwise direction with step angle 450 .

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Hybrid Stepper Motor
➢ The system incorporates the advantages of both permanent magnet and variable
reluctance types and utilizes a special arrangement of permanent magnet poles over
the entire concentric multi-toothed rotor/shaft assembly.
➢ Stator is made up of soft iron stampings.
➢ Stator poles are provided with windings. Windings on diametrically pole pair are
connected in series to form a phase.
➢ Phases are energized by a DC source.
➢ At the centre of the rotor , an axially magnetized cylindrical permanent magnet is
mounted on the shaft. This PM produces unipolar magnetic field.
➢ The stator magnetic field produced by external excitation.
➢ Two end caps made of laminated silicon sheet steel cover the poles of the PM.
WORKING
➢ Consider a four pole two – phase HSM with 15 rotor teeth on each rotor section.
➢ Coils wound on poles A and A’ are connected in series to form phase A and on pole B
and B’ form phase B.
➢ Step angle = (360/Nr X m)
= (360/ 30 X 2) = 60
➢ PM is assumed to be mounted on the shaft in such a way that teeth of rotor1 are
magnetized south and those of rotor2 are magnetized north.
➢ Switching circuit for exciting the phases as shown below

➢ When S1 and S6 is in ON position, the phase A is excited.

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 ▪ This will make pole A magnetized as north and A’ as south.
▪ This will cause attraction of some teeth of rotor 1 towards pole A and few teeth of
rotor 2 towards pole A’.
▪ The rotor moves by 60 in clockwise direction and occupies the position.
➢ When S1 and S6 are switched off and S3 and S8 are switched ON.
▪ It magnetize pole B and B’ as north and south respectively.
▪ Rotor teeth again move by 60 in clockwise position and stay in position.
➢ When S3 and S8 are switched OFF and S2 and S5 are switched ON.
▪ It magnetize pole A and A’ as north and south respectively.
▪ Rotor teeth again move by 60 in clockwise position and stay in position.
➢ When S2 and S5 are switched off and S4 and S7 are switched ON.
▪ It magnetize pole B and B’ as north and south respectively.
▪ Rotor teeth again move by 60 in clockwise position and stay in position.

COMPARSION BETWEEN DIFFERENT STEPPER MOTORS

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 MODULE III
AC Series Motors
• Stator is made up of laminations and has salient poles. Usually two or four poles are
employed
• Machine wound field coils are provided on the stator poles
• Rotor is also laminated with slots to accommodate armature winding
• Rotor windings are connected to commutator segments mounted on the shaft.
• Stator winding and rotor windings are connected in series with the aid of high
resistance brushes (placed on the commutator)
• Armature reaction causes reduction in air gap flux and for compensating the same,
compensating windings are connected in series with the stator winding.

Conductively compensated winding Inductively compensated winding

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AC Series Motor Construction

Operation of AC Series Motor

• The working principle of an A.C. series motor is the same as that of the D.C. series
motor.
• The armature and field are wound and interconnected in the same manner as the D.C.
series motor.
• During positive cycle, assume that the top field pole in figure below is SOUTH. The
direction of current is “into to this surface”. When applying Fleming’s Right-hand
rule, we can see that the direction of torque (force) is in clock wise direction.
• When an alternating EMF is applied to the terminals, since field and armature
windings are connected in series, the field flux and armature current reverse
simultaneously every half cycle, but the direction of the torque remains unchanged.
• The torque is pulsating, but its average value is equal to that which a D.C. motor will
develop if it had the same RMS. value of flux and current.
• Motor connections, direction of torque, etc. for two successive half cycles are shown
in Figure. In each half cycle, the magnetic polarity as well as armature current
direction reverses.
Operation of AC Series Motor

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 Phasor Diagram Torque Speed Characteristics

Applications
▪ Grinding mills
▪ Mixers
▪ Electric drillers
▪ Electric traction
Universal motor
Can run on both single-phase AC and DC supply hence the name universal. It is also
highly modified so that it can run on both types of current. Whether the universal motor is
connected to AC or DC supply, it will still work as a DC series motor due to its design and
modifications. It has low speed at full load and high speed at low load.
Hysteresis Motor
A hysteresis motor is a synchronous motor without salient (or projected) poles and
without dc excitation which starts by virtue of the hysteresis losses induced in its hardened
steel secondary member by the revolving filed of the primary and operates normally at
synchronous speed and runs on hysteresis torque because of the retentivity of the secondary
core.
Hysteresis Motor-Construction
Stator:
• A stator designed to produce a synchronously-revolving field from a single-phase
supply.
• The stator carries main and auxiliary windings (which is called split phase hysteresis
motor) so as to produce rotating magnetic field

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Rotor:
• The rotor of hysteresis motors are made with magnetic material of high hysteresis
losses. i.e. whose hysteresis loop area is very large

Hysteresis Working Principle

• When stator is energized, it produces rotating magnetic field.
• The rotor, initially, starts to rotate due to eddy-current torque and hysteresis torque
developed on the rotor. Once the speed is near about the synchronous, the stator pulls
rotor into synchronism.
• As relative motion between stator field and rotor field vanishes, so the torque due to
eddy currents vanishes.
• Due to the hysteresis effect, rotor pole axis lags behind the axis of rotating magnetic
field. Due to this, rotor poles get attracted towards the moving stator poles.
• Thus, rotor gets subjected to torque called hysteresis torque. This torque is constant at
all speeds.
Torque-Speed Characteristics
• The starting and running torque is almost equal in this type of motor.
• As stator carries mainly the two-windings its direction can be reversed interchanging
the terminals of either main winding or auxiliary winding.

Advantages of Hysteresis Motor

▪ As rotor has no teeth, no winding, there are no mechanical vibrations.
▪ Due to absence of vibrations, the operation is quiet and noiseless.
▪ Suitability to accelerate inertia loads.
▪ Possibility of multispeed operation by employing gear train.
Disadvantages of Hysteresis Motor
▪ The output is about one-quarter that of an induction motor of the same dimension.
▪ Low efficiency
▪ Low power factor
▪ Low torque
▪ Available in very small sizes

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Applications of Hysteresis Motor
• Due to noiseless operation it is used in sound recording instruments, sound producing
equipments, high
• quality record players, electric clocks, tele printers, timing devices etc

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 MODULE IV
Switched Reluctance Motor
SRM Principle
Reluctance torque into mechanical power both the stator and rotor - salient-pole; high
O/p torque. No windings or permanent magnets or commutator, brush on the rotor. Torque is
produced by the alignment tendency of poles. Rotor will shift to a position where reluctance
is to be minimized and thus the inductance of the excited winding is maximized.

SRM Working

Characteristic features of SRM

• Low cost (no permanent magnet)
• Torque-inertia ratio: High
• Simple construction & Robust
• High tolerance
• High efficiency
• Max operating speed

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 • Similar to Variable reluctance stepper motor – closed loop; rotor position feedback
SRM Disadvantages
• Rotor position sensors required
• Torque ripples are high
• Acoustic noise is present
SRM Applications
• General purpose industrial drives;
• Application-specific drives: compressors, fans, pumps, centrifuges;
• Domestic drives: food processors, washing machines, vacuum cleaners;
• Electric vehicle application;
• Aircraft applications;
• Servo-drive.

SRM Types

SRM Driving System

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Magnetic circuit of SRM
Rotor position of two pole SRM

where βs and βr are stator and rotor pole arcs, respectively

Pr is the number of rotor poles
Inductance Profile

• Four Regions:
• 0 − θ1 and θ4 − θ5:
stator and rotor poles are not overlapping
flux is determined by the air path
inductance minimum; unaligned inductance, Lu
NO torque production

• θ1 − θ2:
stator and rotor poles are overlapping
flux pass through stator-rotor laminations
increasing inductance, positive slope
current impressed in the winding; positive torque

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This region comes to an end when the overlap of poles is complete
• θ2 − θ3:
Movement of rotor; but stator and rotor overlap
flux passes through stator and rotor poles
inductance maximum, aligned inductance, La
Maximum torque
• θ3 − θ4:
rotor pole is moving away from overlapping the stator pole
flux is determined by the air path, similar to θ1 − θ2 region
Decreasing inductance, negative slope
negative torque production
Inductance and Torque

Torque-Speed Characteristics

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Power Converters

Asymmetric bridge
2q switch

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1.5 q switch

R-dump (q switch)

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C-dump converter (q+1 switch)

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(q+1) switching topology (shared switch)

Bifilar type (q switch)

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Voltage and Torque Equation

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Microprocessor based control of SRM

Reluctance Motor
Single-phase or Three-phase rotor turns in synchronism with the rotating magnetic
flux induction motor with a modified squirrel-cage rotor and salient poles.
Single phase Reluctance motor

Stator:
– Main Winding
– Auxiliary winding

• Main winding: no rotating magnetic field

• Auxiliary winding: with series capacitor – produce rotating magnetic field
• Split phase technique of production of the rotating magnetic field
• Speed of magnetic field is the synchronous speed which is decided by the number of
poles

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 Rotor:
• Rotor of a reluctance motor is made up with soft magnetic material -some rotor
teeth are removed at appropriate places to produce salient poles
Radial Lamination

Axial Lamination

Rotor

• rotor carries the short-circuited copper or aluminium bars and it acts as a squirrel-
cage rotor. iron piece is placed in a magnetic field, it aligns itself in a minimum
reluctance position and gets locked magneticallyreluctance motor, rotor tries to

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 align itself with the axis of rotating magnetic field in a minimum reluctance position-
synchronous speed
• reluctance motor runs as a synchronous motor

Advantages
▪ No D.C supply is necessary for the rotor.
▪ Constant speed characteristics.
▪ Rbust construction.
▪ Less maintenance.
Disadvantages
▪ Less efficiency
▪ Poor power factor
▪ Need of very low inertia rotor
▪ Less capacity to drive the loads
Applications
▪ Signalling Devices
▪ Control Apparatus
▪ Automatic regulators
▪ Recording Instruments
▪ Clocks
▪ All timing devices
▪ Teleprinters
▪ Gramophones

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 MODULE V
DC Motor

• Stator
– Shunt
– Series
– Compound

PM Brushed DC Motor-PMDC

PM Brushless DC Motor
• Stator & Rotor

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 • Different rotor cores

Advantages of BLDC
• Better speed versus torque characteristics
• Faster dynamic response
• High efficiency
• Long operating life; less maintenance
• Noiseless operation
• Higher speed ranges
Disadvantages:
• up to about 5 kW
• Magnets more expensive for >5 kW
• Magnets are vulnerable to demagnetisation due to high fields and high
temperatures-high power applications
• Inverter switching losses are significant at higher power levels
Applications
Low rating motors
• Automotive
• Robotics
• small arm movements
High rating motors
• Appliances (fans, laser printers, wheel chairs and photocopiers)
• Automation (car, electric bikes)
• industrial applications
Stator
• stacked steel laminations with windings placed in the slots
• stator resembles that of an induction motor
• windings are distributed in a different manner
• single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations
• three stator windings connected in star (High torque at Low speed) /delta (Low
torque at Low speed)
• windings are distributed over the stator periphery to form an even numbers of
poles
• the trapezoidal motor gives a back trapezoidal EMF
• the sinusoidal motor gives a back EMF in sinusoidal waveform
• the phase current also has trapezoidal and sinusoidal variations in the respective
types of motor
• torque output by a sinusoidal motor smoother than that of a trapezoidal motor

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Phase voltage waveform of 3 phase BLDC

Rotor
• made of permanent magnet
• two to eight pole pairs with alternate North (N) and South (S) poles
• Ferrite magnets )/ alloy magnets (Neodymium (Nd), Samarium Cobalt (SmCo),
Neodymium Ferrite Boron (NdFeB) )
• ferrite magnets: less expensive, low flux density
• alloy magnets: high magnetic density, smaller rotor and stator for the same torque
Hall Sensor
• commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically
• stator windings should be energized in a sequence
• know the rotor position: Hall sensor
• Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the non-driving end
• rotor magnetic poles (N/S) pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal
• combination of these three Hall sensor signals: sequence of commutation
3 phase circuit of BLDC

3 phase switching sequence

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PM BLDC Motor-Control

6 step commutation

Sensorless control

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 MODULE VI
Linear SRM
• An LSRM is a linear electric motor, in which, translational force production occurs by
the tendency of the moving part to move towards a separate stationary point where the
inductance of the excited winding is maximized.
• The switched aspect describes the switching of winding excitations at different phases
to achieve a continual linear motion.
• Consider an 8/6 RSRM design. The numbers 8 and 6 represent the number of poles on
the stator and the rotor respectively.
• In an LSRM system, the translator is the moving part and the stator is the stationary
part.

LSRM configurations
There are two distinct configurations of the LSRM
 Longitudinal flux LSRM
 Transverse flux LSRM
Both configurations can be obtained by unrolling the stator and rotor of the rotary
switched reluctance motor (RSRM) with the radial magnetic flux path and the axial magnetic
flux path respectively. The flux path in the longitudinal machine is in the direction of the
translator motion. This machine is simpler to manufacture, mechanically robust and has lower
eddy current losses, as the flux is in the same direction as the translator movement. The
transverse flux design has the flux path perpendicular to the direction of the translator
motion. It allows a simple track consisting of individually mounted transverse bars. As the
flux is perpendicular to the direction of motion, an electro motive force (EMF) is induced in
the core resulting in high eddy current losses.
LSRM
• Two topologies of LSRM are
o Active stator (with windings)
o Passive stator (without windings)
• The active stator and passive translator LSRM configurations have the advantage in
having the power supply and power converters being stationary, resulting in a reduced
weight of translator.
• But, that necessitates a large number of power converter sections along the track
resulting in high cost.

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 • On the other hand, the structure with an active translator and passive stator structure
requires only one section of the power converter.
• But the power to the converter in the translator requires transfer by means of contact
brushes, which is not desirable for high speed applications.

• The LSRM may have either two stators or two translators or vice versa to make a
double-sided LSRM,

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Working

▪ A phase constitutes a pair of opposite poles that will have its

windings excited at the same time. With an 8/6 design, there are four phases.
▪ In Figure (a), poles T1 and T5 represent the first phase (phase ‘a’), poles T2 and T6
the second phase (phase ‘b’), poles T3 and T7 the third phase (phase ‘c’), and poles
T4 and T8 the fourth phase (phase‘d’). By having a phase switched on, the generated
fluxes become additive and form a complete flux loop.
▪ When a phase is said to be in an aligned position, the translator poles of that phase are
perfectly aligned with the stator poles.
▪ The translator poles of phase ‘a’ (T1 and T5) are fully aligned with the stator poles S1
and S4.
▪ In the aligned position, the inductance is at its maximum because the magnetic
reluctance of the flux is at its lowest. On the other hand, the minimum inductance
position is known as unaligned position. In Figure (a), phase ‘c’ is at unaligned
position.
▪ If the windings of phase ‘c’ were to be excited at the current state, the translator will
develop the tendency to move towards the right until its poles reach an aligned state.
That is, T3 and T7 become aligned with S3 and S6, respectively.
▪ For the translator to be in continual motion, the windings of each phase must be
switched on and off at the correct intervals.
▪ Assuming the translator is currently situated as shown in Figure (a) and moving to the
right, the correct order of phase excitation is phases c, d, a, b and repeat.
▪ Once phase ‘c’ becomes fully aligned, its windings get switched off, and phase ‘d’
gets switched on. Phase ‘d’ will then move towards the right to achieve maximum
inductance and then get switched off, which prompts phase ‘a’ to switch on.
▪ The whole switching mechanism gets repeated until the translator is at its desired
position.
Linear Induction Motor
▪ Linear Induction Motor abbreviated as LIM is a special purpose system that we use to
achieve rectilinear motion rather than rotational motion as in the case of conventional
motors.

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 ▪ LIM is quite an engineering marvel, to convert a general motor for a special purpose
with more or less similar working principle, thus enhancing its versatility of
operation.
▪ A linear induction motor (LIM) is an alternating current (AC), asynchronous linear
motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but is
typically designed to directly produce motion in a straight line. Characteristically,
linear induction motors have a finite primary or secondary length, which generates
end-effects, whereas a conventional induction motor is arranged in an endless loop.
Construction

▪ The basic construction of a linear induction motor is similar to a three phase induction
motor but it does not look alike a conventional induction motor.
▪ If we cut the stator of a polyphase induction motor and lay on a flat surface, it forms
the primary of the linear induction motor system.
▪ Similarly, after cutting the rotor of the induction motor and making it flat, we get the
secondary of the system.
▪ There is another variant of LIM also being used for increasing efficiency known as
the Double Sided Linear Induction Motor or DLIM, as shown in the figure below.
It has primary on either side of the secondary, for more effective utilization of the flux
from both sides.

Working
▪ When the primary of a LIM gets excited by a balanced three-phase power supply, a
flux starts traveling along the entire length of the primary.
▪ This linearly traveling magnetic field is equivalent to the rotating magnetic field in the
stator of a three phase induction motor or a synchronous motor.
▪ Electric current gets induced in the conductors of the secondary due to the relative
motion between the traveling flux and the conductors.
▪ Then the induced current interacts with the traveling flux wave to produce linear force
or thrust.

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 ▪ If the primary is fixed and the secondary is free to move, the force will pull the
secondary in the direction of the force and will result in the required rectilinear
motion.
▪ When we give supply to the system the developed field will result in a linear traveling
field, the velocity of which is given by the equation,

▪ where fs is the supply frequency in Hz, Vs is the velocity of the linear traveling field
in meter per second, and t is the linear pole pitch i.e. pole to pole linear distance in
meter.
▪ For the same reason as in the case of an induction motor, the secondary or runner
cannot catch the speed of the magnetic field. Hence there will be a slip. For a slip of s,
the speed of the linear induction motor will be

Applications
▪ A linear induction motor is not that widespread compared to a conventional motor,
taking its economic aspects and versatility of usage into consideration. But there are
quite a few instances where the LIM is indeed necessary for some specialized
operations.
Few of such applications are listed below.
 Automatic sliding doors in electric trains.
 Mechanical handling equipment, such as propulsion of a train of tubs along a
certain route.
 Metallic conveyor belts.
 Pumping of liquid metal, material handling in cranes, etc.
Linear Synchronous Motor
A linear synchronous motor is basically a RSM unrolled flat. The stationary part is
called the primary and is equivalent to the RSM stator; the moving part called the
secondary and is equivalent to the rotor. The working principle is the same as that
of the RSM. The equations used to analyze the RSM are also valid in the analysis of
the LSM with the following changes: the rotating magnetic field is changed to a
travelling magnetic field, torque becomes thrust, rotational synchronous speed.
Types
▪ A LSM can be double sided or single sided, slotted or slot-less, iron-cored or air-cored.
▪ The secondary part is generally an array of permanent magnets (PM) arranged in an
alternating way and usually attached to the load.
▪ The primary is generally poly-phase electromagnet, linearly arranged such that a
travelling magnetic field is produced in the air gap.
▪ It is usually stationary and attached along a track.

Slotted single sided with travelling Magnetic field Slot-less single sided air cored

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 Slotted double sided

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