REPORT ON CURRENT BATTERY

TECHNOLOGY AND THE ROLE OF

ML SOLUTIONS FOR A RENEWABLE
AND ENERGY SECURE FUTURE

Battery technology is the basis of modern electronics, playing a critical role in

portable devices, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems. Since the
advent of automobiles, batteries have been an ever-present alternative source
of energy storage, held back only by technological limits pertaining to energy
density and safety which led to ICEs taking the lead in powering vehicles and
other large devices that have laid the ground for modernity as we know it
today. However, recent breakthroughs in electrochemical technology have
brought back battery technology as a serious prospect for laying the
foundation of an energy secure future powered by renewable energy.

This report provides an in-depth exploration of various aspects of battery

technology, focusing on lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), battery energy storage
systems (BESS), and battery management systems (BMS). Each topic is
examined with detailed explanations, accompanied by their applications and if
present, the role that machine learning and data-driven solutions play in
further accelerating the growth and adoption of these technologies.
LIB Lithium-Ion Battery

BESS Battery Energy Storage

System

BMS Battery Management System

Battery Lifetime

Battery Pack

Battery Life

Battery Capacity

Battery Degradation

Battery Size

Battery Cycle Life Prediction

Maximum Battery Capacity

Onboard Battery

Battery SOC

Battery Experiment

Battery Degradation Cost

Battery Modelling

Battery Management

Battery Operation
LIB Lithium-Ion Battery
: Invented by John B, Goodenough, Lithium-Ion Batteries are rechargeable batteries that
employ lithium ions that move between the anode and cathode and are the dominant battery
chemistry framework for most electronics in use today.

These batteries provide higher specific energy, higher energy density, higher
energy efficiency, a longer cycle life, and a longer calendar life compared to
other contemporary battery compositions.

They are widely used in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and energy
storage systems. Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries
(with a polymer gel as an electrolyte), a lithium cobalt oxide cathode material,
and a graphite anode, which together offer high energy density in a lighter
package.

Lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese oxide, and lithium nickel

manganese cobalt oxide offer longer lifespans and a higher discharge rate.
The negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is graphite made from
carbon. The positive electrode is typically a metal oxide or phosphate. The
electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent (hence the term LIB).

The reasoning behind using lithium here is the fact that it has a valency of 1
(there is only 1 electron in its outer shell) making its tendency to get rid of the
electron extremely high. In a battery however the lithium is in the form of a
lithium oxide and as such will release the electron only when separated from
the lithiated-oxide.

The anode on the other hand is generally composed of graphite and is used
for it’s ability to store a large number of electrons. The medium between the
cathode and the anode is composed of an electrolyte that exclusively allows
the released lithium ions to pass through. To prevent shorting, there exists a
porous separator that allows then ions to pass through it. The roles of anode
and cathode are reversed during charging and discharging of the battery.

The electrodes are separated from external electronics with a piece of metal
called a current collector. The negative and positive electrodes swap their
electrochemical roles (anode and cathode) when the cell is charged.

- https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-schematic-diagram-showing-how-
a-lithium-ion-battery-works_fig1_368566123

BESS Battery Energy Storage System

: Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) are integrated systems that store energy from
various sources and release it when needed. They help stabilise the grid, manage peak
demand, and enable the integration of renewable energy sources.

The batteries can mitigate the intermittent nature of renewable power by

storing solar power produced during the day for nighttime use, thus
guaranteeing a steady supply of power at all times. The top level processor of
the BMS communicates with the SSC which handles the demands from both
the intermediate monitoring proces- sors and the external equipment,
delegating battery re- sources to perform the grid functions.

: The above diagrams represent the following -

(1) Smoothing and firming is an energy storage system (ESS) function intended to
prevent sudden sags or surges in the power supplied to customers. The stored
energy smoothes out the variable output from wind or solar plant, keeping pro­duction
within a given forecast window.

(2) Energy arbitrage is the process of buying electricity when prices are low and selling
them when prices are high to generate a profit. It involves leveraging the temporal or
spatial disparities in energy prices to capitalise on supply/demand discoordination.

(3) The BESS is used to adjust and stabilise the frequency in the grid. The frequency in
an electrical network is typically 50 Hz, and it must be kept within a certain tolerance
to maintain proper operation of connected appliances and equipment. The frequency
is affected when the demand is more than the produced amount of energy (here we
observe a frequency drop)

BESSs are able to react to grid demands nearly instantaneously, but also
have the capacity to function over longer durations and have a wide range of
storage and power capacities. By utilising energy storage, generation sources
need not be ramped up or down, but can instead be run at optimal efficiency
while energy storage accounts for variations in the demand.

While lead acid batteries have been the traditional choice due to their long
established ability to store large amounts of energy, recent improvements in
battery technology have led to various chemistries implemented in a
flow-battery architecture. As such, the BMS can maintain control through
modulating the voltage, current, electrolyte flow (in flow-batteries) and
ventilation/cooling of the batteries.

: The above figure contains an SSC which optimises the charge/discharge rates of various
modules or packs based on the energy demands at a certain period of time while also
keeping into consideration the current SOC of the battery and SOH.

Each battery module/pack has a BMS assigned to it which then feeds information to the
central SSC which then will regulate the system based upon present and future necessity.

As such, the BMS can maintain control through modulating the voltage,
current, electrolyte flow (in flow-batteries) and ventilation/cooling of the
batteries.

- S1364032118301436
- http://www.amdcenergy.com/battery-energy-storage-system.html

BMS Battery Management System

: A Battery Management System (BMS) monitors and manages the performance, safety, and
reliability of battery packs. It ensures optimal operation by balancing cell voltages, managing
thermal conditions, and protecting against overcharging and deep discharging.
: The above figure contains a BMS working with a battery pack. With measurands such as
current, voltage and temperature (all of which affect the SOC and SOH) fed into the BMS, it
can then regulate the thermal management system and individual charge and discharge
rates of each module/battery for better efficiency, reduced risk of thermal runaway and
extraction of maximum performance without sacrificing battery longevity.

A battery pack built together with a battery management system with an

external communication data bus is a smart battery pack. A BMS system
essentially uses collected data along with machine learning strategies to
optimise and control factors affecting battery performance.

BMS must have a temperature sensor, voltage measurement, current

measurement, (and even a model to predict battery behaviour under different
conditions)

They are essentially used in EV industries where effective management of the

battery pack affects both range and maximum performance of the vehicle. In
order to maximise the battery's capacity, and to prevent localised
under-charging or over-charging, the BMS may actively ensure that all the
cells that compose the battery are kept at the same voltage or State of
Charge, through balancing.

The type of BMS (including its complexity) is heavily dependent on the

application. For example, satellites and space rovers either avoid BMS and
instead compensate by using more resistant battery chemistries or use basic
BMS IC’s (integrated circuits) for basic BMS functions.
For avoiding lithium plating, temperature, voltage and current must be known
precisely, and as such the type of temperature sensor and its location in the
battery pack is of importance to us (determined by simulations)

: The above figure contains a flowchart that discusses how differences in production and the
varied temperature distribution with a battery pack can affect initial resistance, ageing and
self discharge of the batteries. It then further points out the consequences of such
differences which are different SOCs for the modules/batteries and

The BMS can balance the cells by: 1) Wasting energy from the most charged
cells by connecting them to a load. 2) Shuffling energy from the most charged
cells to the least charged cells. 3) Reducing the charging current to a
sufficiently low level that will not damage fully charged cells, while less
charged cells may continue to charge.

- https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/13/11/2825
- https://www.srmtech.com/knowledge-base/blogs/battery-management-s
ystem-for-electric-vehicle/
Battery Lifetime
: Battery lifetime refers to the duration a battery can operate before its capacity falls below a
usable level. It is influenced by factors such as charge/discharge cycles, temperature, and
usage patterns.

Battery life is a function of both hardware-level performance and network

operation efficiency. Because battery life is affected by many factors,
including the temperature and state of charge (SOC) during storage, the depth
of each discharge cycle, the frequency of cycling, and the rate of cycling. For
automotive applications, the battery is often deemed to be at the end of its
useful life when it has degraded to 80% of its original power or energy
capacity.

The self-discharge (reduction of stored charge due to internal reactions within

the cells) of the battery can be an important factor in battery life in very low
duty cycle applications. The simplest way to approximate battery life is to
divide the battery's actual capacity by the total capacity used by the device
and drained due to self-discharge.

: The above figure contains a plot between battery capacity and length of operation,
highlighting the difference in capacity fade as a function of temperature. Generally, the
higher the temperature, the worse the degradation.

As the sleep duration (state of low charge in the battery) between events
increases, battery life improves. But improvement slows down at higher time
intervals because the active current is no longer a major contributor to battery
life. In most batteries, the battery's internal resistor increases as the remaining
capacity of the battery is reduced. The higher the internal resistor, the lower
the battery voltage.

One challenger the online measurement of battery capacity faces is that it

requires a complete charge-discharge process, which is difficult in many
applications where recharging of battery is not possible. Here, a trained model
on the battery which can predict future conditions based on present state is
used.

: The above figure contains a plot which highlights the observed decrease in average cycles
as the SOC of the battery decreases (increase in DOD) as % of cell capacity.

- https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/199/1/012134/pdf
Battery Pack
: A battery pack consists of multiple battery cells assembled together to provide the desired
voltage and capacity. It includes components like the BMS and cooling systems to ensure
safe and efficient operation.

: The above figure contains a diagram of the conventional battery pack with cells arranged in
series and then in parallel in groups with the positive and negative electrodes of all batteries
in their respective sides.

Components of battery packs include the individual batteries or cells, and the
interconnects which provide electrical conductivity between them.
Rechargeable battery packs often contain voltage and temperature sensors,
which the battery charger uses to detect the end of charging (utilised by the
BMS).

Interconnects are also found in batteries as they are the part which connects
each cell, though batteries are most often only arranged in series strings.
Battery pack manufacturing is primarily not an electrochemical challenge but
rather a packaging/logistic problem whose solution lies in the requirements of
a certain product.
Different Battery Pack architectures and arrangements exist for different types
of EV’s, HEV and PHEV depending on a host of factors including required
vehicle range, thermal operating conditions, peak output performance, etc.

: The above figure contains the placement of the battery pack within an EV with the gas
ducts to release built up gases and pressure and its line of communication to the controller
which is then connected to the drivetrain of the electric vehicle.

One of the main problems a battery pack design has to deal with is minimising
the risks and consequences concerning an event of thermal runaway. The
effective release of gases from the pack enclosure to minimise risk, The
rigidification of battery enclosure and dividers to reduce movement of
modules/cells within which could increase thermal runaway propagation.

Tesla battery packs rigidify their cylindrical cell placement in the battery pack
using solidified foam that fills in the space between each individual cell while
also offering thermal insulation between cells.

The issue of vibrations are dealt with using different battery pack mounting
frame designs with vibration resistant features. Most placement of the battery
pack along with its mounting frame within the car is done with the aim of
lowering the centre of gravity to optimise both handling of the car and also in
turn to reduce vibrations further.

These methods however are completely different for different battery pack
approaches such as blade battery backs, prismatic battery packs, etc.

- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032116002483

Battery Life
: Battery life is the period during which a battery can effectively hold a charge and deliver
power.

: The above figure observes an increase in depth of discharge as the number of cycles
increases for varying battery chemistries mentioned in the chart.

It is affected by factors such as charging habits(duration between cycles and

other factors), environmental conditions, and the specific chemistry of the
battery. This is the period before which either replacement of the battery or
recharging must take place. Battery life is directly influenced by the stage of
the battery lifetime the cells are in. The higher the degradation, the lower the
battery life (fewer hours or days of usable performance depending on the load,
size of battery, etc).
 - https://batteryuniversity.com/article/bu-808-how-to-prolong-lithium-base
d-batteries

Battery Capacity
: Battery capacity is the amount of electrical energy a battery can store, usually measured in
ampere-hours (Ah) or watt-hours (Wh).

Battery capacity is the amount of electrical energy a battery can store, usually
measured in ampere-hours (Ah) or watt-hours (Wh). It determines how long a
battery can power a device before needing recharging. In mobile devices it’s
usually measured in mAh and in EV’s it’s measured in kWh. The total amount
of electricity generated due to electrochemical reactions in the battery and is
expressed in ampere hours. For example, a constant discharge current of 1 C
(5 A) can be drawn from a 5 Ah battery for 1 hour.

Battery Degradation
: Battery degradation refers to the loss of capacity and efficiency over time due to chemical
and physical changes within the battery cells.

: The above figure observes that an increase in the usage length of the battery carries with it
the tendency for the SEI layer to thicken, a process that is detrimental to the battery
capacity.
Factors include cycling, temperature, and storage conditions. There are many
strategies to reduce the degradation of batteries such as BMS, better battery
hardware, safer packaging, protection against excessive vibrations and other
external physical factors that affect the cohesion of the physical and chemical
features of the battery cell.

: The above figure observes that temperature plays a key role in how many cycles a battery
can maintain a relatively steady discharge capacity. The SOH of the lithium-ion battery
decreases with an increase in temperature.

SEI (solid electrolyte interphase) is formed from the decomposition of

electrolyte components and whose accumulation can lead to reduced battery
performance. There are however recent developments using ALD coatings to
stabilise or completely avoid development of an SEI layer.

- https://www.forgenano.com/effect-sei-layer-anode-cathode-particles/#:~:
text=The%20SEI%20layer%20or%20solid,the%20electrolyte%20of%20
the%20battery.
- https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2021/cp/d1cp00359c
 - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334753282_Algorithm_to_Det
ermine_the_Knee_Point_on_Capacity_Fade_Curves_of_Lithium-Ion_C
ells

Battery Size
: Battery size refers to the physical dimensions and weight of a battery, which are critical for
designing devices and systems that use them, ensuring compatibility and optimal
performance.

: The above figure presents the most common industry standard battery sizes in use today,
with each type suited for different devices and use cases.

Battery size refers to the physical dimensions and weight of a battery, which
are critical for designing devices and systems that use them, ensuring
compatibility and optimal performance.

The physical dimensions and weight of batteries can vary depending on the
manufacturer, model and technology used. General trends in the industry with
regards to battery size is reduced physical size along with increased energy
density and more durability.
The selection of battery sizes are constrained by safety, economic, and
performance reasons, hence the huge variety in sizes that are found in the
market. The battery size can also differ based on the shape of the battery
casing with designs such as blade and prismatic batteries. The benefits and
demerits of various battery sizes is subjective and based solely on the
manufacturer and the type of device produced.

Battery Cycle Life Prediction

: Battery cycle life prediction involves estimating the number of charge-discharge cycles a
battery can undergo before its capacity falls to an unusable level.

: The above figure observes that an increase in discharge voltage over an equal number of
cycles can drastically affect the capacity fade of the battery.

This prediction is crucial for applications where longevity and reliability are
paramount. Such as automobiles, biomedical equipment and satellites.
Accurate prediction of cycle life can help anticipate maintenance and cut down
on replacement costs before the degraded performance of a battery begins to
affect the performance of a device (and affect its economic output value) in
cases of BESS, remote IoT sensors, etc.

Each round of full discharge and subsequent recharge of a battery constitutes

one cycle.
Methods include empirical data analysis, electrochemical modelling, and
machine learning algorithms that consider factors like temperature, depth of
discharge, and charge rates.

A physics based approach is inconvenient and complex at best and doesn’t

account for the heterogeneity in environments/conditions the battery is
exposed to, therefore, a deep learning approach is widely used today.
Although an electrochemical analysis approach would yield a more precise
understanding, it is far too complex.

Some approaches use feature extraction on discharge voltage cycles of

different types of batteries to train models to predict battery life cycle. Trained
models thus provide a reasonable amount of accuracy while remaining simple
and reliable when used for real-time prediction based on current battery state.

Model training however requires large datasets, access to reliable real-time

data from batteries, or others, and doing so for different battery chemistries
can be a challenge due to the large variation in applications and
characteristics of each battery type.

Maximum Battery Capacity

: Maximum battery capacity is the total amount of energy a new, fully charged battery can
store, typically measured in ampere-hours (Ah) or watt-hours (Wh).

: The above figure observes a decrease in maximum initial battery capacity as the number of
cycles increase with varying charge and discharge C-rates compared.
It represents the peak performance potential of the battery. Over time, this
capacity diminishes due to degradation processes, necessitating monitoring
and management to optimise usage and extend battery life.

Onboard Battery
: Onboard batteries are integrated into vehicles or portable devices, providing essential
power for operation. They must be designed to meet specific requirements for capacity,
voltage, and durability under various operational conditions.

: The above figure shows the internal charging system of the car, with the PCS converting
the input AC from the charging station into DC for the batteries to charge with. Today
however, there are DC charging station which don’t require the vehicle to use its internal
PCS and provides much faster charging times.

Effective onboard battery systems incorporate advanced management and

safety features to ensure reliability and performance.

The packaging and design of onboard battery systems is significant especially

in the EV space, where integration of the entire battery system on a mobile
platform in a safe and efficient way is of primary importance.Onboard battery
chargers (OBC) are devices that convert AC from the charging station to DC
which can then be used to charge the batteries in the device/vehicle. These
devices are in constant communication with the charger and the onboard
computer and BMS to determine the optimal amount of power and this can
vary from country to country based on charging standards set by local
regulations.

Fast chargers today do not use the OBC, and instead have direct DC current
fed into the batteries (the charger either has an OBC, DC already stored
beforehand, DC produced from nearby source such as solar panels, etc.)

Battery SOC
: State of Charge (SOC) is a measure of the remaining charge in a battery relative to its full
capacity, expressed as a percentage. It is defined as the ratio of the remaining charge in the
battery, divided by the maximum charge that can be delivered by the battery.

Accurate SOC estimation is important for battery management systems,

allowing for efficient energy use, preventing overcharging or deep discharging,
and increasing battery life. Maximum SOC is a primary indicator of battery
health (and is equated with SOH) and the extent to which a battery has
degenerated.

: In the above equation, Q0 denotes initial battery charge, Q is amount of current being
discharged by batter (-ve when discharging, +ve when charging), and Qmax denotes the
max rated capacity of the battery by the manufacturer

SOC is dynamic and depends on a host of factors such as number of charging

cycles, external temperature, amount of external exposure, etc. State of
charge is also known to impact battery ageing. To extend battery lifetime,
extremes of state of charge should be avoided and reduced variations
windows are also preferable.

- https://batteryuniversity.com/article/bu-105-battery-definitions-and-what-
they-mean
 - https://www.coursera.org/programs/manipal-education-tguaf/learn/equiv
alent-circuit-cell-model-simulation?authProvider=manipal&source=searc
h

Battery Experiment
: Battery experiments involve controlled testing to study various aspects of battery
performance, such as capacity, efficiency, and degradation under different conditions.

These experiments provide valuable data for developing and validating battery
models, improving battery designs, and optimising operating parameters.

: (1) is a constant temperature battery testing machine (2) is a climatic condition simulator
battery testing machine

The batteries are also observed under simulated conditions that mimic real life
situations the battery/battery pack might encounter such as sudden
temperature change, vibrations, pressure, moisture, etc. These findings will be
useful to guide the operation of a BMS suited to a particular battery and within
its constraints under certain conditions.

Battery experiments are done either at the end of a manufacturing cycle to

verify expected battery characteristics and behaviour, before production to test
if the battery is performing as expected in certain conditions and while
developing new battery chemistries or designs.
The type of testing is dependent on the battery application. For example, EV
battery testing would involve far more rigorous thermal and vibration tests
compared to smaller applications like consumer electronics.

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=osAxzBsABaU
- https://www.tmaxcn.com/battery-safety-tester_c205?gad_source=1&gcli
d=Cj0KCQjw6uWyBhD1ARIsAIMcADrLD2sdr5Z5ZxI6ndDXZHMKEBCc
k8rouOp_YyJcEvmOtRtkWvpwH8UaAqZsEALw_wcB
- https://www.arbin.com/battery-test-equipment/?matchtype=p&network=
g&device=c&adposition=&keyword=battery+tester&gad_source=1&gclid
=Cj0KCQjw6uWyBhD1ARIsAIMcADp4acf0ORZwiEeorJGgh78z-JtBmiE
0Mljo8AB3oyc9Qv86LiYeA94aAtLiEALw_wcB

Battery Degradation Cost

: Battery degradation cost refers to the economic impact of reduced battery capacity and
efficiency over time. This includes the costs associated with decreased performance,
maintenance, and subsequent replacement.

: The above figure shows the decrease in aftersale market value while degradation costs
accumulate over the lifetime of the battery. Judging when a battery must be replaced before
overall profit of a system turns into a loss is important.

Understanding degradation mechanisms and methods to avoid them such as

better BMS, improved chemistries and battery housings, etc help reduce
degradation costs in the long term.

Considering greater future use of renewable resources, large scale

implementation of energy storage systems are enabled through an economic
lens enabled by accurately predicting the opportunity costs that come along
with replacement costs of the battery and health of the battery (maximum
SOC).

Degradation costs are subjective based on the battery chemistry and the
industry they’re used in. The amount of load, type of battery and usage
patterns greatly affect the degradation cost.

- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S22106707230010
38#:~:text=Then%2C%20a%20degradation%20cost%20model,linear%
20programming%20(MILP)%20model.

Battery Modelling
: Battery modelling involves creating mathematical and simulation models to predict battery
behaviour under various conditions. These models help in understanding performance
characteristics, optimising design, and managing operation.

Techniques range from simple equivalent circuit models to electrochemical,

thermal models and even data-driven models.

Some of the basic steps involved in battery modelling with a data driven
approach include collecting data from the battery which involves voltage
discharge curves and cycles and the effect of various temperature ranges on
the performance of the battery. Based on the performance of the battery in the
context of parameters such as the voltage, capacitance, we can then use data
driven models that are trained on datasets which include all of the above data
and their respective trends for predicting the behaviour of the battery in
different conditions in real time.

The predictions are then compared with testing of the batteries in real world
situations and compare the observed results with those predicted by the
model. Once a desirable accuracy is achieved, the model can be used by
BMS or simulation tools to better understand battery behaviour. This is
especially useful in electric vehicles which are exposed to a diverse range of
conditions and environments from vibrations to temperature shocks and
humidity/moisture.
When done with software, we use various models and approaches to simulate
the behaviour of an actual battery using elementary circuit elements like
voltage source, load resistance and R-C couples to create the charge and
discharge voltage reactions in the battery. Finding the number of R-C couple
to implement depends on how close the simulated reaction needs to be to the
empirically observed one (increase in number of couple increases order of the
circuit)

State of Charge is found in discrete mode using the equation:

Note: Current will be treated as +ve value when discharged and -ve when
charged

v[k] = OCV(z[k])

: Where the next state of charge z[k+1] is equal to the present state of charge subtracted by
the amount of current flowing at present divided by maximum SOC and multiplied finally by
delta T which is the sample length in time domain.

Where the next state of charge z[k+1] is equal to the present state of charge
subtracted by the amount of current flowing at present divided by maximum
SOC and multiplied finally by delta T which is the sample length in time
domain.

One thing to factor in is coulombic efficiency which due to unwanted side

reaction is never equal to 1 (which is 100% efficiency).

Coulombic efficiency is amt of charge released by battery cell divided by amt

of charge put into the battery cell which hovers around 99% for lithium ion
batteries. When modelling, for charging state we take coulombic efficiency
index as equal to or less than 1, and during discharge we take it as 1 (this
won’t pose a problem since the aspect of inefficiency is already sufficiently
contained in the value for charging mode).

To differentiate from energy efficiency, energy efficiency is defined as the

amount of energy released during discharge divided by energy gained during
charge (this hovers around 95% for lithium ion batteries). This percentage
drop is due to resistive elements in the battery system that convert some of
this energy into heat.

: OCV is not only a function of SOC but also a function of temperature, the above graph
shows the curves for different battery chemistries. Ideally, the relationship between SOC and
OCV should be as linear as possible.

To model polarisation, which is the difference between OCV and measured

voltage at cell terminal we introduce a series resistance R0 and get the
equation v(t) = OCV(z(t)) - i(t)R0

Diffusion Voltage: In practice, we notice that there is non instantaneous

(dynamic) voltage response to change in input current.
After a voltage rest state of 5 mins, a discharge current is introduced which
creates a sudden drop in voltage. The decrease in SOC as the cell is
discharging affects the OCV after recovery during rest can see this by the
recovered level reaching a max of 4.05 which is a difference of 0.05 from the
initial OCV.

This dynamic reaction is a result of the non-instantaneous diffusion process

within the cell during the discharge. This diffusion phenomenon is recreated in
an equivalent circuit using the parallel R-C combination.

: Above is the basic circuit representation that can simulate the majority of battery
characteristics.

- https://www.coursera.org/programs/manipal-education-tguaf/learn/equiv
alent-circuit-cell-model-simulation?authProvider=manipal&source=searc
h
Battery Management
: Battery management encompasses techniques and systems used to monitor, control, and
optimise battery performance and safety.

This includes managing charge/discharge cycles, balancing cell voltages, and

monitoring temperature. Effective battery management extends battery life,
enhances safety, and ensures reliable operation. Battery management is done
by BMS.

Specific energy is the capacity for storing energy per kilogram of weight,
specific power is the amount of power a kilogram of battery can discharge.
Charging times are another important factor that affect the economic viability
and consumer desirability for electric vehicles.

One of the main safety concerns regarding battery systems is thermal

runaway either caused by overcharging of the battery or extremely high
discharge rates. As such, the BMS is tasked with monitoring factors like
temperature, pressure, etc. to make sure they stay within a safe operating
range, and upon crossing will release safety mechanisms to either contain or
avoid thermal runaway (nozzles to relieve gaseous pressure, cooling
vents/lines to maintain operating temperature of batteries, etc.)

Battery Operation
: Battery operation refers to the processes involved in charging, discharging, and maintaining
a battery. Proper operation is essential for ensuring safety, good performance, and
prolonged battery life.

: Above is a diagram that illustrates the various factors that can lead to thermal runaway,
with mechanical abuse and damage, over/under- charging of the battery and thermal abuse
which all contribute to accelerated battery ageing and at extremes leads to thermal runaway.
Factors that influence battery operations are capacity fade (gradual decrease
in amount of charge released by battery at rated voltage), State of charge of
the battery, thermal conditions the battery will be exposed to, vibrations and
physical damage, etc. All of which vary for different battery chemistries.

: The above illustration displays the various stages of EV battery conditions (charging,
standby and driving). The graph shows a speed profile over time, representing the WLTC, a
test cycle used to measure fuel consumption and emissions, the car's speed changes over
time during different phases of the test cycle.

There are then safety mechanisms that are built in to counteract instances of
overcharging of battery, temperature monitoring and preventing short circuit to
prevent thermal runaway of the battery system (BMS is tasked).

Reliable battery operation carried out by the BMS is dependent on a good

understanding of the limitations and behaviour of different battery chemistries,
the accuracy of real time information fed to the BMS (sensor quality and
placement) among other factors.

- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378775399003298