INTERNET AND WEB DESIGNING

INTERNET AND WEB DESIGNING

Unit-I
Introduction to Internet
Internet is the world’s largest computer network, the network of networks, scattered all over the world.
The vast worldwide system consisting of information, people and computers is named as internet. The Internet
is a global network of networks. People and organizations connect into the Internet so they can access its
massive store of shared information. The Internet is an inherently participative medium. Anybody can publish
information or create new services. The Internet is a cooperative endeavor no organization is in charge of the
net.

History & Development of the Internet:

In its infancy, the Internet was originally conceived by the Department of Defense as a way to protect
government communications systems in the event of a military strike. The original network, dubbed ARPANet
(for the Advanced Research Projects Agency that developed it) evolved into a communications channel among
contractors, military personnel, and university researchers who were contributing to ARPA projects. The
network employed a set of standard protocols to create an effective way for these people to communicate and
share data with each other. ARPAnet's popularity continued to spread among researchers and in the 1980 the
National Science Foundation, whose NSFNet, linked several high speed computers, took charge of what had
come to be known as the Internet. By the late 1980's, thousands of cooperating networks were participating in
the Internet. In 1991, the U.S. High Performance Computing Act established the NREN (National Research &
Education Network). NREN's goal was to develop and maintain high-speed networks for research and
education, and to investigate commercial uses for the Internet. The rest, as they say, is history in the making.
The Internet has been improved through the developments of such services as Gopher and the World Wide
Web. Even though the Internet is predominantly thought of as a research oriented network, it continues to
grow as an informational, creative, and commercial resource every day and all over the world.

Meaning of Internet

A network of computers and several networks consisting of computers, people and information. The
internet helps in three obvious ways

1. To get information

We can get information about people, products, organizations,research data, electronic versions of the
printed media, movies, etc from the internet. The most recent and very successful attempt at presenting
information over the internet is World Wide Web (WWW).

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2. To provide information
The best and most inexpensive way to let people know about you or about your institution is setting up
a home page about you and your products and services.

i) Publishing, including full text articles, reports, illustrated articles, abstracts, computer programs
and demonstrations.
ii) Extension, some of the delays associated with the printed media may be reduced.
iii) Teaching includes both learning and assistance for students.

3. To compile information
The special case of “getting information”. For eg. You wanted to poll the readership of magazine or
conduct survey to detect the pulse of a selected community, web provider an opportunity. Using forms, e-mail
etc you can conduct surveys and get opinion of peoples across the world

Requirements to connect the Internet:

 To access the internet over phone lines the user needs

 A Computer
 A Modem
 An available telephone line
 The appropriate software
 A telephone number to use to connect to a remote internet computer.

Internet access/ Dial-Up Connection

History and types of connections

Common methods of Internet access include dial-up, landline (over Cable Internet access, Optical fiber
or Twisted pairs), T- lines, Wi-Fi, satellite and cell phones.

Dial-up connections are the most common type of Internet connection available from ISPs and the slowest and
(usually) the least expensive. A dial-up connection allows users to connect to the Internet via a local server
using a standard 56k modem, the PC literally dials (hence the name) a telephone number (provided by the
Internet Service Provider) and connects to the server's modem and therefore the Internet. Once connected
users are free to search the web as they please, however, compared to modern speeds of broadband Internet,
dial-up is very slow and can only nominally transfer at 56 Kilobits per second.

Asymmetric digital subscriber lines (ADSL) have become a widely available Broadband Internet access
connection, providing a variety of data rates. The connections work by splitting the function of a phone line
into separate channels for voice telephone calls and for data (Internet). Thus, a user can talk on the phone and
be connected to the Internet at the same time. ADSL connection services are sold with different speed
specifications, below are some common configurations for download/upload speed:

512kbit/s/128kbit/s
1 Mbit/s/256kbit/s
3 Mbit/s/768kbit/s

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Cable Internet access, the principal competitor to DSL, is offered at a range of prices and speeds overlapping
that of DSL, but tends to concentrate more on the high end of the market.

Wireless connections

Wi-Fi provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can do so to the Internet itself.
Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi-cafes, where a would-be user needs to bring their own wireless-
enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-
based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. The whole campus or park, or even the entire city
can be enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks.

Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet,
various high-speed data services over cellular or mobile phone networks, and fixed wireless services. These
services have not enjoyed widespread success due to their high cost of deployment, which is passed on to
users in high usage fees. New wireless technologies such as WiMAX have the potential to alleviate these
concerns and enable simple and cost effective deployment of metropolitan area networks covering large, urban
areas. There is a growing trend towards wireless mesh networks, which offer a decentralized and redundant
infrastructure and are often considered the future of the Internet.

Methods and venues of connection

Besides accessing from residences, there are public places to use the Internet which would include
libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. Some libraries provide
stations that provide facilities for hooking up public-owned laptops to local area networks (LANs). There are
also wireless Internet access points in many public places like airport halls, in some cases just for brief use
while standing. These Access points may provide coin operated computers or Wi-Fi hot spots that enable
specially equipped laptops to pick up Internet service signals. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet
kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many hotels now also have public terminals, though
these are usually fee based.

Internet Services Features

Information

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the Web, interchangeably, but the two
terms are not synonymous. The World Wide Web is a global set of documents, images and other resources,
logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). URIs allow
providers to symbolically identify services and clients to locate and address web servers, file servers, and other
databases that store documents and provide resources and access them using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), the primary carrier protocol of the Web. HTTP is only one of the hundreds of communication
protocols used on the Internet. Web services may also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in
order to share and exchange business logic and data.

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World Wide Web browser software, such as Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera, Apple Safari, and Google
Chrome, let users navigate from one web page to another via hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These
documents may also contain any combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video,
multimedia and interactive content including games, office applications and scientific demonstrations.
Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google, users worldwide
have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed
encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization of information.

The Web has also enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large
audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a
website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available. Publishing and maintaining large,
professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive
proposition, however. Many individuals and some companies and groups use web logs or blogs, which are
largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to
communicate advice in their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert
knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is
Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their
work. Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain popular, and have
become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angel fire and Geo Cities have existed since
the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Face book and My Space currently have large
followings. These operations often brand themselves as social network services rather than simply as web
page hosts.

Communication

E-mail is an important communications service available on the Internet. The concept of sending
electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation
of the Internet. Today it can be important to distinguish between internet and internal e-mail systems. Internet
e-mail may travel and be stored unencrypted on many other networks and machines out of both the sender's
and the recipient's control. During this time it is quite possible for the content to be read and even tampered
with by third parties, if anyone considers it important enough. Purely internal or intranet mail systems, where
the information never leaves the corporate or organization's network, are much more secure, although in any
organization there will be IT and other personnel whose job may involve monitoring, and occasionally
accessing, the e-mail of other employees not addressed to them. Pictures, documents and other files can be
sent as e-mail attachments. E-mails can be cc-ed to multiple e-mail addresses.

Internet telephony is another common communications service made possible by the creation of the Internet.
VoIP stands for Voice-over-Internet Protocol, referring to the protocol that underlies all Internet
communication. The idea began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications for personal
computers. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal
telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a
traditional telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on Internet
connections such as cable or ADSL. VoIP is maturing into a competitive alternative to traditional telephone
service. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from
a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP network adapters are available that eliminate the
need for a personal computer.
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Data transfer

File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A computer file
can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP
server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by
colleagues. The load of bulk downloads too many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-
peer networks. In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of
the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands for access to the file.
The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also
passed usually fully encrypted across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be
checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over
a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a
computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music,
film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the
existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products.

Streaming media refers to the act that many existing radio and television broadcasters promote Internet "feeds"
of their live audio and video streams (for example, the BBC). They may also allow time-shift viewing or
listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a
range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected
device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same
way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of available types of content
is much wider, from specialized technical web casts to on-demand popular multimedia services. Pod casting is
a variation on this theme, where usually audio material is downloaded and played back on a computer or
shifted to a portable media player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment
allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide.

Webcams can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give
full-frame-rate video, the picture is usually either small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals
around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor their own
premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular with many uses
being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way sound. YouTube was founded on 15 February
2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video with a vast number of users. It uses a flash-based
web player to stream and show video files. Registered users may upload an unlimited amount of video and
build their own personal profile. YouTube claims that its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload
hundreds of thousands of videos daily.

Accessibility

Common methods of Internet access in homes include dial-up, landline broadband (over coaxial cable,
fiber optic or copper wires), Wi-Fi, satellite and 3G technology cell phones. Public places to use the Internet
include libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also
Internet access points in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops, in some cases just for brief
use while standing. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and
"Web payphone". Many hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee-based. These
terminals are widely accessed for various usage like ticket booking, bank deposit, online payment etc. Wi-Fi
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provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can do so to the Internet itself. Hotspots
providing such access include Wi-Fi cafes, where would-be users need to bring their own wireless-enabled
devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A
hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. A whole campus or park, or even an entire city can be
enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. The Internet can then be accessed from
such places as a park bench. Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless
networks like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular phone networks, and fixed wireless
services. High-end mobile phones such as smart phones generally come with Internet access through the
phone network. Web browsers such as Opera are available on these advanced handsets, which can also run a
wide variety of other Internet software. More mobile phones have Internet access than PCs, though this is not
as widely used. An Internet access provider and protocol matrix differentiates the methods used to get online.

Social impact

The Internet has enabled entirely new forms of social interaction, activities, and organizing, thanks to
its basic features such as widespread usability and access. Social networking websites such as Face book and
My Space have created a new form of socialization and interaction. Users of these sites are able to add a wide
variety of information to their personal pages, to persue common interests, and to connect with others. It is
also possible to find a large circle of existing acquaintances, especially if a site allows users to represent
themselves by their given names, and to allow communication among existing groups of people. Sites like
meetup.com exist to allow wider announcement of groups which may exist mainly for face-to-face meetings,
but which may have a variety of minor interactions over their group's site.

In the first decade of the 21st century the first generation is raised with widespread availability of Internet
connectivity, bringing consequences and concerns in areas such as personal privacy and identity, and
distribution of copyrighted materials. These "digital natives" face a variety of challenges that were not present
for prior generations.

The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool, leading to Internet censorship by some states. The
presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States was notable for its success in soliciting
donation via the Internet. Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing in
order to carry out their mission, having given rise to Internet activism. Some governments, such as those of
Iran, North Korea, Myanmar, the People's Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia, restrict what people in their
countries can access on the Internet, especially political and religious content. This is accomplished through
software that filters domains and content so that they may not be easily accessed or obtained without elaborate
circumvention.

The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception, with entertaining social
experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet
groups receiving much traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos;
short cartoons in the form of Flash movies are also popular. Over 6 million people use blogs or message
boards as a means of communication and for the sharing of ideas. The pornography and gambling industries
have taken advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue
for other websites. Although many governments have attempted to restrict both industries' use of the Internet,
this has generally failed to stop their widespread popularity. One main area of leisure activity on the Internet is
multiplayer gaming. This form of recreation creates communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy
the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-
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playing games to online gambling. This has revolutionized the way many people interact while spending their
free time on the Internet. While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online
gaming began with subscription services such as GameSpy and MPlayer. Non-subscribers were limited to
certain types of game play or certain games. Many people use the Internet to access and download music,
movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. Free and fee-based services exist for all of these
activities, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Some of these sources exercise
more care with respect to the original artists' copyrights than others.

Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book vacations
and to find out more about their interests. People use chat, messaging and e-mail to make and stay in touch
with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. Social networking
websites like MySpace, Face book and many others like them also put and keep people in contact for their
enjoyment. The Internet has seen a growing number of Web desktops, where users can access their files and
settings via the Internet. Cybers lacking can become a serious drain on corporate resources; the average UK
employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula
Business Services.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite.
TCP is one of the two original components of the suite (the other being Internet Protocol, or IP), so the entire
suite is commonly referred to as TCP/IP. Whereas IP handles lower-level transmissions from computer to
computer as a message makes its way across the Internet, TCP operates at a higher level, concerned only with
the two end systems, for example a Web browser and a Web server. In particular, TCP provides reliable,
ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from a program on one computer to another program on another
computer. Besides the Web, other common applications of TCP include e-mail and file transfer. Among its
other management tasks, TCP controls segment size, flow control, the rate at which data is exchanged, and
network traffic congestion.

TCP provides a communication service at an intermediate level between an application program and the
Internet Protocol (IP). That is, when an application program desires to send a large chunk of data across the
Internet using IP, instead of breaking the data into IP-sized pieces and issuing a series of IP requests, the
software can issue a single request to TCP and let TCP handle the IP details.

IP works by exchanging pieces of information called packets. A packet is a sequence of bytes and consists of a
header followed by a body. The header describes the packet's destination and, optionally, the routers to use for
forwarding until it arrives at its final destination. The body contains the data which IP is transmitting.

Due to network congestion, traffic load balancing, or other unpredictable network behavior, IP packets can be
lost or delivered out of order. TCP detects these problems, requests retransmission of lost packets, rearranges
out-of-order packets, and even helps minimize network congestion to reduce the occurrence of the other
problems. Once the TCP receiver has finally reassembled a perfect copy of the data originally transmitted, it
passes that datagram to the application program. Thus, TCP abstracts the application's communication from
the underlying networking details.

TCP is used extensively by many of the Internet's most popular applications, including the World Wide Web,
E-mail, File Transfer Protocol, Secure Shell, and some streaming media applications.
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TCP is optimized for accurate delivery rather than timely delivery, and therefore, TCP sometimes incurs
relatively long delays (in the order of seconds) while waiting for out-of-order messages or retransmissions of
lost messages. It is not particularly suitable for real-time applications such as Voice over IP. For such
applications, protocols like the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) running over the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) are usually recommended instead.

TCP is a reliable stream delivery service that guarantees delivery of a data stream sent from one host to
another without duplication or losing data. Since packet transfer is not reliable, a technique known as positive
acknowledgment with retransmission is used to guarantee reliability of packet transfers. This fundamental
technique requires the receiver to respond with an acknowledgment message as it receives the data. The sender
keeps a record of each packet it sends, and waits for acknowledgment before sending the next packet. The
sender also keeps a timer from when the packet was sent, and retransmits a packet if the timer expires. The
timer is needed in case a packet gets lost or corrupted.

TCP consists of a set of rules: for the protocol, that are used with the Internet Protocol, and for the IP, to send
data "in a form of message units" between computers over the Internet. At the same time that IP takes care of
handling the actual delivery of the data, TCP takes care of keeping track of the individual units of data
transmission, called segments that a message is divided into for efficient routing through the network. For
example, when an HTML file is sent from a Web server, the TCP software layer of that server divides the
sequence of bytes of the file into segments and forwards them individually to the IP software layer (Internet
Layer). The Internet Layer encapsulates each TCP segment into an IP packet by adding a header which
includes (among other data) the destination IP address. Even though every packet has the same destination
address, they can be routed on different paths through the network. When the client program on the destination
computer receives them, the TCP layer (Transport Layer) reassembles the individual segments and ensures
they are correctly ordered and error free as it streams them to an application.

Shell Account

Traditionally a shell account was a user account on a remote server which gave you access to a unix
shell via a command-line interface protocol such as telnet. They were originally provided by ISPs (such as
Netcom (USA) and Digex) and were used for file storage, web space, email accounts, newsgroup access and
software development. In more recent times, shell providers are often found to offer shell accounts at low-
cost or for free. These shell accounts generally provide users with access to various software and services
including compilers, IRC clients, background processes, FTP, text editor (such as nano) and email client (such
as pine).

Configuring the TCP/IP

A kernel mode TCP/IP stack typically has access to networking hardware for sending and receiving
packets, so first we must make sure the rump TCP/IP server has the same capability. The canonical way is to
use bridging and we will present that here. An alternative is to use the host kernel to route the packets, but that
is left as an exercise to the reader. In both cases, the rump kernel sends and receives external packets via
a /dev/tap<n> device node. The rump kernel must have read-write access to this device node. The details are
up to you, but the recommended way is to use appropriate group privileges.
To create a tap interface and attach it via bridge to a host Ethernet interface we execute the following
commands. You can attach as many tap interfaces to a single bridge as you like. For example, if you run

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multiple rump kernels on the same machine, adding all the respective tap interfaces on the same bridge will
allow the different kernels to see each others' Ethernet traffic.

Introduction to Telnet:
Telnet (teletype network) is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a
bidirectional interactive communications facility. Typically, telnet provides access to a command-line
interface on a remote host via a virtual terminal connection which consists of an 8-bit byte oriented data
connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). User data is interspersed in-band with TELNET
control information.

Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 854, and standardized as Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Standard STD 8, one of the first Internet standards.

The term telnet may also refer to the software that implements the client part of the protocol. Telnet client
applications are available for virtually all computer platforms. Most network equipment and operating systems
with a TCP/IP stack support a Telnet service for remote configuration (including systems based on Windows
NT). Because of security issues with Telnet, its use has waned in favor of SSH for remote access.

Telnet is also used as a verb. To telnet means to establish a connection with the Telnet protocol, either with
command line client or with a programmatic interface. For example, a common directive might be: "To
change your password, telnet to the server, login and run the passwd command." Most often, a user will be
telnetting to a Unix-like server system or a network device such as a router and obtain a login prompt to a
command line text interface or a character-based full-screen manager.

Telnet is the protocol used to establish a login session on a remote computer on the network. While many
computers on the Internet require users to have authorization, others are open to the public and can be logged
onto with telnet. Telnet is not a method to transfer files from one machine to another, but rather is a way to
remotely connect to another system with priveleges to run specific programs on that system. Some uses of the
Telnet protocol include: connecting to a library catalog to search that library's collection connecting to a
location that allows public priveleges to search its campus information system connecting to a location that
gives you an up-to-the minute weather report

Basic Telnet Commands

Open - establishes a connection to the specified host. Close - closes an open connection and leaves you
in the telnet software quit - closes any open telnet sessions and exits the telnet software. When using a telnet
program like NCSA Telnet, you invoke these commands by way of pull-down menus or command keys.

Changing the Password

A password is a secret word or string of characters that is used for authentication, to prove identity or
gain access to a resource (example: an access code is a type of password). The password must be kept secret
from those not allowed access.

The use of passwords is known to be ancient. Sentries would challenge those wishing to enter an area or
approaching it to supply a password or watchword. Sentries would only allow a person or group to pass if they

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knew the password. In modern times, user names and passwords are commonly used by people during a log in
process that controls access to protected computer operating systems, mobile phones, cable TV decoders,
automated teller machines (ATMs), etc. A typical computer user may require passwords for many purposes:
logging in to computer accounts, retrieving e-mail from servers, accessing programs, databases, networks, web
sites, and even reading the morning newspaper online.

For the purposes of more compellingly authenticating the identity of one computing device to another,
passwords have significant disadvantages (they may be stolen, spoofed, forgotten, etc.) over authentications
systems relying on cryptographic protocols which are more difficult to circumvent.

Procedures for changing passwords

Usually, a system must provide a way to change a password, either because a user believes the current
password has been (or might have been) compromised, or as a precautionary measure. If a new password is
passed to the system in unencrypted form, security can be lost (e.g., via wiretapping) even before the new
password can even be installed in the password database. And, of course, if the new password is given to a
compromised employee, little is gained. Some web sites include the user-selected password in an unencrypted
confirmation e-mail message, with the obvious increased vulnerability.

Identity management systems are increasingly used to automate issuance of replacements for lost passwords, a
feature called self service password reset. The user's identity is verified by asking questions and comparing the
answers to ones previously stored (ie, when the account was opened). Typical questions include: "Where were
you born?," "What is your favorite movie?" or "What is the name of your pet?" In many cases the answers to
these questions can be relatively easily guessed by an attacker, determined by low effort research, or obtained
through social engineering, and so this is less than fully satisfactory as a verification technique. While many
users have been trained never to reveal a password, few consider the name of their pet or favorite movie to
require similar care.

Website password systems

Passwords are used on websites to authenticate users and are usually maintained on the Web server,
meaning the browser on a remote system sends a password to the server (by HTTP POST), the server checks
the password and sends back the relevant content (or an access denied message). This process eliminates the
possibility of local reverse engineering as the code used to authenticate the password does not reside on the
local machine.

Transmission of the password, via the browser, in plaintext means it can be intercepted along its journey to the
server. Many web authentication systems use SSL to establish an encrypted session between the browser and
the server, and is usually the underlying meaning of claims to have a "secure Web site". This is done
automatically by the browser and increases integrity of the session, assuming neither end has been
compromised and that the SSL/TLS implementations used are high quality ones.

So-called website password and membership management systems often involve the use of Java or JavaScript
code existing on the client side (meaning the visitor's web browser) HTML source code (for example,
AuthPro). Drawbacks to such systems are the relative ease in bypassing or circumventing the protection by
switching off JavaScript and Meta redirects in the browser, thereby gaining access to the protected web page.
Others take advantage of server-side scripting languages such as ASP or PHP to authenticate users on the
server before delivering the source code to the browser. Popular systems such as Sentry Login and Password
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Sentry take advantage of technology in which web pages are protected using such scripting language code
snippets placed in front of the HTML code in the web page source saved in the appropriate extension on the
server, such as .asp or .php.

Introduction to the World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (also referred to as WWW or W3) is the fastest growing area of the Internet.
While gopher was an important step in allowing users to "browse" through the Internet's vast resources, the
World Wide Web has raised excitement about the Internet to new heights. What makes the World Wide Web
appealing and innovative is its use of hypertext as a way of linking documents to each other. A highlighted
word or phrase in one document acts as a pointer to another document that amplifies or relates to the first
document. When looking at a WWW document, the reader doesn't have to follow every pointer, or link (also
called a hypertext link), only those that look interesting or useful. In this way, the user tailors the experience to
suit his or her needs or interests. The other very appealing aspect of the World Wide Web is the use of
graphics and sound capabilities. Documents on the WWW include text, but they may also include still images,
video, and audio for a very exciting presentation. People who create WWW documents often include a
photograph of themselves along with detailed professional information and personal interests. (This is often
called a person's home page.)

What makes the WWW work?

WWW is another example of client/server computing. Each time a link is followed, the client is
requesting a document (or graphic or sound file) from a server (also called a Web server) that's part of the
World Wide Web that "serves" up the document. The server uses a protocol called HTTP or HyperText
Transport Protocol. The standard for creating hypertext documents for the WWW is HyperText Markup
Language or HTML. HTML essentially codes plain text documents so they can be viewed on the Web.

Web page

Web is a collection of files known as WebPages. These WebPages can contain hyperlinks to link other
WebPages. A hyperlink can be any text or image which when clicked would display another webpage .There
may be one or more pages in the home page, which is the initial webpage present in a website. A webpage or
web page is a document or resource of information that is suitable for the World Wide Web and can be
accessed through a web browser and displayed on a computer screen. This information is usually in HTML or
XHTML format, and may provide navigation to other web pages via hypertext links. Web pages may be
retrieved from a local computer or from a remote web server. The web server may restrict access only to a
private network, e.g. a corporate intranet, or it may publish pages on the World Wide Web. Web pages are
requested and served from web servers using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Web pages may consist of
files of static text stored within the web server's file system (static web pages), or the web server may
construct the (X) HTML for each webpage when it is requested by a browser (dynamic web pages). Client-
side scripting can make web pages more responsive to user input once in the client browser.

Hyper Text

Hypertext is text displayed on a computer with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can
immediately access, usually by a mouse click or key press sequence. Apart from running text, hypertext may
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contain tables, images and other presentational devices. Other means of interaction may also be present, such
as a bubble with text appearing when the mouse hovers over a particular area, a video clip starting, or a form
to complete and submit. The most extensive example of hypertext today is the World Wide Web.

HTML (Hypertext Markup Languages)

HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Languages ,which is an application of standard generalized Markup
Language(SGML).It is a simple language used to define and describe the layout of a Web page.HTML also
supports Multimedia and documents links.HTML consist of special codes which when embedded in text, adds
formatting. The special characters, which separate HTML from ordinary text, are the left and right brackets.
(<>).These brackets contain instructions known as TAGS that are not case sensitive. The Case study
substantially helps in understanding the need for learning HTML and the usage of HTML and the usage of
HTML in designing the web pages.

HTML Tags
• HTML tags are used to mark-up HTML elements .

• HTML tags are surrounded by the two characters < and > .

• The surrounding characters are called angle brackets .

• HTML tags normally come in pairs like <b> and </b>.

• The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag.

• The text between the start and end tags is the element content.

• HTML tags are not case sensitive, <b> means the same as <B>.

Web browsers

A Web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing information
resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier
(URI) and may be a web page, image, video, or other piece of content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable
users to easily navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to access
the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by Web servers in private
networks or files in file systems. Some browsers can be also used to save information resources to file
systems.

Generally, a browser is referred to as an application that provides access to a Web server. Depending
on the implementation, browser capabilities and thus structures vary. A Web browser, at a minimum, consists
of an Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) interpreter and HTTP client that is used to retrieve HTML Web
pages. Besides this basic requirement, many browsers also support FTP, NNTP, e-mail (POP and SMTP
clients), among other features, with an easy-to-manage graphical interface.
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Browser

A browser is basically a client program that uses HTTP and is used to view Web pages on the World
Wide Web. Its function is to retrieve documents from the Web and format them in such a way that they can be
viewed in our systems. Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer are two popular browsers for Windows and
Macintosh platforms while Lynx which can handle only text is designed for UNIX shell users. The browser
actually acts as an intermediary between our system and any other system on the Web. The program you use
to access the WWW is known as a browser because it "browses" the WWW and requests these hypertext
documents. Browsers can be graphical, like Netscape and Mosaic, allowing you to see and hear the graphics
and audio; text-only browsers (i.e., those with no sound or graphics capability) are also available. All of these
programs understand http and other Internet protocols such as FTP, gopher, mail, and news, making the
WWW a kind of "one stop shopping" for Internet users.

Internet Addressing:

To use Internet e-mail successfully, you must understand how the names and addresses for computers
and people on the Internet are formatted. Mastering this technique is just as important as knowing how to use
telephone numbers or postal addresses correctly. Fortunately, after you get the hang of them, Internet
addresses are usually no more complex than phone numbers and postal addresses. And, like those methods of
identifying a person, an organization, or a geographic location--usually by a telephone number or a street
address--Internet addresses have rules and conventions for use.

Sample Internet Address: [email protected]

The Internet address has three parts:

1. A user name [custcare in the example above]

2. An "at" sign (@)

3. The address of the user's mail server [aucegypt.edu in the example above]

Sometimes it's useful to read an Internet address (like [email protected]) or a domain name from right to
left because it helps you determine information about the source of the address. An address like
[email protected] doesn't tell me much about the person who's sending me a message, but I can deduce
that the sender is affiliated with an educational institution because of the suffix edu.

The right-most segment of domain names usually adhere to the naming conventions listed below:

EDU Educational sites in the United States

COM Commercial sites in the United States

GOV Government sites in the United States

NET Network administrative organizations

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MIL Military sites in the United States

ORG Organizations in the U.S. not covered by the categories above (e.g., non-profit orginaizations).

IP address
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices participating in a
computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes. An IP address serves
two principal functions in networking: host or network interface identification and location addressing. The
role of the IP address has also been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address
indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there." The original designers of TCP/IP defined an IP
address as a 32-bit number and this system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 or IPv4, is still in use today.
However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the resulting depletion of available addresses, a new
[3]
addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995 and last standardized by
RFC 2460 in 1998. Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually displayed in human-
readable notations

The Internet Protocol also has the task of routing data packets between networks, and IP addresses specify the
locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose, some of
the bits in an IP address are used to designate a sub network. The number of these bits is indicated in CIDR
notation, appended to the IP address, e.g., 208.77.188.166/24.

With the development of private networks and the threat of IPv4 address exhaustion, a group of private
address spaces was set aside by RFC 1918. These private addresses may be used by anyone on private
networks. They are often used with network address translators to connect to the global public Internet.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages the IP address space allocations globally. IANA
works in cooperation with five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to Local
Internet Registries (Internet service providers) and other entities.

Domain name

A domain name is an identification label that defines a realm of administrative autonomy, authority,
or control in the Internet, based on the Domain Name System (DNS). Domain names are used in various
networking contexts and application-specific naming and addressing purposes. They are organized in
subordinate levels (subdomains) of the DNS root domain, which is nameless. The first-level set of domain
names are the top-level domains (TLDs), including the generic top-level domains (gTLDs), such as the
prominent domains com, net and org, and the country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Below these top-level
domains in the DNS hierarchy are the second-level and third-level domain names that are typically open for
reservation by end-users that wish to connect local area networks to the Internet, run web sites, or create other
publicly accessible Internet resources. The registration of these domain names is usually administered by
domain name registrars who sell their services to the public.

Individual Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, or hostnames. Hostnames are
the leaf labels in the domain name system usually without further subordinate domain name space. Hostnames

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appear as a component in Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) for Internet resources such as web sites (e.g.,
en.wikipedia.org).

Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a
resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), the Domain
Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, and in many other Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs).

An important purpose of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to
numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource (e.g., website) to be moved to a
different physical location in the address topology of the network, globally or locally in an intranet. Such a
move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource and the corresponding translation of this IP
address to and from its domain name.

Domain names are often referred to simply as domains and domain name registrants are frequently
referred to as domain owners, although domain name registration with a registrar does not confer any legal
ownership of the domain name, only an exclusive right of use.

Electronic Mail

Electronic mail, often abbreviated as email, e.mail or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital
messages. E-mail systems are based on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail computer server systems
accept, forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users, who only need to connect to the e-mail
infrastructure, typically an e-mail server, with a network-enabled device (e.g., a personal computer) for the
duration of message submission or retrieval. Originally, e-mail was always transmitted directly from one user's
device to another's; nowadays this is rarely the case.

An electronic mail message consists of two components, the message header, and the message body,
which is the email's content. The message header contains control information, including, minimally, an
originator's email address and one or more recipient addresses. Usually additional information is added, such
as a subject header field.

The foundation for today's global Internet e-mail service was created in the early ARPANET and
standards for encoding of messages were proposed as early as 1973 (RFC 561). An e-mail sent in the early
1970s looked very similar to one sent on the Internet today. Conversion from the ARPANET to the Internet in
the early 1980s produced the core of the current service.

Network-based email was initially exchanged on the ARPANET in extensions to the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), but is today carried by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), first published as Internet
standard 10 (RFC 821) in 1982. In the process of transporting email messages between systems, SMTP
communicates delivery parameters using a message envelope separately from the message (headers and body)
itself.

Uniform Resource Locators or URLs:

A Uniform Resource Locator or URL is the address of a document you'll find on the WWW. Your
WWW browser interprets the information in the URL in order to connect to the proper Internet server and to

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retrieve your desired document. Each time you click on a hyperlink in a WWW document, you're actually
instructing your browser to find the URL that's embedded within the hyperlink. The elements in a URL:
Protocol://server's address/filename

Hypertext protocol: http://www.aucegypt.edu

Gopher protocol: gopher://gopher.umm.tc.edu

File Transfer Protocol: ftp://ftp.dartmouth.edu

Telnet Protocol: telnet://pac.carl.org

News Protocol: news:alt.rock-n-roll.stones

Internet Protocols

A Protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs hoe computer exchanges information over
a net medium. Other words two computer communicate with each other using some set of rules called
protocols. For instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer, the first computer must
perform the following steps:

 Breaking the data into small pieces called packets

 Addressing of the destination computer is added to the packet.
 Data is then delivered to the network card for transmission over the network.

The receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse order to accept the data:

 Accept the data from the network card.

 Remove the destination address from the packets.
 Reassemble the packets of data into the original message.

The packets have the following components:

 A source address specifying the details of sending computer
 A destination address
 Instructions for the computer how to pass or sent the data.
 If the packet is large, information on how to break the data into pieces.
 The data to be transmitted to the remote computer.
 Error checking information to ensure that the data arrives in to it.

Types of protocol:
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

TCP/IT
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The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite has become the industry-standard
method of interconnecting hosts, networks, and the Internet. As such, it is seen as the engine behind the
Internet and networks worldwide. Although TCP/IP supports a host of applications, both standard and
nonstandard, these applications could not exist without the foundation of a set of core protocols. Additionally,
in order to understand the capability of TCP/IP applications, an understanding of these core protocols must be
realized. With this in mind, Part I begins with providing a background of TCP/IP, the current architecture,
standards, and most recent trends. Next, the section explores the two aspects vital to the IP stack itself. This
portion begins with a discussion of the network interfaces most commonly used to allow the protocol suite to
interface with the physical network media. This is followed by the protocols that must be implemented in any
stack, including protocols belonging to the IP and transport layers.
The main design goal of TCP/IP was to build an interconnection of networks, referred to as an
internetwork, or internet, that provided universal communication services over heterogeneous physical
networks. The clear benefit of such an internetwork is the enabling of communication between hosts on
different networks, erhaps separated by a large geographical area.
The words internetwork and internet are simply a contraction of the phrase interconnected network.
However, when written with a capital “I”, the Internet refers to the worldwide set of interconnected networks.
Therefore, the Internet is an internet, but the reverse does not apply. The Internet is sometimes called the
connected Internet.

TCP/IP applications
The highest-level protocols within the TCP/IP protocol stack are application protocols. They
communicate with applications on other internet hosts and are the user-visible interface to the TCP/IP protocol
suite.
All application protocols have some characteristics in common:
 They can be user-written applications or applications standardized and shipped with the TCP/IP
product. Indeed, the TCP/IP protocol suite includes application protocols such as:
– Telnet for interactive terminal access to remote internet hosts
– File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for high-speed disk-to-disk file transfers
– Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) as an internet mailing system
These are some of the most widely implemented application protocols, but many others exist. Each particular
TCP/IP implementation will include a lesser or greater set of application protocols.
 They use either UDP or TCP as a transport mechanism. Remember that UDP is unreliable and offers
no flow-control, so in this case, the application has to provide its own error recovery, flow control, and
congestion control functionality. It is often easier to build applications on top of TCP because it is a
reliable stream, connection-oriented, congestion-friendly, flow control-enabled protocol. As a result,
most application protocols will use TCP, but there are applications built on UDP to achieve better
performance through increased protocol efficiencies.
 Most applications use the client/server model of interaction.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to exchange and manipulate files over
a TCP/IP based network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on a client-server architecture and utilizes separate
control and data connections between the client and server applications. Applications were originally
interactive command-line tools with standardized command syntax, but graphical user interfaces have been
developed for all desktop operating systems in use today. FTP is also often used as an application component
to automatically transfer files for program internal functions. FTP can be used with user-based password
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authentication or with anonymous user access.

Resources available to you via FTP

Freeware
When you download freeware, the author continues to carry the copyright to the software, but permits you
to use the program for free. You can share freeware with others, as long as you don't sell it.

Public Domain
When you download public domain software, you can use it freely. The creator carries no copyright,
and has released it for anyone to use. There are no limits on distribution or sale and anyone can modify the
program.

Shareware
When you download shareware, the author continues to carry the copyright to the software, but you're
permitted short-term use of the program for evaluation purposes. At the end of evaluation period, you must
either pay the copyright holder for the program or destroy all copies you've made of it.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a protocol designed to allow the transfer of Hyper text Markup
Language (HTML) documents. HTML is a tag language used to create hypertext documents. Hypertext
documents include links to other documents that contain additional information about the highlighted term or
subject. Such documents can contain other elements apart from text, such as graphic images, audio and video
clips, Java applets, and even virtual reality worlds (which are described in VRML, a scripting language for
that kind of elements).

Overview of HTTP
HTTP is based on request-response activity. A client, running an application called a browser,
establishes a connection with a server and sends a request to the server in the form of a request method. The
server responds with a status line, including the message's protocol version and a success or error code,
followed by a message containing server information, entity information, and possible body content. An HTTP
transaction is divided into four steps:
1. The browser opens a connection.
2. The browser sends a request to the server.
3. The server sends a response to the browser.
4. The connection is closed.
On the Internet, HTTP communication generally takes place over TCP connections. The default port is
TCP 80, but other ports can be used. This does not preclude HTTP from being implemented on top of any
other protocol on the Internet or on other networks. HTTP only presumes a reliable transport; any protocol that
provides such guarantees can be used. Except for experimental applications, current practice requires that the
connection be established by the client prior to each request and closed by the server after sending the
response. Both clients and servers should be aware that either party can close the connection prematurely, due
to user action, automated timeout, or program failure, and should handle such closing in a predictable and
TCP/IP Tutorial and Technical Overview desirable fashion. In any case, the closing of the connection by
either or both parties always terminates the current request, regardless of its status. In simple terms, HTTP is a
stateless protocol because it does not keep track of the connections. To load a page including two graphics, for

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example, a graphic-enabled browser will open three TCP connections: one for the page and two for the
graphics. Most browsers, however, are able to handle several of these connections simultaneously.
This behavior can be rather resource-intensive if one page consists of a lot of elements, as quite a
number of Web pages do. HTTP 1.1, as defined in RFC 2616, alleviates this problem to the extent that one
TCP connection will be established per type of element on a page, and all elements of that kind will be
transferred over the same connection respectively. These deviates from HTTP 1.0 by making the connections
persistent. However, if a request depends on the information exchanged during a previous connection, this
information has to be kept outside the protocol. One way of tracking such persistent information is the use of
cookies. A cookie is a set of information that is exchanged between a client Web browser and a Web server
during an HTTP transaction. The maximum size of a cookie is 4 KB. All these pieces of information, or
cookies, are then stored in one single file and placed in the directory of the Web browser. If cookies are
disabled, that file is automatically deleted. A cookie can be retrieved and checked by the server at any
subsequent connection.

HTTP is a request/response standard as is typical in client-server computing. The client is an

application (e.g. web browser, spider etc) on the computer used by an end-user; the server is an application
running on the computer hosting the web site. The client which submits HTTP requests is also referred to as
the user agent. The responding server which stores or creates resources such as HTML files and images may
be called the origin server. In between the user agent and origin server may be several intermediaries, such as
proxies, gateways, and tunnels.

HTTP is not constrained in principle to using TCP/IP, although this is its most popular application via
the Internet. Indeed HTTP can be "implemented on top of any other protocol on the Internet, or on other
networks." HTTP only presumes a reliable transport; any protocol that provides such guarantees can be used."

Gopher

Gopher is a client/server system that allows you to access many Internet resources simply by making
selections from a sequence of menus. Each time you make a selection, Gopher carries out your request to the
computer that contains the information and "serves" it up. For example, if you select a menu item that
represents a text file, Gopher will get that file--wherever it happens to be--and display it for you. As you use
Gopher, some menu items lead to other menus. If you choose one of these, Gopher will retrieve the new menu
and display it for you. Thus you can move from menu to menu, using only a few key strokes or a mouse to
navigate. The power of Gopher is that the resources listed in a menu may be anywhere on the Internet. As
Gopher connects to computers to comply with your menu selection, you don't need to be preoccupied with the
behind-the-scenes work of connecting to and disconnecting from these various computers. Gopher does this
for you without your even needing to be aware of it. This automatic connecting makes Gopher popular and
useful.

WAIS (Wide Area Information Servers)

WAIS (Wide Area Information Servers) is an Internet system in which specialized subject databases
are created at multiple server locations, kept track of by a directory of servers at one location, and made
accessible for searching by users with WAIS client programs. The user of WAIS is provided with or obtains a
list of distributed database s. The user enters a search argument for a selected database and the client then

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accesses all the servers on which the database is distributed. The results provide a description of each text that
meets the search requirements. The user can then retrieve the full text.

WAIS (pronounced "ways") uses its own Internet protocol , an extension of the Z39.50 standard (Information
Retrieval Service Definition and Protocol Specification for Library Applications) of the National Information
Standards Organization. Web users can use WAIS by either downloading a WAIS client and a "gateway" to
the Web browser or by using Telnet to connect to a public WAIS client.

Because of the abundance of content and search engines now available on the Web, few if any WAIS servers
remain in operation.

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