Contents

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS ........................................................................ 1

1.1 Definition of Power Electronics ..................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Types of Converters ....................................................................................................................... 2

1.2.1 Based on Input and Output ...................................................................................................... 2

1.2.2 Based on the Commutation of the Semiconductors .................................................................. 2

1.3 Applications of Power Electronics ................................................................................................. 3

2.0 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES .................................................................................... 9

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 9

2.2 Power Diodes ................................................................................................................................ 9

2.2.1 Basic Structure and I-V Characteristics ................................................................................. 10

2.2.2 Switching Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 13

2.2.3 Reverse Recovery ................................................................................................................. 13

2.2.4 Schottky Diodes .................................................................................................................... 14

2.2.5 Operation of Diodes in Series ................................................................................................ 15

2.2.6 Operation of Diodes in Parallel.............................................................................................. 16

2.3 Thyristors .................................................................................................................................... 18

2.3.1 Structure and Operation ......................................................................................................... 19

2.3.2 I-V Characteristics ................................................................................................................ 20

2.3.3 Types of Thyristors ............................................................................................................... 21

2.4 General Characteristics of Controllable Switches ......................................................................... 22

2.4.1 Ideal Characteristics in Controllable Switches ....................................................................... 22

2.4.2 Power Dissipation in Controllable Switches .......................................................................... 22

2.4.3 Desired Characteristics in Practical Switches ......................................................................... 24

INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

1.1 Definition of Power Electronics

Power electronics involves the study of circuits and devices involved in the control and
processing of electrical energy. Mostly, the conversion and processing involves the conversion of
electrical energy from one form to another form more suitable for a particular application. This
comes about due to the various forms in which electrical energy is generated and used. For
example the utility supply is in form of ac, but there are circuits which require dc for their
operation, in which case there is need to convert from ac to dc.

Fig 1.1 shows a block diagram of a general power electronics system.

Power Electronics System

The source is an electrical energy source which could be the utility supply, a stand-alone
generator, a battery, a photovoltaic array etc. This gives the input electrical energy in form of
voltage and current which can be ac or dc.
The power processor also called the Power Electronics Converter is a circuit consisting of power

semiconductor devices as the main components and other components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors which work together to convert the input electrical energy into a
different form on the output.

The power processor is the “muscle” of the power electronic system.

The controller is an electronic circuit or a number of electronic circuits which generate control
signals which control the operation of the semiconductor devices in the power processor. The
controller can be a simple electronic circuit consisting of a few basic components or it can be a
sophisticated microprocessor, digital signal processor or a computer. The complexity of the
controller depends on the requirements of the power processor. Some controllers have a feedback
loop and they compare the measured values to a set of reference values to obtain a very stable
output. The controller is the “brain” of the power electronic system.

The load is any device that uses electrical energy for its operation. Examples of loads include
motors, electronic circuits, telecommunications circuits, etc. The load is fed with a voltage of the
required form and it draws a current of the required form.

Power electronics is closely related to other areas of electrical engineering such as Control
Systems, Electrical Machines and Drives, Analogue and Digital Electronics, Physical
Electronics, Microprocessors, Electrical Circuits, Electrical Energy and Power Systems, and
Electric Fields. A good understanding of power electronics requires some understanding of other
areas of electrical engineering.

1.2 Types of Converters

There are a number of different types of converters which can be classified in a number of
different ways.
Each type of converter performs according to its specifications and applications. The main
classifications of converters are given below.

1.2.1 Based on Input and Output

Based on the form (or frequency) of the input and output voltages and/or currents there are the
following types of converters.

1. AC to DC Converters

These are also known as rectifiers and convert an AC voltage into a DC voltage. The input AC

voltage is usually from the utility supply. The output DC voltage can be controlled or
uncontrolled depending on the type of semiconductor devices used. Diode rectifiers give an
uncontrolled DC output voltage, while thyristor rectifiers and forced commutated rectifiers
(which use fully controllable switches such as transistors) give a controllable DC output voltage.

2. DC to DC Converters

These are also known as choppers and they convert a DC voltage at one voltage level into a DC

voltage at another voltage level. They use fully controllable semiconductor devices. Common
types include the Step-down (Buck) DC to DC converter, the Step-up (Boost) DC to DC
converter, and the Step-down-Step-up (Buck-boost) DC to DC Converter.

3. DC to AC Converters

These are also called inverters. They convert a DC voltage into an AC voltage. They are divided
into voltage-source inverters which use fully controllable semiconductor devices, and current-
source inverters which use thyristors. Current-source inverters are normally found in very high
power applications.

4. AC to AC converters

These convert an AC voltage at one voltage level and frequency into an AC voltage at a different

voltage level or frequency. Those which change the voltage level are called Controllers while
those which change the frequency are called Cycloconverters. They use thyristors or fully
controllable devices. Cycloconverters are normally used in very big low speed drives.
1.2.2 Based on the Commutation of the Semiconductors

Based on the way the semiconductors in the converter are controlled, we have the following
types of converters.

1. Line Frequency or Naturally Commutated Converters

In these converters, the utility AC line voltage facilitates the turn-on and turn-off of the

semiconductor devices. They normally use diodes and thyristors, and operate at line frequency
and they are usually AC to DC or AC to AC converters.

2. Switching or Forced Commutated Converters

In these converters the turn-on and the turn-off of the semiconductor devices is facilitated by the
controller which sends a “HIGH” signal to turn the device on and a “LOW” signal to turn the
device off. The turn-on and turn-off is done at a very high frequency called the switching
frequency (normally greater than 20kHz). This requires a device whose turn-on and turn-off can
be fully controlled. Forced commutated converters are normally DC to DC or DC to AC
converters.

3. Resonant and Quasi-Resonant Converters

These converters are similar to forced commutated converters, but differ in the instant the
switching is done. In forced commutated converters, the switching is done when there is either a
voltage across the device or a current through it. This is called “hard” switching. In resonant and
quasi-resonant converters, the switching is done at when either the voltage or the current or both
are equal to zero.

1.3 Applications of Power Electronics

Power electronics is used in a wide range of applications, ranging from power ratings of a few
watts to megawatts.

Some of the common applications are discussed below.

1. Linear Power Supplies

A linear power supply converts the utility AC voltage to a DC voltage at a lower voltage level to
supply electronic equipment. Fig 1.2 shows a block diagram of a linear power supply.

The line-frequency (50Hz) transformer steps down the voltage to a lower level. The diode
rectifier converts the AC into unregulated DC. The transistor regulator works like a variable
resistor and gives a regulated DC output by dropping some voltage across it.

The advantages of a linear power supply are:

1. Easy to design and make because it uses basic components.

2. Relatively cheap.
3. Produces low distortion and noise resulting in less electromagnetic interference (EMI).

The main drawbacks of the linear regulator are:

1. It is bulky and heavy because of the 50Hz step down transformer, and low-frequency
filter components which are bulky.
2. It has a low efficiency because the transistor regulator is used in its active region where it
acts as a variable resistor and dissipates a lot of power as heat.

2. Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)

A switch-mode power supply is used to supply a low DC voltage to an electronic appliance or

circuit. It differs from a linear power supply in that it does not use a line-frequency transformer
and the transistor is used in its switch-mode. This means that the transistor is either in its “on-
state” (saturation region) or in its “off-state” (cut-off region). Fig 1.4 shows a SMPS.
Fig 1.3 Switch-mode power supply

The main advantages of a SMPS are:

1. Small and light weight because it uses a high-frequency transformer and high-frequency
filter components which are small and light.
2. High efficiency because the transistor in its switch-mode does not dissipate a lot of
power.

Its drawbacks are:

1. Relatively complex to design and make

2. Relatively expensive.

However, with recent developments in the manufacture of power semiconductor devices

component prices have been reducing.

The switching produces high-frequency harmonics which can interfere with other equipment in

its vicinity (EMI).

3. Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is used to maintain power to sensitive equipment when
there

is a power outage. Some UPSs also work as power conditioners. A power conditioner is a UPS
which maintains a stable voltage supply to a load when there are fluctuations in the utility
supply.

When the utility supply is present, the batteries are charged through the rectifier. When the utility
supply is interrupted, the batteries supply the load through the inverter, which converts the DC
from the batteries into AC required by the load. The change-over switch automatically changes
from utility to battery supply and vice versa depending on the state of the supply.

4. Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

Some applications require that a motor is run at different speeds. For example in a pumping
process which requires variable fluid flow, the flow rate can be controlled by using a throttling
valve. However, this results in high losses because the power drawn from the supply is constant.
A more efficient solution will be to vary the speed of the motor driving the pump. By varying the
motor speed, the flow rate will be varied and the input power will be varied accordingly.
Variable speed drives can be AC or DC. Fig 1.5 shows the block diagram of an AC variable
speed drive (VSD).
In recent years there has been a shift from DC VSDs to AC VSDs due to the robustness, higher

energy density and less maintenance requirements of AC machines compared to DC machines.

5. Battery Chargers

Batteries are used to store energy in chemical form and release this stored energy as electrical
energy when required. Batteries are the most popular method of energy storage in electrical
systems. Batteries are normally charged from the utility supply and the battery charger converts
the utility AC into DC which charges the battery. Classical battery chargers are simply rectifiers
with simple control circuits, while modern battery chargers use a number of switch-mode
converter stages controlled by a microprocessor.

6. High-Voltage DC Transmission

Electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in form of three-phase AC voltages

and currents. However, there are some instances where it becomes necessary to transmit the
energy in form of DC voltage and current. This is usually when large quantities of energy have to
be transmitted over very long distances, where two unsynchronized power systems are to be

interconnected, or where transmission is to be done using submarine cables.

Fig 1.6 shows the arrangement of an HVDC transmission system.

The power flow in an HVDC system is bi-directional and the converters work as both rectifiers
(when power flows from the AC side to the DC side) and inverters (when power flows from the
DC side to the AC side).

7. Renewable Energy Systems

Renewable energy sources include energy sources which are not depleted with use such as solar,

wind, geothermal, small hydro etc. The world energy outlook in the 21st century has been
dominated by a shift from traditional electrical energy generation methods such as coal-fired
thermal to renewable energy generation. The power generated has to be fed into the grid and this
requires the use of power electronics converters.
Fig 1.7 shows a wind energy generation system connected to the grid. A similar arrangement
can be used for a small unsynchronized hydro power station.

An induction generator is used due to the varying wind speed. The voltage from the generator is

converted to Dc and then converted back to AC synchronized to the grid.

8. Solar Photovoltaic Systems

Solar energy is the most abundant energy resource on earth. The solar energy that hits the earth’s
surface in one hour is about the same as the amount consumed by all human activities in a year.
Direct conversion of sunlight into electricity in PV cells is one of the three main solar active
technologies, the two others being concentrating solar power (CSP) and solar thermal collectors
for heating and cooling (SHC). PV technology has been in use since the 1960s when it was used
to power satellites and space stations. Today, PV provides 0.1% of total global electricity
generation.
Fig 1.8 shows the arrangement of a solar PV system.

The charge controller controls the charging and discharging of the batteries. The battery acts as

energy storage so that the system continues supplying power when there is no sunlight. AC loads
are supplied through the inverter while DC loads are supplied directly from the batteries.

9. Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Electric and hybrid electric vehicles have been around for the last hundred years but have only

become popular in the last ten years due to problems with energy storage. An electric vehicle
(EV) is propelled by electrical means and usually requires a battery which supplies power to
traction motors located in the wheels. The drawback of electric vehicles is that they have a short
range, i.e. the battery has to be recharged after a certain distance. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV)
are powered by both electrical means and an internal combustion engine (ICE). The main
configurations of HEVs include parallel, series and series-parallel, where the name is derived
from the relative connection of the battery and the ICE. In all types of EVs and HEVs power
electronics converters are used for speed control of the traction motors and for charging the
batteries.

Fig 1.9 shows a Toyota Prius, the first

commercial HEV.

10. Other Applications

Other applications of power electronics include the following:

a. Process control and factory automation.

b. Servos, machine tools (robots) etc.
c. Electric locomotives
d. Static VAr Compensators
e. Space shuttle power supply systems
f. Satellite power systems
g. Aircraft power systems.
h. Power systems for ships and submarines
POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2.0 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2.1 Introduction

The main component in a power electronics circuit is a power semiconductor device. There are a
number of devices in common use and they have different operating characteristics. The
important characteristics include the controllability of the device, its power handling capability,
its current and voltage blocking capability, etc. For a device to be used in a particular converter
its characteristics must be suitable for the conditions existing in the converter.

Power semiconductor devices differ from small-signal electronics devices in the power handling

capability and the speed with which they operate. In small-signal electronics, speed is very
important while in power electronics the power handling capability is very important. Due to
these differences power semiconductor devices are more complex than small signal devices
because of modifications which are necessary for their increased power handling capability.
However, the device physics and principle of operation for the two types of devices is very
similar, but care must be taken before we extrapolate the behaviour of power semiconductor
devices from that of small-signal devices. Power semiconductor devices can be divided into three
main groups based on their controllability. These groups are

1. Power diodes

This is the most basic type of power semiconductor device. A power diode is a two terminal
device and its state (conducting or non-conducting) depends on the circuit in which it is being
used.

2. Thyristors

Thyristors also known as silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are three terminal devices. Their
transition from off-state (non-conducting) to on-state (conducting) is determined by the
application of a control signal while their transition from on-state to off-state is controlled by the
power circuit or auxiliary circuits called commutation circuits.

3. Power Transistors

Power transistors are also known as fully-controllable switches because their turn-on and turn-off
is controlled by control signals from the controller. They are three (or sometime four) terminal
devices. The following sections look at the common devices that are classified under these three
groups.

2.2 Power Diodes

A power diode is the simplest power semiconductor device. A good understanding of the
structure, I-V characteristics and switching characteristics of a power diode will help us to
understand the behaviour of other more complex devices which are all based on the structure of a
power diode. Fig 2.1 shows a photo of two power diodes.

2.2.1 Basic Structure and I-V Characteristics

A power diode is a three-layer device as shown in fig 2.2(a). Fig 2.2(b) shows the circuit symbol
of a power diode, which is the same as that of a small-signal diode.

(a) Structure of power diode

(b) Circuit symbol of power diode

Fig 2.2 Power diode

The structure consists of a heavily doped N-type substrate (N+) cathode region on top of which
is grown a lightly doped N-type epitaxial layer (N-) of specified thickness. The PN junction is
formed by diffusing in a heavily doped P-type region (P+) that forms the anode region of the
diode. Typical layer thicknesses are as shown in fig 2.2(a).
The typical doping densities for the anode and cathode regions are acceptor or donor atoms,
respectively, per cubic centimetre; while the typical doping density for the epitaxial layer is
donor atoms per cubic centimetre.

The lightly doped N- layer is called the drift region and it is not found in low-power diodes. Its
function is to absorb the depletion layer of the reverse biased P+N- junction. The depletion layer
can be quite wide at large reverse voltages. The thickness of the drift region determines the
reverse breakdown voltage of the device. The drift region would appear to increase the ohmic
resistance of the diode significantly and this would lead to very large power dissipation when it
is conducting. However, this is not so, as there are mechanisms which greatly reduce this
apparent problem. One of these mechanisms is called conductivity modulation. In conductivity
modulation, excess carriers are injected into the drift region from the heavily doped regions
between which it is sandwiched. This significantly reduces the power dissipation (it

becomes much lower than expected).

This is illustrated in fig 2.3.

Fig 2.3 Conductivity modulation

The voltage-current ( v-i) characteristic of a power diode is shown in fig 2.4. This characteristic
can be expressed by an equation known as the Shockley diode equation which under dc steady-
state operation is given by:
As seen in fig 2.4 the diode characteristic is divided into three regions: the forward biased region,
the reverse biased region and the breakdown region. The characteristic in each region is
described below using the Shockley diode equation.
Fig 2.4 V-I characteristic of power diode
manufacturer’s data sheet. However, it is often necessary to limit the reverse current in the
breakdown region to limit the power dissipation within a permissible value.

2.2.2 Switching Characteristics

A power diode requires a finite time to switch from the blocking state (reverse bias) to the on
state (forward bias) or vice versa. The transition time between the two states and the shape of the
waveforms are affected by the intrinsic properties of the diode and also by the circuit in which
the diode is embedded or being used. The switching properties of a diode are often given on
specification sheets for diode currents with a specified time rate of change of current di/dt. This
is because diodes are often used in circuits containing inductances that control di/dt, or they are
used as freewheeling diodes where the turnoff of a solid-state device controls di/dt.

Fig 2.5 shows the switching voltage and current waveforms of a diode. Note the overshoot of the
voltage during turn-on and the sharpness of the fall of the reverse current during turn-off.

Fig 2.5 Switching voltage and current waveforms of a power diode

2.2.4 Schottky Diodes
The diode structure described in the sections above is called a PN or PIN diode and is a minority
charge carrier (i.e. it has both holes and electrons the charge carriers). Another common structure
of a power diode is a Schottky diode which is a majority charge carrier (i.e. it has only one type
of charge carriers, either electrons or holes). It is formed by placing a thin film of metal in direct
contact with a semiconductor. The metal film is usually deposited on an N-type semiconductor
as shown in fig 2.6. The metal film is the positive electrode and the semiconductor is the
cathode. Fig 2.6 Cross-sectional view of a Schottky diode

Such a structure has a rectifying i-v characteristic very similar to that of a PN-junction diode.
Although the fundamental physics of a Schottky diode is different from that of a PN-junction
diode, the same basic equation can be used to describe their i-v characteristic (i.e. equation 2.1)
which can also be written as:
However, the on-state voltage is significantly lower (typically 0.3-0.4V) than that of a PN-
junction diode.

In the reverse direction, it has a reverse leakage current that is larger than that of a comparable
PNjunction diode. The breakdown voltage of a Schottky diode is usually not larger than 100-
200V. A Schottky diode turns on and off faster than a comparable pn-junction diode. This is
because Schottky diodes being majority carrier devices have no stored minority carriers that
must be injected into the device during turn-on and removed during turn-off.

2.2.5 Operation of Diodes in Series

In many high-voltage applications (e.g. high-voltage direct current [HVDC] transmission), one

commercially available diode cannot meet the required voltage ratings and in such instances
diodes are connected in series to increase the reverse blocking capability.

Consider the two series connected diodes D1 and D2 in fig 2.7.

Fig 2.7 Series connected diodes

VD1 and VD2 are the reverse voltage across diodes D1 and D2 respectively and 􀜫􀯌 is the
leakage current. In practice, the v-i characteristics for the same type of diodes differ due to
manufacturing tolerances. In the forward-biased state, both diodes carry the same current and the
forward voltage drop across each diode would be almost equal. In the reverse-biased state, the
diodes will carry the same leakage current but due to the differences in their characteristics, the
reverse blocking voltages may differ significantly. A solution to the problem of unequal voltage
sharing is to force equal voltage sharing by connecting a resistor across each diode as shown in
fig 2.8.

Fig 2.8 Series connected diodes with steady-state voltage sharing resistors

Due to equal voltage sharing, the leakage current through each diode will now be different, as it
will be Equation (2.12) gives the relationship between the voltage sharing resistors. Note that
.

2.2.6 Operation of Diodes in Parallel

In application where the current is much higher than the current rating of a single device, it
becomes necessary to connect diodes in parallel to increase their current-carrying capacity as
shown in fig 2.9.
The same voltage 􀜸􀮽 will appear across both diodes 􀜦􀬵 and 􀜦􀬶. This is equal to the forward
voltage drop of each diode and can be obtained from the first quadrant of the v-i characteristic
for a given current.

However, due to slight differences in the properties of the two diodes their characteristics could
differ and this could lead to unequal current-sharing between the diodes. This means that the
currents 􀜫􀮽􀬵 and 􀜫􀮽􀬶, respectively would be different.

Unequal current sharing in diodes and other minority carries devices is undesirable because they
have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This means that when the device
temperature increases, its ohmic resistance decreases. Thus the diode which is carrying the
bigger percentage of the load current will have a higher temperature rise, its resistance will
decrease more, and this leads to it carrying more current and the temperature increasing further,
eventually leading to that diode being damaged. To mitigate the effects of unequal current
sharing, suitable resistors are connected in series with each diode

to force the two diode currents to be equal. This is illustrated in fig 2.10.
From fig 2.10, the load current is the sum of the diode currents. Thus,
By selecting a suitable value for either 􀜴􀬵 or 􀜴􀬶, the other resistor value can be calculated by
solving equation (2.18).

2.3 Thyristors
Thyristors are a family of three (sometimes four) terminal devices with four layers of alternating
P- and N-type materials. Thyristors have the highest power handling capability of any available
device and are used in very high power circuits with individual device ratings of up to 12kV,
1000A. However, smaller thyristors are available for lower power circuits. The most common
type of thyristor is the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). Fig 2.11 shows various sizes of SCRs.
The SCR is usually just called a thyristor.
2.3.1 Structure and Operation
Fig 2.12(a) shows the structure of a thyristor and fig 2.12(b) shows its circuit symbol.

(a) Cross-section of thyristor structure

(b) Circuit symbol

Fig 2.12 Structure and circuit symbol of a thyristor

A thyristor has three PN junctions and it can be drawn in a simplified way as shown in fig 2.13.
When a positive voltage is applied to the anode (with respect to a cathode), the thyristor is in its
forward blocking state. The center junction J2 (see Fig. 2.13) is reverse-biased. In this operating
mode the gate current is held to zero (open-circuit). In practice, the gate electrode is biased to a
small negative voltage (with respect to the cathode) to reverse-bias the gate-cathode junction J3
and prevents charge-carriers from being injected into the p-base. In this condition only thermally
generated leakage current flows through the device and can often be approximated as zero in
value. As long as the forward applied voltage does not exceed the value necessary to cause
excessive carrier multiplication in the depletion region around J2 (avalanche breakdown), the
thyristor remains in an off-state (forward-blocking). If the applied voltage exceeds the maximum
forward blocking voltage of the thyristor, it will switch to its on-state.

However, this mode of turn-on causes non-uniformity in the current flow, is generally
destructive, and should be avoided. When a positive gate current is injected into the device J3
becomes forward-biased and electrons are injected from the n-emitter into the p-base. Some of
these electrons diffuse across the p-base and are collected in the n-base. This collected charge
causes a change in the bias condition of J1. The change in bias of J1 causes holes to be injected
from the p-emitter into the n-base. These holes diffuse across the n-base and are collected in the
p-base. The addition of these collected holes in the p-base acts the same as gate current. The
entire process is regenerative and will cause the increase in charge carriers

until J2 also becomes forward biased and the thyristor is latched in its on-state (forward-
conduction). The regenerative action will take place as long as the gate current is applied in
sufficient amount and for a sufficient length of time. This mode of turn-on is considered to be the
desired one as it is controlled by the gate signal.

This switching behavior can also be explained in terms of the two-transistor analog shown in fig
2.14. The two transistors are regeneratively coupled so that if the sum of their forward current
gains exceeds

unity, each drives the other into saturation.

2.3.2 I-V Characteristics

The I-V characteristic of an SCR is a plot of the anode current 􀝅􀮺 as a function of the anode-to-
cathode voltage 􀝒􀮺􀯄. This is shown in fig 2.15.
POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Fig 2.15 I-V characteristics of an SCR

When the thyristor is reverse biased (third quadrant), its characteristic is similar to that of a
reverse-biased diode, and conducts very little current until breakdown occurs. The maximum
reverse voltage of a thyristor can be as high as 10kV. In the forward biased region (first
quadrant), the thyristor has two stable modes of operation, the forward blocking state and the
forward on-state. In the forward blocking state the thyristor conducts a very small current with a
high voltage across it. In the forward on-state it conducts a high current with a small voltage drop
across it. These two states are the switch-mode states of the thyristor with the forward blocking
state being the off-state and the forward on-state being the on-state of

the thyristor switch. It should be noted that a thyristor is turned on by the application of a firing
signal to its gate but it cannot be turned off by removing the firing signal or applying a negative
gate signal. It is turned off by reversing the anode-cathode voltage or making the anode current
less than the latching current for a minimum specified time.

The current 􀜫􀯅 called the latching current or the holding current is the minimum current that
can flow in the thyristor and maintain it in the on-state. The current 􀜫􀮻􀯈 is the current that
corresponds to the forward breakdown voltage 􀜸􀮿􀮻􀮽 (which is sometimes termed the break-
over voltage 􀜸􀮻􀯈). 2.3.3 Types of Thyristors Apart form the SCR there are other types of
semiconductor devices which fall into the family of thyristors. These include the following:

1. Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO)

2. MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)

3. Static Induction Thyristor (SITH)

4. Bidirectional Triode Thyristor (TRIAC)

5. Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT)

2.4 General Characteristics of Controllable Switches

Controllable switches are semiconductor devices which are fully controllable, i.e. they are turned
on and off by gate signals. Due to their controllability they are mostly used in switching
applications. 2.4.1 Ideal Characteristics in Controllable Switches

A controllable switch is represented in a generic manner by the circuit symbol shown in fig 2.16
below.
Fig 2.16 Generic controllable switch

Though controllable switches are three terminal devices, the generic symbol does not show the
third terminal which is called the gate and acts as the control terminal. This is because in this
generic analysis our main interest is in the power terminals; the anode and the cathode.

In its ideal form, a controllable switch should have the following characteristics:

 Block arbitrarily large forward and reverse voltages with zero current flow when
off.
 Conduct arbitrarily large currents with zero voltage drop when on.
 Switch from on to off or vice versa instantaneously when triggered.
 Negligibly small power required from control source to trigger the switch.

2.4.2 Power Dissipation in Controllable Switches

Real devices do not have the ideal characteristics listed above and they always dissipate power in
their many applications. Power dissipation is not desirable because if the device dissipates too
much power, it may fail and get destroyed and in the process may damage other system
components.

To understand power dissipation in a generic power semiconductor device consider the circuit of
fig 2.17. This circuit is an equivalent circuit of a step-down dc-to-dc converter and models a
diode clamped inductive load circuit which is very commonly encountered in power electronics.
The switching waveforms i.e. the control voltage, the switch voltage, the switch current and the
power dissipated in the switch are shown in fig 2.18.

Fig 2.18 Linearized switching waveforms and instantaneous power loss

It should be noted that this is an equivalent circuit of a practical circuit where the dc current
source approximates the current that would flow due to the presence of an inductive load which
stores energy. The diode is assumed to be ideal in this discussion, but in practice the non-ideality
of the diode affects the stresses on the switch.

When the switch is on, the load current Io flows through the switch and the diode is reverse
biased. When the switch is turned off, the current Io flows through the diode and a voltage Vd
appears across the switch.
This is shown in the voltage and current waveforms of fig 2.18 for a switching frequency of fs.
The switching frequency is the number of complete switching cycles in one second. The time it
takes to complete one switching cycle is called the periodic time or the switching period 􀜶􀯦.
The switching frequency and the period are related by the equation

During the turn-on transition, there is a short delay time td(on) followed by the current rise time
tri. After
the current has risen to Io, the diode becomes reverse biased, and the switch voltage falls from
Vd to Von in a time tfv, the voltage fall time. The time during which both a large switch voltage
and a current are present is called the turn-on crossover interval and is given by

The energy dissipated in the switch during this interval can be obtained from fig 2.18 as

When the switch is fully, the current Io flows through it, and a small voltage Von appears across
it. The energy dissipated during the on state is given by

During the turn-off transition, the voltage build-up consists of a turn-off delay time td(off),
followed by a voltage rise time trv. When the voltage reaches Vd, the diode becomes forward
biased, and the current in the switch falls to zero in a current fall time tfi. The crossover interval
is tc(off), where

The energy dissipated during this transition can be obtained as

These energy dissipations occurs fs times every second, and hence the average switching power
loss Ps can be obtained from equations (2.21) and (2.24) as

The power dissipated in the switch when it is on is given by

2.4.3 Desired Characteristics in Practical Switches

The desirable characteristics in a practical controllable switch can be summarized as follows:

 Small leakage current in the off state.

 Small on-state voltage drop.
 Short turn-on and turn-off times to allow the device to be used at high frequencies.

 Large forward and reverse blocking capability to minimize the need for series
connection of
devices.
 High on-state current rating to minimize the need for parallel connection of devices.
 Positive temperature coefficient of on-state resistance, to ensure equal current sharing
by
paralleled devices.
 Small control power to switch the device to simplify the control circuit design.
 Capability to withstand rated current and voltage simultaneously when switching.
 Large dv dt and di dt ratings to minimize the need for external circuits needed to limit
dv dt
and di dt in the device.