Medical Electronics (BME356 )

Chapter 3: Frequency Response

(chapter 9 in the textbook 1(Robert Boylestad))
chapter 7 in the textbook 2 (Donald Neamen))

Important note: Most of slides in this chapter are taken from the text book (by Donald Neamen)
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Chapter Objective

1. Derive the system transfer functions of two simple R–C

circuits, develop the Bode plots for the magnitude and
phase of the transfer functions, and become familiar with
sketching the Bode diagrams.
2. Analyze the frequency response of transistor circuits with
capacitors
3. Determine the frequency response of the bipolar transistor,
and determine the Miller effect and Miller capacitance.
4. Determine the frequency response of the MOS transistor,
and determine the Miller effect and Miller capacitance.

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Amplifier gain versus frequency

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Bandwidth

Example: Human Audio and Voice frequency response

Voice Range
Audio Range Telephone System

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Bandwidth

Example: Video Signal

High Bandwidth Low Bandwidth

Video signals without sufficient bandwidth become fuzzy

as they fail to abruptly change the contrast of pictures
from complete white into complete black.

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Bandwidth
Example: Bioelectric Signals

Approximate RMS spectra of four classes of bioelectric signals. Peak expected

RMS signal is plotted vs. extreme range of frequencies characterizing the signal.
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Frequency response major effects on Biosignals

1. Wide frequency response amplifier:

Introduce noise into the signal ➔(Low SNR)
EX: To prevent recording error caused by the electrocardiograph, the
preamplifier must preserve the ECG signal by providing flat amplitude
response and linear or zero phase within the ECG bandwidth, as well to
ensure that the electrocardiograph’s output signal is an accurate
representation of the physiological input waveform
Therefore, the amplifier must faithfully reproduce all frequency
components of the biosignal signal.
2. Poor frequency response Amplifier:
Introduce signal distortion
distortion introduced by an inadequate low-frequency response cannot
generally be corrected.
EX: A poor low-frequency amplitude response are a potential source of
recording error that may lead to misdiagnosis of serious cardiac conditions

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
The decibel
• The gain of amplifiers are commonly expressed in decibels (written as
dB)
• The decibel is a logarithmic unit related to the power gain:
Gain in dB = 10 log10(Pout/Pin)
Gain in dB = 20 log10(Vout/Vin)
▪ The dB is extremely useful in finding the overall gain when we cascade
amplifiers (connecting the output of one stage to the input of another)
like in the figure below:
> Note that the overall gain = multiplication of individual gains
> Therefore, overall gain (in dB) = sum of individual gains (in dB)

A1 A2 Total gain (in dB) = 20 log10(A1A2)

= 20 log10(A1) + 20 log10(A2)
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Bode Plot

• It is a graphical representation of the transfer function serve as a

mean of presenting gain and phase versus frequency (to show
frequency response in graphical form)

• It consists of two plots

– Magnitude (in dB) Vs Frequency
– Phase Angle Vs Frequency

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Transfer Functions
Transfer Function: A transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output to the input with all initial conditions equal to zero.
Transfer functions are defined only for linear time invariant systems.

Transfer functions can usually be expressed as the ratio of two

Considerations:
polynomials in the complex variable, S where S=jω.

Factorization: A transfer function can be factored into the following form.

K ( s + z1 )( s + z 2 ) . . .( s + zm )
T( s ) =
( s + p1 )( s + p2 ) . . . ( s + pn )

The roots of the numerator polynomial are called zeros.

The roots of the denominator polynomial are called poles.

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Transfer Functions

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Transfer Functions
Poles, Zeros in the S-Plane
For the following transfer function. Show the poles
Example:
and zeros in the s-plane. ( s + 8 )( s + 14 )
T( s )=
s( s + 4 )( s + 10 )
j axis

S - plane

o x o x xorigin
-14 -10 -8 -4 0 Real axis

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Transfer Functions
Consider the following Circuits

Parallel load capacitor circuit

Series coupling capacitor circuit

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Transfer Functions
Bode Plot Magnitude |T(jω)|dB

40 dB

20 dB

0 dB

Magnitude -20 dB

-40 dB

0.1/τs 1/τs 10/τs 100/τs 103/τs 104/τs

ω(rad/s)
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Transfer Functions
Bode Plot Phase

90 ͦ

45 ͦ

0 ͦ

Phase -45 ͦ

-90 ͦ

0 0.1/τs 1/τs 10/τs 102/τs 103/τs

ω(rad/S)
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Transfer Functions
Bode Plot Magnitude |T(jω)|dB

40 dB

20 dB

0 dB

-20 dB

Magnitude
-40 dB

0 0.1/τs 1/τs 10/τs 100/τs 103/τs

ω(rad/S)
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Transfer Functions
Phase
Bode Plot
90 ͦ

45 ͦ

0 ͦ

Phase -45 ͦ

-90 ͦ

0 0.1/τs 1/τs 10/τs 102/τs 103/τs

ω(rad/S)
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 1
• Simple Pole: 0 dB =
1 =
 
1
1 + j − 90

• Simple Zero: 0 dB + 90
Summary of 1 + j
Individual
Factors • DC Zero: 0 dB
+ 90
j

• DC Pole: 0 dB
1 − 90
j
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Important Notes

• CP affect the high frequency (limit high frequencies)

• CS affect the low frequency (limit low frequencies)

• In real (practical) circuits the corner frequency of parallel

and series capacitors differ by several order of
magnitudes.
therefore we can deal with each one separately then
combining their effects.
@low frequency consider CP as open circuit and find the
effect of CS
@High frequency consider CS as short circuit and find the
effect of CP
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Combining the effect of both Capacitors

The upper corner, or 3 dB,

frequency, which is at the high end
We can now define the corner frequencies of of the frequency scale
the Bode plot. The lower corner, or 3 dB
frequency, which is at the low end of the
frequency scale

The midband range( or bandwidth)is defined by the corner frequencies fL and fH, as
follows
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
CE with coupling capacitor

The Bode plot is therefore

similar to that shown in
slide 13 and the corner
frequency is:

the maximum magnitude,

in decibels, is

(a) Common-emitter circuit with coupling capacitor (b) small-signal equivalent circuit
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
CE with coupling capacitor

Use: Time Constant Technique(TCT)

When: if the transfer function for the frequency response is not required

How: @low frequency consider CP as open circuit and find the effect of CS
@High frequency consider CS as short circuit and find the effect of CP

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
CS circuit with output coupling

The maximum small-signal gain is:

The time constant is:

(a) Common-source circuit with output coupling and (b) small-signal equivalent circuit
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
EF with output coupling

Ro is the output resistance as defined in:

The time constant is:

(a) Emitter-follower circuit with output coupling capacitor (b) small-signal equivalent circuit

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Load Capacitor Effects

The maximum gain asymptote, which is found by

assuming CL is an open circuit, is:

The time constant for this circuit is :

(a) MOSFET common-source circuit with a load capacitor (b) small-signal equivalent circuit

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Coupling and Load Capacitors Effects
The midband gain is:

The lower corner frequency fL is given by: The upper corner frequency fH is given by:
Where the related time constant is: Where the related time constant is:

Circuit with both a coupling and a load capacitor small-signal equivalent circuit
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Bypass Capacitor Effects

In bipolar and FET discrete amplifiers, emitter and source bypass capacitors
are often included so that emitter and source resistors can be used to
stabilize the Q-point without sacrificing the small-signal gain.

The small-signal voltage gain is:

then the corner frequency due to τB is:

and the corner frequency

due to τA is:

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Bypass Capacitor Effects
The Bode plot of the voltage gain magnitude has two limiting horizontal asymptotes.
If we set s = jω, we can then consider the limit as ω →0 and the limit as ω→∞. For ω
→0, CE acts as an open circuit; for ω→∞, CE acts as a short circuit

and

Comparing the two limiting values

of voltage gain, we see that
including a bypass capacitor
Bode plot of the voltage gain magnitude for produces a large high-frequency
the circuit with an emitter bypass capacitor gain.

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Combined Effects: Coupling and Bypass Capacitors

If multiple coupling capacitors, exist in a circuit, one capacitor may

introduce the pole that produce the 3 dB reduction in the maximum gain
at the low frequency. This pole is referred to as the dominant pole

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Combined Effects: Coupling and Bypass Capacitors

The three capacitors types are considered

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
Figure of merit

In electronics, the figures of merit of an amplifier are numerical

measures that characterize its properties and performance.

A figure of merit for an amplifier is the gain–bandwidth product

Assuming the corner frequencies are far apart, the bandwidth is:

and the maximum gain is |Av|max. The gain–bandwidth product therefore is:

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response

As frequency of operation increases, the gain of amplifier decreases. This section

analyzes this problem.

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
• Both bipolar transistors and FETs have internal capacitances that
influence the high-frequency response of circuits
• We will first develop an expanded small-signal hybrid-π model of the
bipolar transistor

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response

Hybrid-π Equivalent Circuit

Because of the large number of elements, a computer simulation of this complete

model is easier than a hand analysis. However, we can make some
simplifications in order to evaluate some fundamental frequency effects of
bipolar transistors.
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response

Simplified Hybrid-π Equivalent Circuit

Simplifications : The parasitic resistances rb, rc, and rex, the B–C diffusion
resistance rμ and the substrate capacitance Cs all are neglected

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
Short Circuit Current gain

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
Bode plots for the short-circuit current gain: Magnitude and Phase

beta cutoff frequency • The magnitude and phase of the current gain are
both functions of the frequency
• The collector current lag the base current by 90
degree

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response

Cutoff Frequency

The cutoff frequency ( fT ) is a figure of merit for transistors.

fT , | h fe |= 1

From the previous slide At the cutoff frequency

General characteristic of fT versus IC

f  : Is the bandwidth of the transistor
fT : is the gain bandwidth product (unity gain bandwidth)
It is function of IC as shown in the figure

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
Miller Effect and Miller Capacitance

ZF ZF
Z1 = Z2 =
1 − Av 1 − 1 / Av
If Av is the gain from node 1 to 2, then a floating impedance ZF can be converted
to two grounded impedances Z1 and Z2.
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response

Miller Multiplication

With Miller’s theorem, we can separate the floating capacitor.

However, the input capacitor is larger than the original floating
capacitor. We call this Miller multiplication.
A0 is the internal base-to-collector voltage gain.
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
Miller Effect and Miller Capacitance
The Cμ capacitance in reality cannot be ignored. The Miller effect, or feedback effect is a
multiplication effect of Cμ in circuit applications

(a) Common-emitter circuit with current source input(b) small-signal equivalent circuit with simplified
hybrid-π model
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: The FET

Inherent resistances and capacitances in the n-channel MOSFET structure

Cgsp and Cgdp are parasitic or overlap capacitances

Cds is the drain-to-substrate pn junction capacitance
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
Simplified Hybrid-π Equivalent Circuit

Simplifications : The parasitic resistances rs, rd are very small (neglected)

and ro very large Cds are neglected
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
Short circuit current gain

Short circuit current gain

Unity gain frequency

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response
Miller Effect and Miller Capacitance

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response

Frequency Circuit Analysis Procedure

• Determine which capacitor impact the low-frequency region of the

response and calculate the low-frequency pole (neglect transistor
capacitance).
• Calculate the midband gain by replacing the capacitors with short circuits
(neglect transistor capacitance).
• Include transistor capacitances.
• Merge capacitors connected to AC grounds and omit those that play no role
in the circuit.
• Determine the high-frequency poles and zeros.
• Plot the frequency response using Bode’s rules or exact analysis.

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: CE & CS Circuits

(a) High-frequency equivalent circuit of common-emitter amplifier

Common-emitter amplifier (b) High frequency equivalent circuit of common-emitter

amplifier, including the Miller capacitance
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: CE & CS Circuits

The upper 3 dB frequency can be determined by using

the time constant technique (TCT):

PSpice analysis results for common-emitter amplifier

Bode plot of the high-frequency voltage gain

magnitude for the common emitter amplifier
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: CB, CG & Cascode Circuits

Common Base Circuit diagram High-frequency equivalent circuit for CB

For analyzing the circuit next slide separate the input from output circuit
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: CB, CG & Cascode Circuits

input circuit

PSpice analysis results for Common Base

output circuit
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: CB, CG & Cascode Circuits
Cascode Circuit combines the CE-CB advantages
The input impedance to the common-emitter circuit (Q1) is relatively large,
and the load resistance seen by Q1 is the input impedance to the emitter
of Q2 and is fairly small. The low output resistance seen by Q1 reduces the Miller
multiplication factor on Cμ1 and therefore extends the bandwidth of the circuit.

High-frequency equivalent circuit for Cascode

Cascode Circuit diagram
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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: CB, CG & Cascode Circuits

Rearranged high-frequency equivalent circuit

Rearranged high-frequency equivalent circuit including Miller capacitance

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: CB, CG & Cascode Circuits

2 2 2

Output equivalent circuit

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: CB, CG & Cascode Circuits

PSpice analysis results for Cascode Circuit

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: EF & SF Circuits

Emitter Follower Circuit High Frequency Equivalent Circuit of EF

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: EF & SF Circuits

Re-arranging
the circuit

High Frequency Equivalent Circuit of EF Rearranged HF Equivalent Circuit of EF

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: EF & SF Circuits
Zeq

HF Equivalent Circuit of EF with effective input base impedance

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 CHAPTER 3: Frequency Response
High Frequency Response: EF & SF Circuits

PSpice analysis results for emitter follower

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 Chapter End: To conclude

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