Digital Communication

Digital communication is made from two words digital and communication. Digital
refers to the discrete time-varying signal. Communication refers to the exchange of
information between two or more sources. Digital refers to the discrete time-varying
signal. Communication refers to the exchange of information between two or more
sources. Digital communication refers to the exchange of digital information between
the sender and receiver using different devices and methods.

The data transmission using analog methods for long-distance communication suffers
from distortion, delays, interferences, and other losses. To overcome these problems,
the digitization and sampling of signals using different techniques help in making the
transmission process more efficient, clear, and accurate.

Digital communication is a popular technology used today in electronics. It allows us

to access video conferencing, digital meetings, online education, etc. The data can
travel upto long distances within a second with the help of the internet and other
modes of digital communication. It not only saves money but also saves time and
effort. It has also raised the standard of an individual's social, political, and economic
life.

Digital Communication System

A digital communication system refers to data transmission from one place to another.
It is the communication between the sender and receiver. A sender is also known
as transmitter that transmits the data. A communication channel between the
transmitter and receiver acts as intermediate source to carry the information to the
receiver.

The block diagram of a digital communication system is shown below:

It consists of an input transducer, source encoder, channel encoder, digital
modulator, communication channel, digital demodulator, channel decoder,
source decoder, and output transducer connected in series. Let's discuss the
function of each component in the digital communication system.

Source signal
The source signal refers to the input signal applied to the digital communication
system. It is also known as the input signal. Digital communication is generally used as
a conversion system from analog to digital. Thus, the input signal is generally
an analog signal. It can be analog or digital. In case of the analog signal as the input
source signal, the digital communication system also works as an analog to digital
converter by converting the analog input to the digital output.

Input Transducer
The transducer is a device used to convert one form of energy to another. In a
communication system, it converts the non-electrical energy to electrical energy to
make it suitable for transmission within the system. In the case of the analog input, the
block also contains an ADC (Analog to digital converter) to convert analog to the
digital signal for further processing.

Source Encoder
The source encoder compresses the data to the reduced number of bits from the
original bits. It helps in effective bandwidth utilization and also removes unnecessary
bits. It means that the compressed data is in the form of binary digits. We can also say
that the source encoder converts the waveforms to binary data. The output data is
further passed to the channel encoder.

Channel Encoder
The information in the signal may get altered due to the noise during the
transmissions. The channel encoder works as an error correction method. It adds
redundant bits to the binary data that helps in correcting the error bits. It enhances
the transmission quality of the signal and the channel.

Digital Modulator
A carrier signal modulates the received signal. It modulates the digital by varying the
transmitted signal's frequency, amplitude, and phase.
Communication channel

The communication channel is the medium between the transmitter and the receiver.
It helps in transmitting a digital signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The data
rate of the channel is measured in bits per second. The various types of channels in a
digital communication system are email, project management apps, and Intranet.

Digital Demodulator
The signal is demodulated and the source signal is recovered from the carrier signal.

Channel decoder
The function of the channel encoder is to add the redundant bits to the binary data,
as discussed above. The channel decoder works in the same but opposite way. It
removes the parity bits from the binary data. It does not affect the signal quality and
the information and transmits the data securely. The output of the channel decoder is
a pure digital signal with no interference or noise.

Source decoder
The source encoder works oppositely as that of the source encoder. It converts the
binary data back to the waveforms.

Output Transducer
The output transducer works in the opposite was as that of the input transducer. It
converts the electrical energy back into its original form. It makes the information
suitable for the user at the output to capture. The conversion is essential at both the
ends of the communication system to make the system operate at a faster rate.

Output signal
The output signal refers to the output from the digital communication system. It is the
signal that appears at the output after passing through various communication system
components. The output signal is only a digital signal.

Applications of Digital Communication

There are various applications of digital communication ranging from small digital
clocks to large industrial instruments. Let's discuss some of the most common
applications of digital communication.

o Image and video processing

 o Data compression
o Channel coding
o Equalization
o Digital Signal Processing
o Speech processing
o Satellites
o Digital audio transmission

Wireless Communication:

Wireless Communication is the fastest growing and most vibrant

technological areas in the communication field. Wireless Communication is
a method of transmitting information from one point to other, without
using any connection like wires, cables or any physical medium.

Generally, in a communication system, information is transmitted from

transmitter to receiver that are placed over a limited distance. With the help
of Wireless Communication, the transmitter and receiver can be placed
anywhere between few meters (like a T.V. Remote Control) to few thousand
kilometers (Satellite Communication).

We live in a World of communication and Wireless Communication, in

particular, is a key part of our lives. Some of the commonly used Wireless
Communication Systems in our day – to – day life are: Mobile Phones, GPS
Receivers, Remote Controls, Bluetooth Audio and Wi-Fi etc.

Basic Elements of a Wireless Communication System

A typical Wireless Communication System can be divided into three

elements: the Transmitter, the Channel and the Receiver. The following
image shows the block diagram of wireless communication system.
The Transmission Path
A typical transmission path of a Wireless Communication System consists
of Encoder, Encryption, Modulation and Multiplexing. The signal from the
source is passed through a Source Encoder, which converts the signal in to
a suitable form for applying signal processing techniques.

The redundant information from signal is removed in this process in order

to maximize the utilization of resources. This signal is then encrypted using
an Encryption Standard so that the signal and the information is secured
and doesn’t allow any unauthorized access.

Channel Encoding is a technique that is applied to the signal to reduce the

impairments like noise, interference, etc. During this process, a small
amount of redundancy is introduced to the signal so that it becomes robust
against noise. Then the signal is modulated using a suitable Modulation
Technique (like PSK, FSK and QPSK etc.) , so that the signal can be easily
transmitted using antenna.

The modulated signal is then multiplexed with other signals using different
Multiplexing Techniques like Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) or Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM) to share the valuable bandwidth.
The Channel
The channel in Wireless Communication indicates the medium of
transmission of the signal i.e. open space. A wireless channel is
unpredictable and also highly variable and random in nature. A channel
maybe subject to interference, distortion, noise, scattering etc. and the
result is that the received signal may be filled with errors.

The Reception Path

The job of the Receiver is to collect the signal from the channel and
reproduce it as the source signal. The reception path of a Wireless
Communication System comprises of Demultiplexing, Demodulation,
Channel Decoding, Decryption and Source Decoding. From the components
of the reception path it is clear that the task of the receiver is just the inverse
to that of transmitter.

The signal from the channel is received by the Demultiplexer and is

separated from other signals. The individual signals are demodulated using
appropriate Demodulation Techniques and the original message signal is
recovered. The redundant bits from the message are removed using the
Channel Decoder.

Since the message is encrypted, Decryption of the signal removes the

security and turns it into simple sequence of bits. Finally, this signal is given
to the Source Decoder to get back the original transmitted message or
signal.

Types of Wireless Communication Systems

• Television and Radio Broadcasting
• Satellite Communication
• Radar
• Mobile Telephone System (Cellular Communication)
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Infrared Communication
• WLAN (Wi-Fi)
• Bluetooth
Advantages of Wireless Communication
Following are the advantages of Wireless Communication:
➨Flexibility: As wireless frequency penetrates the walls, wireless networks are
easy to install anywhere based on choice. This flexibility is one of the great
benefits of wireless network where wired cable can not be installed.
➨Easy Installation: Wireless networks are easy to install and easy to maintain
compare to messy wired counterparts. This will help when network grows and
will have hundreds to thousands of customers.
➨Network Planning: Wireless network planning is very easy compare to wired
network due to wireless software configuration of frequency, power and other
parameters.
➨Location: Wireless communication helps in connecting remote inaccessible
areas behind the walls or buildings or hilly terrains.
➨Mobility: The great benefit of wireless communication is mobility of usage
unlike wired communication.
➨Price: The wireless communication end devices are available at very low cost
due to competition in handset manufacturing segment.
Disadvantages of Wireless Communication
Following are the disadvantages of Wireless Communication:
➨Wireless signals can be easily hacked and hence it will hamper privacy. To
avoid this, security algorithms (AES, WEP, WAP2) and modulation techniques
(FHSS, DSSS) are employed in wireless networks.
➨The earlier wireless networks were slower. Now-a-days wireless LANs with
advanced standards such as IEEE 802.11ac and 802.11ad are available which
provides same performance as traditional ethernet based LANs.
➨Wireless networks require careful radio frequency planning at the beginning
of the installation.
➨Wireless communication is subject to interference. There are various receiver
techniques and modulation techniques which make wireless system robust
against any kind of interference.

Types of Wireless Transmission Media

This tutorial explains about three major wireless transmission media in details with
examples around us.

1. Infrared Transmission
IR or Infrared radiation is a part of electromagnetic radiation. These rays have
a wavelength greater than visible light, making them invisible to the human eye. We
cannot see Infrared light but feel the rays in the form of heat. Frequency range: 300
GHz to 400 THz.

When we look at a fire, we can feel the heat from it and see it because it emits visible
light and Infrared energy. The human body also emits heat but only in the form of
Infrared light. Instruments such as night-vision goggles and Infrared cameras can
capture Infrared light.

Sun is the biggest source of Infrared radiation. Hence, it causes a lot of interference
in Infrared communication. One most important point about Infrared rays is that these
rays cannot penetrate through walls. Hence, the applications of Infrared rays lie
within a contained space.

2. Radio waves
Like Infrared radiation, Radio waves are also a part of electromagnetic
radiation. These waves have the longest wavelengths, from 1mm to 100km in the
spectrum. The name itself has Radio. A Radio is one of the thousands of wireless
technologies that use Radio waves for communication.

A Radio is the simplest example of Radio wave communication. Other examples

include RADAR, Satellite communications, Bluetooth headsets, TV Broadcasts, GPS
Signals, etc. Frequency range: 300GHz to 3kHz.

Like in Infrared communication, there will be a Radio wave transmitter and a

receiver. All the Radios today use continuous sine waves to transmit
information, as almost every single person on the planet uses these waves in one
form or another. The information can be from audio, video, sound, and textual
data. Suppose a person is using Radio, sine waves are transmitted from it, and if
another person uses a TV, it also broadcasts sine waves. How are these signals
separated and identified? Every single Radio signal will have a different frequency
for the sine waves.

3. Microwaves
These waves are also a part of electromagnetic radiation. The micro indicates that
these waves have short wavelengths from 1 meter to 1 millimeter. These are high-
frequency waves-> Frequency range: 300MHz to 300GHz. These waves fall
between Radio waves and Infrared waves.

These waves are used for point-to-point communication as it only transmits data in
one direction. These can transmit all kinds of data, from audio to video. These waves
can be used to transmit thermal energy too.

TECHNOLOGIES IN DIGITAL WIRELESS COMMUNICATION,

There are several technologies used in digital wireless communication systems. These technologies
facilitate efficient and reliable transmission of digital data over wireless networks. Here are some key
technologies in digital wireless communication:

1. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): Wi-Fi technology is widely used for wireless local area networking (WLAN).
It operates in the unlicensed frequency bands and allows devices to connect to a wireless network and
access the internet or share data wirelessly. Wi-Fi is based on the IEEE 802.11 standard and supports
various data rates and transmission ranges.

2. Cellular Networks: Cellular networks enable mobile communication over a wide area. They use a
network of base stations to provide coverage and connectivity to mobile devices. Cellular technologies
have evolved over generations, including 2G (GSM), 3G (UMTS), 4G (LTE), and 5G (fifth-generation)
networks. These networks support voice and data services, and each generation offers improved data
rates, lower latency, and enhanced capabilities.

3. Bluetooth: Bluetooth technology is designed for short-range wireless communication between

devices. It operates in the unlicensed ISM bands and enables the connection of devices such as
smartphones, headphones, keyboards, and speakers. Bluetooth facilitates data transfer, audio
streaming, and device control over short distances.

4. Near Field Communication (NFC): NFC is a short-range wireless technology that allows two devices
to establish communication by bringing them into close proximity. NFC is commonly used for
contactless payment systems, access control, and data exchange between devices.
5. Zigbee: Zigbee is a wireless communication standard designed for low-power, short-range
applications in the Internet of Things (IoT) domain. It operates on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard and
enables devices to communicate wirelessly in a mesh network topology. Zigbee is commonly used in
home automation, smart lighting, and industrial applications.

6. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification): RFID is a technology that uses radio waves to identify and
track objects or people. It consists of tags or labels that contain an electronically stored unique
identifier and readers that communicate with the tags wirelessly. RFID is used in applications such as
inventory management, asset tracking, and access control systems.

7. Satellite Communication: Satellite communication involves the use of satellites orbiting the Earth to
provide long-distance wireless communication. It is used for various applications, including television
broadcasting, internet connectivity in remote areas, and global positioning systems (GPS).

8. WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access): WiMAX is a wireless technology that
provides high-speed broadband access over a wide area. It is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard and
offers greater coverage compared to Wi-Fi. WiMAX has been deployed in both fixed and mobile
applications.

9. Ultra-Wideband (UWB): UWB is a wireless communication technology that uses a large portion of
the frequency spectrum for short-range, high-bandwidth data transmission. UWB enables precise
positioning, high data rates, and low power consumption. It is used in applications such as real-time
location systems and wireless connectivity for multimedia devices.

10. LTE-M and NB-IoT: LTE-M (Long-Term Evolution for Machines) and NB-IoT (Narrowband Internet of
Things) are cellular technologies specifically designed for low-power, wide-area IoT applications. They
provide efficient connectivity for IoT devices with long battery life and extended coverage.

These are some of the key technologies in digital wireless communication. Each technology is designed
to meet specific requirements and use cases, ranging from local area networking to long-distance
communication and IoT applications.
WHAT IS A WIRELESS NETWORK OR WI-FI?

A wireless network refers to a computer network that makes use of Radio Frequency (RF)
connections between nodes in the network. Wireless networks are a popular solution for homes,
businesses, and telecommunications networks.

It is common for people to wonder “what is a wireless network” because while they exist nearly
everywhere people live and work, how they work is often a mystery. Similarly, people often
assume that all wireless is Wi-Fi, and many would be surprised to discover that the two are not
synonymous. Both use RF, but there are many different types of wireless networks across a
range of technologies (Bluetooth, ZigBee, LTE, 5G), while Wi-Fi is specific to the wireless
protocol defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) in the 802.11
specification and its amendments.

TYPES OF WIRELESS NETWORK CONNECTIONS

In addition to a LAN, there are a few other types of common wireless networks: personal-
area network (PAN), metropolitan-area network (MAN), and wide-area network (WAN).

LAN

A local-area network is a computer network that exists at a single site, such as an office
building. It can be used to connect a variety of components, such as computers, printers,
and data storage devices. LANs consist of components like switches, access points,
routers, firewalls, and Ethernet cables to tie it all together. Wi-Fi is the most commonly
known wireless LAN.

PAN

A personal-area network consists of a network centralized around the devices of a single

person in a single location. A PAN could have computers, phones, video game consoles,
or other peripheral devices. They are common inside homes and small office
buildings. Bluetooth is the most commonly known wireless PAN.

MAN

A metropolitan-area network is a computer network that spans across a city, small

geographical area, or business or college campus. One feature that differentiates a MAN
from a LAN is its size. A LAN usually consists of a solitary building or area. A MAN can
cover several square miles, depending on the needs of the organization.

Large companies, for example, may use a MAN if they have a spacious campus and need
to manage key components, such as HVAC and electrical systems.
WAN

A wide-area network covers a very large area, like an entire city, state, or country. In fact,
the internet is a WAN. Like the internet, a WAN can contain smaller networks, including
LANs or MANs. Cellular services are the most commonly known wireless WANs.

WIRELESS SWITCHING TECHNOLOGY WVMSWLQP

Wireless switching technology refers to the mechanisms and devices used to manage and
control wireless communication in a network. It involves the process of efficiently routing
wireless signals, managing access to the wireless network, and optimizing the performance of
wireless devices. Here are some key wireless switching technologies:

1. Wireless LAN (WLAN) Controllers: WLAN controllers are centralized devices that manage
and control multiple wireless access points (APs) in a wireless network. They handle functions
such as AP configuration, wireless client authentication, roaming, and radio resource
management. WLAN controllers provide a unified management platform for wireless network
administration and help ensure seamless connectivity and performance optimization.

2. Virtual LANs (VLANs): VLANs are used to logically segregate wireless devices into
separate broadcast domains within a network. By dividing the network into VLANs, network
administrators can isolate wireless traffic, improve security, and manage network resources
more efficiently. VLANs allow for the creation of separate wireless networks or segments, each
with its own set of policies and access controls.

3. Mesh Networking: Mesh networking is a wireless switching technology that enables devices
to communicate with each other and extend network coverage through self-configuring
networks. In a mesh network, each device, including access points, acts as a relay, forwarding
data to other devices until it reaches its destination. Mesh networks provide scalability,
redundancy, and flexibility, particularly in scenarios where deploying wired backhaul
connections is challenging.

4. Software-Defined Networking (SDN): SDN is an architectural approach that separates the

control plane from the data plane in networking. In wireless networks, SDN allows for
centralized control and management of network functions, including wireless switching. SDN
controllers can dynamically configure and manage wireless network policies, routing, and
quality of service (QoS) based on real-time conditions and network demands.

5. Wireless LAN Switches: Wireless LAN switches are specialized devices that provide
centralized control and management of wireless access points. They typically include features
such as traffic shaping, access control, and security enforcement. Wireless LAN switches
simplify the deployment and management of wireless networks, particularly in large-scale
enterprise environments.

6. Load Balancing: Load balancing techniques distribute network traffic across multiple access
points or channels to optimize performance and avoid congestion. Load balancing algorithms
dynamically assign wireless clients to different access points based on factors such as signal
strength, channel utilization, and client capacity. Load balancing helps ensure even distribution
of client connections and efficient utilization of available network resources.

7. Quality of Service (QoS): QoS mechanisms prioritize certain types of traffic over others in
a wireless network. QoS in wireless switching allows administrators to assign priority levels to
different types of data, ensuring that critical applications or services receive the necessary
bandwidth and lower-priority traffic does not adversely impact performance. QoS mechanisms
help maintain service quality in wireless networks, particularly for real-time applications like
voice and video.

8. Power over Ethernet (PoE): PoE technology enables the delivery of power to wireless access
points over Ethernet cables, eliminating the need for separate power sources. PoE switches
supply power to the access points, simplifying installation and reducing wiring complexity in
wireless networks.

These are some of the key wirelesses switching technologies used to manage and optimize
wireless communication in networks. The specific choice of technologies depends on the
requirements, scale, and complexity of the wireless network deployment.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Before talking about wireless medium, we need to talk about the wired medium. Wired network
is a bounded medium where data travels over a path that a wire or cable takes. In modern era
of advanced and enormous no of devices, wired medium of communication imposes a
restriction on fluent communication. There are various problems with wired networks.
Consider a situation, you want to connect to 10 or more devices around you.
You need exact same no of ports to be able to connect to devices, but large no of ports seems
to be impractical but with wireless network, it can be easily done.
As the name suggests, wireless network eliminates needs to be tethered with wire or cable.
Convenience and Mobility becomes its main characteristics. Many different wireless devices
can connect to network easily and seamlessly. As wireless data travel through air, there must
be some constraints within which wireless communication takes place.
These are:
All wireless devices must follow a common standard i.e., IEEE 802.11
Wireless coverage must be there where devices are expected to use.
Note –
Wired network comes under IEEE standard 802.3
wireless network comes under IEEE standard 802.11
Basics of Wireless Communication:
Wireless communication takes places over free space through RF (radio frequency), one
device, a Transmitter, sends signal to another device, a Receiver. Two devices (transmitter and
receiver) must use same frequency (or channel) to be able to communicate with each other. If
a large number of wireless devices communicate at same time, radio frequency can cause
interference with each other. Interference increases as no of devices increases.
Wireless devices share airtime just like wired devices connect to shared media and share
common bandwidth. For effective use of media, all wireless devices operate in half duplex
mode to avoid collision or interference. Before the transmission begins, devices following
IEEE 802.11 standard must check whether channel is available and clear.
Note –
Wireless communication is always half duplex as transmission uses same frequency or channel.
To achieve full duplex mode, devices use different frequency or channel of transmission and
receiving of signals. You can say that wireless communication is Full duplex but technically it
is not.
Radio Frequency:

In free space, the sender (transmitter) sends an alternating current into a section of wire (an
antenna). This sets up a moving electric and magnetic fields that travel as travelling waves. The
electric and magnetic field moves along each other at a right angle to each other as shown. The
signal must keep changing or alternating by cycle up and down to keep electric and magnetic
field cyclic and pushing forward. The no of cycles a wave taking in a second is called
Frequency of the wave.
So,
frequency = no of cycles per second
UNIT II

Introduction to Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication is the use of technology that allows us to communicate with
others in different locations without the use of any physical connection (wires or
cables). Mobile communication makes our life easier, and it saves time and effort.

A mobile phone (also called mobile cellular network, cell phone or hand phone) is an
example of mobile communication (wireless communication). It is an electric device
used for full duplex two way radio telecommunication over a cellular network of base
stations known as cell site.

CHATGPT

Mobile communication refers to the ability to exchange information wirelessly between mobile devices,
such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices. It enables voice calls, text messaging, internet
access, multimedia sharing, and various other communication services while on the move. Mobile
communication has become an integral part of modern society, providing connectivity, convenience,
and access to information anytime and anywhere.
Here are key aspects and technologies involved in mobile communication:
1. Cellular Networks: Cellular networks are the infrastructure that enables mobile communication. They
consist of a network of interconnected base stations or cell towers that provide coverage in specific
geographic areas. Cellular networks use a combination of radio frequencies, protocols, and standards to
facilitate wireless communication. Examples of cellular network technologies include 2G (GSM), 3G
(UMTS), 4G (LTE), and the latest generation, 5G.

2. Wireless Spectrum: Mobile communication relies on the use of specific radio frequency bands within
the electromagnetic spectrum. These frequency bands are allocated by regulatory authorities to different
wireless services. Mobile operators acquire licenses to operate within specific frequency bands,
ensuring efficient and interference-free communication.
3. Mobile Devices: Mobile communication involves a wide range of devices, including smartphones,
tablets, feature phones, and wearable devices. These devices have built-in wireless communication
capabilities, such as cellular connectivity (3G/4G/5G), Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and NFC. Mobile devices
provide voice calling, text messaging, internet browsing, app usage, and multimedia functionalities.
4. SIM Cards: Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards are small integrated circuits that identify and
authenticate mobile devices on cellular networks. SIM cards store information such as the mobile
subscriber's phone number, network authentication data, and personal settings. They enable users to
switch between different mobile devices while retaining their phone number and network identity.
5. Roaming: Roaming allows mobile subscribers to use their devices and services while outside the
coverage area of their home network. When a subscriber's device enters another network's coverage
area, it connects to the visited network, allowing continued mobile communication. Roaming
agreements between mobile operators facilitate seamless connectivity for users traveling outside their
home network.
6. Voice over LTE (VoLTE): Voice over LTE is a technology that enables voice calls to be transmitted
over 4G LTE networks. Unlike traditional voice calls that use separate circuit-switched networks,
VoLTE uses packet-switched data networks for voice communication. VoLTE provides superior voice
quality, faster call setup times, and the ability to use voice and data simultaneously.
7. Mobile Data and Internet Access: Mobile communication allows users to access the internet using
their mobile devices. Mobile data services provide internet connectivity through cellular networks,
allowing users to browse websites, use apps, stream multimedia content, and access online services
while on the go. Data speeds and capacity have significantly improved with the introduction of faster
network technologies like 4G and 5G.
8. Mobile Applications: Mobile communication is enhanced by a vast ecosystem of mobile applications
(apps). Mobile apps provide various functionalities and services, including social networking, instant
messaging, email, gaming, productivity tools, and multimedia content consumption. App stores and
marketplaces offer a wide range of apps for download and installation on mobile devices.
9. Security and Privacy: Mobile communication involves considerations for security and privacy.
Measures such as encryption, authentication protocols, and secure data transmission are implemented
to protect user information and communication. Mobile operating systems and apps often provide
security features like device encryption, biometric authentication, and app permissions to safeguard
user data.
10. Future of Mobile Communication: Mobile communication continues to advance with the
introduction of new technologies and services. The ongoing deployment of 5G networks promises even
faster data speeds, lower latency, massive device connectivity, and support for emerging applications
like augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR),

Introduction of Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing is a technology that provides an environment that enables users to
transmit data from one device to another device without the use of any physical link
or cables.

In other words, you can say that mobile computing allows transmission of data, voice
and video via a computer or any other wireless-enabled device without being
connected to a fixed physical link. In this technology, data transmission is done
wirelessly with the help of wireless devices such as mobiles, laptops etc.

This is only because of Mobile Computing technology that you can access and transmit
data from any remote locations without being present there physically. Mobile
computing technology provides a vast coverage diameter for communication. It is one
of the fastest and most reliable sectors of the computing technology field.

The concept of Mobile Computing can be divided into three parts:

o Mobile Communication
o Mobile Hardware
 o Mobile Software

Mobile Communication
Mobile Communication specifies a framework that is responsible for the working of
mobile computing technology. In this case, mobile communication refers to an
infrastructure that ensures seamless and reliable communication among wireless
devices. This framework ensures the consistency and reliability of communication
between wireless devices. The mobile communication framework consists of
communication devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals necessary
to facilitate and support the stated services. These devices are responsible for
delivering a smooth communication process.

Mobile communication can be divided in the following four types:

1. Fixed and Wired

2. Fixed and Wireless
3. Mobile and Wired
4. Mobile and Wireless

Mobile Hardware
Mobile hardware consists of mobile devices or device components that can be used
to receive or access the service of mobility. Examples of mobile hardware can be
smartphones, laptops, portable PCs, tablet PCs, Personal Digital Assistants, etc.

These devices are inbuilt with a receptor medium that can send and receive signals.
These devices are capable of operating in full-duplex. It means they can send and
receive signals at the same time. They don't have to wait until one device has finished
communicating for the other device to initiate communications.

Mobile Software
Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware. This is designed to deal
capably with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the
operating system for the appliance of mobile devices. In other words, you can say it
the heart of the mobile systems. This is an essential component that operates the
mobile device.
MOBILE COMPUTING ARCHITECTURE

Mobile computing architecture refers to the definition of multiple layers between

user application interfaces, devices, and network hardware. A well-defined
architecture is necessary for systematic calculations and access to data and software
objects.

3-Tier Architecture of Mobile computing

A 3-tier architecture is an application program that is organized into three major
parts, comprising of:

1. Layer-1 : Presentation Layer (UI)

2. Layer-2: Application Layer(AL)

3. Layer-3: Data Access Layer(DA)

3 Tier Architecture Mobile Computing

Each tier is distributed to a different place or places in a network. These tiers do

not necessarily correspond to physical locations on various computers on a network,
but rather to logical layers of the application.

1. Presentation Layer (UI):

o This layer presents data to the user and optionally permits data
manipulation and data entry, also this layer requests the data
form Business layer.

o This layer accomplished through use of Dynamic HTML and

client-side data sources and data cursors.

2. Application Layer (AL):

o The business logic acts as the server for client requests from
workstations. It acts according Business rules fetch or insert
data through the Data Layer.
 o In turn, it determines what data is needed (and where it is
located) and acts as a client in relation to a third tier of
programming that might be located on a local or mainframe
computer.

o Because these middle-tier components are not tied to a specific

client, they can be used by all applications and can be moved
to different locations, as response time and other rules require.

3. Data Access Layer (DA):

o The third tier of the 3-tier system is made up of the DBMS that
provides all the data for the above two layers.

o This is the actual DBMS access layer.

o Avoiding dependencies on the storage mechanisms allows for

updates or changes without the application tier clients being
affected by or even aware of the change.

MOBILE DEVICES IN MOBILE COMPUTING

Mobile devices are the hardware components used in mobile computing to enable users to perform various tasks
and access information while on the move. These devices are designed to be portable, lightweight, and equipped
with wireless communication capabilities. Here are some common types of mobile devices used in mobile
computing:

1. Smartphones: Smartphones are the most widely used mobile devices. They combine the functionality of a phone
with advanced computing capabilities. Smartphones typically feature touchscreens, built-in sensors (such as
accelerometers and GPS), cameras, and wireless connectivity options (such as cellular, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth).
They can run various mobile applications and provide access to communication services, internet browsing,
multimedia playback, and more.

2. Tablets: Tablets are larger mobile devices with larger screens compared to smartphones. They offer a more
immersive and comfortable display for tasks like reading, browsing the internet, watching videos, and productivity
applications. Tablets are typically touch-based, although some models also support stylus input. They often have
Wi-Fi and cellular connectivity options.

3. Laptops: Laptops are portable computers designed for mobile computing. They offer a full-sized keyboard,
trackpad or pointing device, and a display that can be opened and closed like a clamshell. Laptops provide a more
powerful computing experience compared to smartphones and tablets and are suitable for tasks that require more
processing power, such as software development, content creation, and heavy multitasking.

4. Wearable Devices: Wearable devices are worn on the body and typically have sensors and wireless connectivity
capabilities. Examples include smartwatches, fitness trackers, smart glasses, and augmented reality (AR) headsets.
Wearable devices are often designed to track health and fitness data, display notifications, provide hands-free
communication, and offer contextual information.

5. E-readers: E-readers, such as Amazon Kindle, are specialized devices designed for reading digital books and
documents. They use e-ink technology that mimics the appearance of ink on paper, resulting in a more comfortable
reading experience. E-readers are lightweight, have long battery life, and are optimized for reading in different
lighting conditions.
6. Portable Media Players: Portable media players, such as iPods, are dedicated devices for playing audio and
video content. They often have a small screen, storage for media files, and support for various file formats.
Portable media players are useful for entertainment on the go, allowing users to listen to music, watch videos, and
view photos.

7. Handheld Gaming Consoles: Handheld gaming consoles, such as the Nintendo Switch and Sony PlayStation
Portable, are mobile devices specifically designed for gaming. They feature game controls, screens optimized for
gaming, and wireless connectivity for multiplayer gaming experiences.

These are just some examples of mobile devices used in mobile computing. The choice of device depends on
individual preferences, required functionalities, and the specific tasks users want to accomplish while being
mobile. Mobile devices continue to evolve with advancements in technology, offering increasingly powerful
computing capabilities, enhanced displays, improved battery life, and additional features to meet users' needs.

MOBILE SYSTEM NETWORKS

Mobile system networks refer to the infrastructure and technologies that enable mobile communication and
connectivity. These networks facilitate the transmission of voice, data, and multimedia between mobile devices,
allowing users to stay connected and access services while on the move. Here are some key mobile system
networks:

1. Cellular Networks: Cellular networks are the backbone of mobile communication. They are composed of a
network of base stations or cell towers that provide coverage over a specific geographic area. Cellular networks
use a combination of radio frequencies, protocols, and standards to enable wireless communication. The most
common cellular network technologies include 2G (GSM), 3G (UMTS), 4G (LTE), and the latest generation, 5G.

2. Wi-Fi Networks: Wi-Fi networks are local area networks (LANs) that provide wireless internet connectivity.
They are commonly used in homes, offices, public spaces, and other areas where high-speed wireless internet
access is required. Wi-Fi networks operate on various frequency bands, such as 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, and can
support multiple devices simultaneously.

3. Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology that enables data transfer between
devices over short distances. It is commonly used for connecting peripherals such as headphones, speakers,
keyboards, and other accessories to mobile devices. Bluetooth operates on the 2.4 GHz frequency band and
supports low-power communication.

4. Near Field Communication (NFC): NFC is a short-range wireless technology that allows communication
between devices when they are in close proximity (within a few centimeters). NFC is commonly used for
contactless payments, ticketing, and data exchange between devices. It is widely integrated into mobile devices,
enabling functionalities like mobile payments and access control.

5. Satellite Networks: Satellite networks provide global coverage by utilizing satellites in space. They are used in
remote areas where terrestrial networks are not available or in scenarios that require wide-area coverage, such as
maritime and aviation communications. Satellite networks enable voice calls, data communication, and global
positioning services (GPS).

6. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): VPNs are used to establish secure connections over public networks, such as
the internet. They create a private and encrypted connection between the mobile device and a remote server,
ensuring secure data transmission. VPNs are commonly used to access corporate networks, protect privacy, and
bypass regional restrictions.

7. Mesh Networks: Mesh networks are decentralized networks where each device acts as a node and can relay
data to other devices. This architecture allows for broader coverage and improved reliability by creating multiple
communication paths. Mesh networks are used in scenarios where traditional network infrastructure is unavailable
or unreliable, such as in disaster recovery or remote areas.

8. Internet of Things (IoT) Networks: IoT networks enable communication between interconnected devices and
objects. These networks support the exchange of data and control signals, allowing devices to communicate and
collaborate. IoT networks use various technologies, including cellular, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Low-Power Wide
Area Networks (LPWAN), depending on the requirements of the IoT application.

Mobile system networks play a crucial role in enabling mobile communication, internet access, and a wide range
of services on mobile devices. These networks continue to evolve with advancements in technology, providing
faster data rates, lower latency, increased capacity, and support for emerging applications and services.

Data Dissemination
The data dissemination is a method of distributing or transmitting the statistical or
another type of data to the end-users. The data can be in the form of audio, video or
any other data services. Organizations use many ways to release data to the public,
such as electronic format, CD-ROM and paper publications, i.e., PDF files based on
aggregated data. Mobile devices receive output data. A mobile device can select, tune
and cache the required data items, which can be used for application programs.

Nowadays, the most popular dissemination method is non-proprietary open systems

using internet protocols. There are various communication infrastructures that can be
used in data dissemination across any set of interconnected networks. Data is made
available in standard open formats.

Some organizations use proprietary databases to disseminate the data in order to

protect the sovereignty and copyright of the data. If you use proprietary databases to
disseminate the data, it requires specific software for end-users to view the data. This
type of transmitted data cannot be open in common open formats. This type of data
is first converted into the proprietary data format, and then the organization provides
specifically designed software to their user to read the data.

Mobile Operating System

A mobile operating system is an operating system that helps to run other application software
on mobile devices. It is the same kind of software as the famous computer operating systems
like Linux and Windows, but now they are light and simple to some extent.

The operating systems found on smartphones include Symbian OS, iPhone OS, RIM's
BlackBerry, Windows Mobile, Palm WebOS, Android, and Maemo. Android, WebOS, and
Maemo are all derived from Linux. The iPhone OS originated from BSD and NeXTSTEP,
which are related to Unix.

It combines the beauty of computer and hand use devices. It typically contains a cellular built-
in modem and SIM tray for telephony and internet connections. If you buy a mobile, the
manufacturer company chooses the OS for that specific device.
Popular platforms of the Mobile OS
1. Android OS: The Android operating system is the most popular operating
system today. It is a mobile OS based on the Linux Kernel and open-source
software. The android operating system was developed by Google. The first Android
device was launched in 2008.

2. Bada (Samsung Electronics): Bada is a Samsung mobile operating system that was
launched in 2010. The Samsung wave was the first mobile to use the bada operating
system. The bada operating system offers many mobile features, such as 3-D graphics,
application installation, and multipoint-touch.

3. BlackBerry OS: The BlackBerry operating system is a mobile operating system

developed by Research In Motion (RIM). This operating system was designed
specifically for BlackBerry handheld devices. This operating system is beneficial for the
corporate users because it provides synchronization with Microsoft Exchange, Novell
GroupWise email, Lotus Domino, and other business software when used with the
BlackBerry Enterprise Server.

4. iPhone OS / iOS: The iOS was developed by the Apple inc for the use on its device.
The iOS operating system is the most popular operating system today. It is a very
secure operating system. The iOS operating system is not available for any other
mobiles.

5. Symbian OS: Symbian operating system is a mobile operating system that provides
a high-level of integration with communication. The Symbian operating system is
based on the java language. It combines middleware of wireless communications and
personal information management (PIM) functionality. The Symbian operating system
was developed by Symbian Ltd in 1998 for the use of mobile phones. Nokia was the
first company to release Symbian OS on its mobile phone at that time.

6. Windows Mobile OS: The window mobile OS is a mobile operating system that was
developed by Microsoft. It was designed for the pocket PCs and smart mobiles.

7. Harmony OS: The harmony operating system is the latest mobile operating system
that was developed by Huawei for the use of its devices. It is designed primarily for IoT
devices.

8. Palm OS: The palm operating system is a mobile operating system that was
developed by Palm Ltd for use on personal digital assistants (PADs). It was introduced
in 1996. Palm OS is also known as the Garnet OS.
Advantages and disadvantages of mobile
phones
Advantages of mobile phones
Mobile phones have changed the way of communication. Before mobiles, there was a
use of landline phones or letters for communicating with a person who lives far from
you. Mobile phone is not limited to communication; it has various other benefits and
limitations too. Mostly people are aware with the advantages of mobile phones. The
benefits of mobile phones are discussed as follows -

Easy Communication
The main benefit of using the mobile phone is that they make the mode of
communication easier and cheap. Because of the lower price, mobile is affordable and
has been a revolution in the telecom industry where approximately 95% of people use
mobile phones for communication.

Mobile made communication easier, as just by pressing some keys on mobile, we can
contact our friends, family members or colleagues, and others at any time. Mobile also
gives us a facility to contact our fellow person with voice calls, video calls, text
messages, recorded calls, and many more.

Education
It is another major advantage of mobile phones. Mobile phones can be used to acquire
knowledge or information on various topics. For convenience, nowadays, most
colleges, institutions, and schools are offering online education with the proper study
material that can be in the form of images, photos, text, pdf, etc. In the corona
pandemic, we have seen that the students have taken online classes provided by their
respective institutions to ensure the safety and health of students.

Social media
In today's era, mobile phones are not only used for calling purposes. Smartphones are
said to be a gift for social media lovers. Social media apps like Twitter, Instagram, snap
chat, Facebook, etc., are at our fingertips at any time. We can edit and share our
pictures and posts on social media directly from our mobile phones. Mobile gives us
the facility to access social media at all times.

Most people use their mobile phones to scroll through their timeline of social media
platforms in their free time.
Promoting business
Mobile phones can be used for promoting a business. Mobile phones are best for
entrepreneurs or businessmen to promote their business via online or offline sources.
In online sources, one can use social media websites and messaging applications such
as telegram, Instagram, WhatsApp, Pinterest, and others. Most of the leading
companies arrange their meetings on video messaging applications like skype.

One of the old offline methods to promote business using mobile phones is text
messages. In today's era, most companies are still promoting their business via text
messages. At the end of every message, they put a link to their product page or
business website.

Good for people's safety

In today's world, criminal activities happen on the next level, so keeping a mobile
phone with yourself is a good safety option. In day-to-day life, we heard about so
many criminal activities such as kidnapping, theft, or others, so mobile helps us in a
different types of illegal activities, as it is the fastest communicating device. It helps us
to call the police and relatives so that they provide us help as soon as possible.

Helpful in emergency situations

Suppose a situation in which you are driving a car on an unknown road, and the car
gets stuck. So in this situation, mobile is the first device that helps us to call the
mechanic or any family member to get rid of the problem. If we get sick and need a
doctor, and no one is at home. So in these situations, mobile is the device which we
can use for fast communication.

Earn money via mobile

We can use our smartphones to earn money. We can create blogs, YouTube videos,
promote business, and other activities to make money.

Accessing the internet through mobile phones

It is easy to access the internet by mobile phones. Because of the internet in mobile,
people are less required to go cyber café for using the internet, or even they don't
have to sit in front of computers for accessing the internet. It is easy to access high-
speed internet through mobiles.
Mobile phones can be used for Entertainment
In today's world mobiles are the popular way of entertainment. Newly updated
mobiles have big HD displays on which people can watch movies, listen to songs, and
can play games. Every second person uses mobile for their entertainment.

Camera in Mobile phones

Latest mobiles include the best resolution cameras that help not to miss any moment
to capture. Before mobiles, people used to take cameras with them to capture
memorable moments, but now it can be done with mobile phones.

Now, mobiles include both front and back cameras, by which we can take selfies. It is
easy to take selfies and pictures from mobile.

GPS location
It is one of the best benefits of the mobile phone. Mobile gives us information about
the current location and destination. Before mobile phones, it was hard to track the
location, but after the development of mobiles, it is easy to track the current location
and destination. We can select a destination on the map, and it will give us the
direction of the ways and also suggest us the shortest route and estimated time to
reach there.

Flashlight
Mobiles have the feature of flashlights. Instead of keeping a torch, it is easy to use a
flashlight on mobile phones. But the flashlight works till the battery is charged.

Alarms and reminders

We can set alarms and reminders on mobile phones. We can set our routine,
appointments, meeting with a doctor, medicine timings, etc., on our mobile phone that
helps us to remind all our scheduled tasks.

Calculator
There is a calculator feature present in mobile phones. If we need to calculate bills,
taxes, invoices, mathematical calculations, or other calculations, we can use mobiles.
Some mobiles also have a scientific calculator with them, which can be helpful for
students to calculate their mathematical problems.
Contacts
Before mobile, people used to keep diaries with them to save the mobile numbers. But
now, it is easy to save any contact number on mobile phones. It is also easy to find
someone's contact number on the mobile phone just by searching their name in the
address book.

Online banking
Online banking can also be done via mobile phones. Through mobiles, it is easy to
access the bank accounts, checking the account status, and transferring of money from
one bank to another. We can also pay electricity bills and others via mobile phones.

So these are the advantages of using mobile phones. Now, let's see the negative side
of mobiles. Let us talk about the disadvantages or the harmful effects of using mobile
phones.

Disadvantages of mobile phones

Along with the numerous benefits, mobile phones also have various limitations. Let's
discuss the limitations of using mobile phones in detail.

Distraction
Sometimes mobile is a disturbing device that creates a distraction between your works.
It is seen in students that are easily distracted from their studies because of mobiles,
as the device contains applications that attract users to enjoy their software. One such
application is the various mobile games that are being played a couple of days make
the people addicted and distracted from their goals.

Ear problems
While listening to songs, watching movies, or calling for a long time with headphones
or headset can damage the listening potential of an individual. It has been seen in
researches that using headphones with the louder hearing sound seriously disturbs
the capability of ears to hear voice properly.

Wastage of time
Although mobiles are helpful in various aspects, it is one of the biggest thing
responsible for the wastage of time. Most students and teenagers are affected by it.
Students want to play games, watching movies, listening songs, and other kinds of
entertainment that waste their precious time.
Addiction to mobile phone
Addiction to mobile phones is termed "Nomophobia". In this mental disorder, people
are unable to stop themselves without using mobile phones. They even can't imagine
themself without a mobile. Using mobile phones too much makes a person addicted
to them.

Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying means to send, post, or share negative, false, and harmful content about
someone else. Research shows that most students and teenagers got cyberbullied.
Cyberbullying puts someone's life in danger.

Security issues
These are the common issues that happen with mobile users. iPhone IOS is little bit
secure but in android phones breaching someone's privacy and data is easier for
hackers. Security issues are the dangerous effects of using mobile phones for people.
People faced a lot of problems due to security issues, such as loss of money, image,
reputation, and others.

Loss of study
Using mobile phones in excessive amounts is a major disadvantage for students.
Mobile phones mostly affect the study of students. Mobile phones distract students
from the study. Students majorly focus on playing games, watching movies, and other
entertainment on mobile that decreases their grades.

Health problems
Excessive use of mobile phones causes the health problems such as swelling of the
eyes and other eyesight problems. Mobile phones include mental disorders such as
Anger, depression, anxiety, tension, and others.

Sleeping issues
Using the mobile phone in an excessive amount badly affects the sleeping routine.
People use mobile even during sleeping time. At night, some people stuck on their
mobile phone's screen that disturbed their sleeping routine a lot.

Accidents
People stuck in their mobiles, even walking on roads, or driving a car. Using a mobile
phone while driving causes accidents and puts the lives of others at risk. It is very
dangerous to use mobile while driving, as mobile users while driving can injure them
and can kill other people by accidents.

Distance from relatives

Although mobiles connect the people from a distance and we can communicate with
them easily, but if we do not use it properly, it can create distance from friends,
relatives, family members that are close to us. It is observed many times that the
members of a family are sitting in a restaurant and stuck to their phones and not
talking with each other.
 UNIT III

GSM network architecture elements

In order that the GSM system operates together as a complete system, the overall network
architecture brings together a series of data network identities, each with several elements.

The GSM network architecture is defined in the GSM specifications and it can be grouped into
four main areas:

• Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

• Base-Station Subsystem (BSS)

• Mobile station (MS)

• Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The different elements of the GSM network operate together and the user is not aware of the
different entities within the system.

As the GSM network is defined but the specifications and standards, it enables the system to
operate reliably together regardless of the supplier of the different elements.

A basic diagram of the overall system architecture for the 2G GSM mobile communications
system includes four major elements which are shown below:

Simplified GSM Network Architecture Diagram

Within this diagram the different network areas can be seen - they are grouped into the four
areas that provide different functionality, but all operate to enable reliable mobile
communications to be achieved.

The overall network architecture provided to be very successful and was developed further
to enable 2G evolution to carry data and then with further evolutions to allow 3G to be
established.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The GSM system architecture contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the
core network. It is essentially a data network with a various entities that provide the main
control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major elements within the core
network include:

Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC):

The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is
the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC).
The MSC acts like a normal switching node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional
functionality to enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include
registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile
subscriber.

It also provides an interface to the PSTN so that the mobile communications calls can be
routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs
are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks.

Home Location Register (HLR):

This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with
their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant
base station for the MS.

When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers with the network and from this it
is possible to determine which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed
appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically
to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position.

There is one HLR per network, although it may be distributed across various sub-centres to
for operational reasons.

Visitor Location Register (VLR):

This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the
individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it
is commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way
access is made faster and more convenient.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR):

The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the
network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment
Identity.

This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the
network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may
be allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in
case its problems.

Authentication Centre (AuC):

The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM
card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel.
 Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC):
The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge
of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station
Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number, the
"directory number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct visited MSC.

The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation does not require
any linking to an MSC.

SMS Gateway (SMS-G):

The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is used to collectively describe the two Short
Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM standards.

The two gateways handle messages directed in different directions. The SMS-GMSC (Short
Message Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for short messages being sent to an
ME.

The SMS-IWMSC (Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile Switching Centre) is used for
short messages originated with a mobile on that network. The SMS-GMSC role is similar to
that of the GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed access point to the Short Message
Service Centre.

These entities were the main ones used within the GSM network. They were typically co-
located, but often the overall core network was distributed around the country where the
network was located. This gave some resilience in case of failure.

Although the GSM system was essential a voice system, the core network was a data network
as all signals were handled digitally.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the 2G GSM network architecture that is
fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network.

It consists of two elements:

• Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the
radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and
receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element
for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between
the two is known as the Um interface with its associated protocols.
• Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM
network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs
in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover
within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the
BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface.
The base station subsystem element of the GSM network utilised the radio access technology
to enable a number of users to access the system concurrently. Each channel supported up
to eight users and by enabling a base station to have several channels, a large number of
subscribers could be accommodated by each base station.

Base stations are carefully located by the network provider to enable complete coverage of
an area. The area being covered bay a base station often being referred to as a cell.

As it is not possible to prevent overlap of the signals into the adjacent cells, channels used in
one cell are not used in the next. In this way interference which would reduce call quality is
reduced whilst still maintaining sufficient frequency re-use.

It is important to have the different BTSs linked with the BSS and the BSSs linked back to the
core network.

A variety of technologies were used to achieve this. As data rates used within he GSM network
were relatively low, E1 or T1 lines were often used, especially for linking the BSS back to the
core network.

As more data was required with increasing usage of the GSM network, and also as other
cellular technologies like 3G became more widespread, many links used carrier grade
Ethernet.

Often remote BTSs were linked using small microwave links as this could reduce the need for
the installation of specific lines if none were available. As base stations often needed to be
located to provide good coverage rather than in areas where lines could be installed, the
microwave link option provided an attractive method for providing a data link for the network.

Mobile station
Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or mobile
phones are the section of a GSM mobile communications network that the user sees and
operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has
greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time between charges has significantly
increased.

There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the
main hardware and the SIM.

The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including the display,
case, battery, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and process the data receiver
and to be transmitted.

The mobile station, or ME also contains a number known as the International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at manufacture and "cannot" be
changed. It is accessed by the network during registration to check whether the equipment
has been reported as stolen.

The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity of
the user to the network. It contains are variety of information including a number known as
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI). As this is included in the SIM, and it means
that by moving the SIM card from one mobile to another, the user could easily change
mobiles. The ease of changing mobiles whilst keeping the same number meant that people
would regularly upgrade, thereby creating a further revenue stream for network providers
and helping to increase the overall financial success of GSM.

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM mobile
communications network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the
BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control
the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling
of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS,
allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the system.

The 2G GSM network architecture follows a logical method of operation. It is far simpler than
current mobile phone network architectures such as the 5G network architecture which uses
software defined entities to enable very flexible operation.

However the 2G GSM architecture does show the voice and operational basic functions that
are needed and how they fit together. As the GSM system was all digital, the network was a
data network.

RADIO INTERFACES IN MOBILE COMPUTING

Radio interfaces in mobile computing refer to the wireless communication protocols and technologies
used to establish connections and transmit data between mobile devices and networks. These
interfaces enable mobile devices to communicate with cellular networks, connect to Wi-Fi networks,
exchange data with other devices, and access various services. Here are some commonly used radio
interfaces in mobile computing:

1. Cellular Radio Interfaces: Cellular radio interfaces are used to establish connections with cellular
networks, enabling mobile devices to make voice calls, send text messages, and access mobile data
services. These interfaces use technologies like 2G (GSM), 3G (UMTS), 4G (LTE), and 5G to provide
connectivity and high-speed data transfer over cellular networks.

2. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) Interfaces: Wi-Fi interfaces allow mobile devices to connect to local wireless
networks, commonly found in homes, offices, public spaces, and Wi-Fi hotspots. Wi-Fi interfaces
operate on the IEEE 802.11 standard and enable high-speed wireless internet access and local network
connectivity.

3. Bluetooth Interfaces: Bluetooth interfaces enable short-range wireless communication between

mobile devices and other Bluetooth-enabled devices. They are used for tasks like wireless audio
streaming, file sharing, connecting peripherals like keyboards and speakers, and establishing personal
area networks (PANs) between devices.

4. Near Field Communication (NFC) Interfaces: NFC interfaces facilitate close-range wireless
communication between devices. NFC is used for contactless payments, ticketing, access control, and
data transfer between devices. NFC interfaces allow devices to exchange information by bringing them
into proximity with each other.
5. Infrared (IR) Interfaces: Infrared interfaces, although less common in modern mobile devices, were
used in the past for short-range wireless communication. IR interfaces used infrared light to transmit
data between devices. They were typically used for tasks like file transfer and remote control
functionality.

6. Satellite Interfaces: Satellite interfaces enable mobile devices to connect to satellite networks for
global coverage, particularly in remote areas where terrestrial networks are not available. Satellite
interfaces are commonly used in applications like satellite phones, maritime communication, and
tracking systems.

These radio interfaces provide the means for mobile devices to connect, communicate, and access a
wide range of services. Mobile devices often support multiple radio interfaces to offer flexibility and
compatibility with different networks and devices. The selection of radio interfaces depends on factors
such as the intended use of the device, network availability, and specific requirements for connectivity
and data transfer.

Calling in Mobile Computing

Calling in mobile computing refers to the ability of mobile devices to

make and receive voice calls using cellular networks. Mobile devices,
such as smartphones, are equipped with cellular radio interfaces that
allow users to establish connections with cellular networks and engage
in voice communication with other mobile or landline phones. Here's
an overview of how calling works in mobile computing:

1. Cellular Network Connectivity: Mobile devices connect to cellular

networks, such as 2G, 3G, 4G, or 5G, through their cellular radio
interfaces. These networks consist of a network of base stations or cell
towers that provide coverage over specific geographic areas. The
mobile device communicates with the nearest base station to establish
a connection to the cellular network.

2. Dialing a Phone Number: To initiate a call, the user enters the phone
number of the intended recipient on the mobile device's dial pad or
selects a contact from the address book. The mobile device then sends
the dialed number to the cellular network for call routing.

3. Call Setup: The cellular network processes the dialed number and
determines the destination of the call. It establishes a connection
between the calling device and the recipient's device by routing the call
through the appropriate network infrastructure.
4. Voice Transmission: Once the call is connected, voice data is
transmitted between the devices using digital audio compression and
encoding techniques. The voice data is divided into small packets and
transmitted over the cellular network.

5. Call Management: During a call, mobile devices provide various call

management features such as speakerphone, mute, hold, call transfer,
and conference calling. These features allow users to adjust the call
settings and perform actions like adding participants or switching
between audio sources.

6. Call Termination: When either party decides to end the call, they can
simply hang up or use the call termination function on their mobile
device. The cellular network receives the termination signal and closes
the call connection.

It's important to note that calling in mobile computing can also involve
additional features and services, such as voicemail, call forwarding,
caller ID, call waiting, and more, depending on the capabilities
provided by the mobile device and the cellular network service
provider.

In addition to cellular calls, mobile computing also supports other

communication methods like Voice over IP (VoIP) calls through
internet-based applications, video calling, and messaging services that
utilize data networks or Wi-Fi connectivity. These options provide
additional flexibility and alternatives to traditional cellular calling,
allowing users to choose the most suitable communication method for
their needs.

Handover in Mobile Computing

Handover, also known as handoff, in mobile computing refers to the process of transferring an
ongoing call or data session from one base station or access point to another as a mobile device
moves through different coverage areas. The purpose of handover is to ensure uninterrupted
connectivity and seamless communication as the mobile device transitions between different
cells or network access points. Here's an overview of how handover works in mobile
computing:
1. Triggering Handover: Handover can be triggered by various factors, such as the mobile
device moving out of the coverage area of the current base station, a deterioration in the signal
quality, or congestion in the current cell. These triggers indicate that it's necessary to transfer
the ongoing communication to a different base station or access point for better signal strength
or improved network resources.

2. Measurement and Evaluation: The mobile device continuously measures the signal strength
and quality of neighboring base stations or access points. This information is used to evaluate
the suitability of potential target cells for handover. The evaluation includes factors like signal
strength, signal-to-noise ratio, and signal quality metrics.

3. Handover Decision: Based on the measurements and evaluations, the mobile device, in
coordination with the network infrastructure, makes a handover decision. The decision is
typically based on predefined thresholds and algorithms that determine when a handover
should occur.

4. Handover Preparation: Once the handover decision is made, the mobile device and the
network infrastructure prepare for the handover. This involves exchanging control messages
and negotiation between the current and target base stations or access points. The target base
station or access point is instructed to allocate resources for the upcoming connection.

5. Handover Execution: During the handover execution phase, the ongoing call or data session
is transferred from the current base station or access point to the target base station or access
point. This transition is carefully managed to ensure minimal disruption or packet loss. The
mobile device switches its radio connection to the target base station or access point, and the
network infrastructure routes the communication to the new location.

6. Handover Completion: Once the handover is successfully executed, the mobile device
establishes a new connection with the target base station or access point, and the
communication resumes seamlessly. The handover process is considered complete when the
mobile device is fully connected to the target cell, and the quality of the connection is verified.

Handover is an essential mechanism in mobile computing to maintain continuous connectivity

and provide a smooth user experience as mobile devices move through different coverage
areas. It ensures that ongoing calls, data sessions, or other communication services are not
disrupted when transitioning between cells or access points in a cellular network or wireless
network infrastructure.

Security in Mobile Computing

Security in mobile computing refers to the measures and practices employed to protect mobile
devices, data, and communication from unauthorized access, data breaches, and other security
threats. As mobile devices have become integral to our personal and professional lives,
ensuring their security has become crucial. Here are some key aspects of security in mobile
computing:

1. Device Security: Protecting the physical device is the first line of defense. This includes
measures such as using strong passcodes or biometric authentication (e.g., fingerprint or face
recognition), enabling device encryption, keeping the device's operating system and
applications up to date with security patches, and using remote wipe or tracking features in
case of loss or theft.

2. Network Security: Mobile devices connect to various networks, such as cellular networks,
Wi-Fi networks, and virtual private networks (VPNs). To enhance network security, it is
essential to connect to trusted and secure networks, use strong and unique passwords for Wi-
Fi connections, enable encryption protocols (e.g., WPA2 or WPA3) for Wi-Fi networks, and
utilize VPNs when connecting to public or unsecured networks to protect data transmission.

3. App Security: Mobile devices rely heavily on applications (apps) for various tasks. It's
crucial to download apps from trusted sources, such as official app stores, and verify the
permissions required by apps before installation. Regularly updating apps to their latest
versions is also important, as updates often include security fixes. Additionally, be cautious of
granting unnecessary permissions to apps and consider using reputable mobile security
solutions to scan for malware and potentially harmful apps.

4. Data Protection: Mobile devices store sensitive and personal data. To protect data, it is
important to enable device encryption to safeguard data at rest. Using strong and unique
passwords or biometric authentication for accessing sensitive applications or data is
recommended. It is also advisable to use secure cloud storage services or backup solutions with
encryption to protect data and enable remote data wiping in case of device loss.

5. Secure Communication: Ensure that communication over mobile devices is secure. Use
secure protocols (e.g., HTTPS) for web browsing and avoid transmitting sensitive information
over unencrypted connections. Consider using end-to-end encrypted messaging apps for
sensitive communications, and be cautious of phishing attempts, suspicious links, or
attachments in emails, messages, or social media.

6. Mobile Device Management (MDM): In enterprise settings, implementing Mobile Device

Management solutions can enhance security. MDM enables central management and control
of mobile devices, allowing for policy enforcement, remote device configuration, application
management, and data protection measures like remote wipe or lock.

7. User Awareness and Education: Users play a crucial role in mobile security. Educate
yourself about common security threats, safe practices, and how to identify and avoid potential
risks such as phishing, malicious apps, or unsecured networks. Regularly update your
knowledge and stay informed about emerging threats and security best practices.

Mobile computing security requires a combination of technical measures, user awareness, and
best practices to mitigate risks and protect devices, data, and privacy. By implementing these
security measures, users can significantly enhance the security posture of their mobile devices
and ensure a safer mobile computing experience.

New Data Services in mobile computing

Mobile computing continually evolves with the introduction of new data services that cater to
the increasing demands and technological advancements. Here are some examples of new data
services in mobile computing:
1. 5G Networks: The deployment of 5G networks has unlocked new possibilities in mobile
computing. With significantly faster speeds, lower latency, and higher capacity, 5G enables a
range of data-intensive services. These include ultra-high-definition streaming, virtual and
augmented reality experiences, real-time gaming, massive IoT (Internet of Things)
deployments, and mission-critical applications that require low latency and high reliability.

2. Edge Computing: Edge computing brings computation and data storage closer to the network
edge, reducing latency and improving the performance of mobile applications and services.
With edge computing, data processing and analysis occur closer to the source, enabling real-
time analytics, faster response times, and efficient utilization of network resources. This is
particularly beneficial for latency-sensitive applications, IoT deployments, and emerging
technologies like autonomous vehicles and smart cities.

3. Cloud Services: Cloud computing services have transformed mobile computing by providing
scalable and on-demand access to resources, applications, and data storage. Mobile devices can
seamlessly connect to cloud services for data synchronization, backup, and collaboration across
multiple devices. Cloud services also facilitate the development of cloud-based mobile
applications and enable the integration of mobile devices with enterprise systems and
workflows.

4. Mobile Payments and Wallets: Mobile payment services, such as Apple Pay, Google Pay,
Samsung Pay, and various digital wallets, have gained popularity, allowing users to make
secure and convenient payments using their mobile devices. These services leverage near field
communication (NFC), QR codes, or mobile apps to enable contactless payments at retail
stores, online purchases, and peer-to-peer transactions.

5. Location-Based Services: Mobile computing utilizes location-based services to provide

personalized and context-aware experiences to users. Location-based services leverage GPS,
Wi-Fi, cellular network data, or a combination of these technologies to offer services like
navigation and mapping, real-time traffic updates, local business recommendations, geotagging
in social media, and location-based advertising.

6. Internet of Things (IoT) Integration: Mobile computing integrates with IoT devices to enable
remote control, monitoring, and data exchange. Mobile devices act as gateways or control
interfaces for IoT devices, allowing users to manage smart home devices, wearable technology,
industrial sensors, and other connected devices from their mobile devices.

7. Mobile Healthcare Services: Mobile computing has revolutionized healthcare by introducing

mobile healthcare services. These services include mobile health applications (mHealth apps)
for monitoring vital signs, telemedicine for remote consultations, wearable devices for tracking
health metrics, and electronic health record (EHR) access on mobile devices, facilitating better
healthcare management and patient care.

These are just a few examples of new data services in mobile computing. As technology
advances and user demands evolve, we can expect further innovation and the emergence of
additional data services that enhance mobile computing capabilities and provide new
experiences to users.
Modulation in mobile computing

Modulation in mobile computing refers to the process of modifying a carrier signal, typically
an electromagnetic wave, to encode and transmit information. Modulation techniques are used
to transmit data over wireless communication channels in mobile computing systems. Here are
some common modulation techniques used in mobile computing:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation is a modulation technique where the

amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal. In mobile computing, AM is primarily used in older analog communication
systems, such as AM radio broadcasts.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency modulation involves varying the frequency of the
carrier signal based on the amplitude of the modulating signal. FM is widely used in mobile
computing for FM radio broadcasts and various other applications like wireless microphones
and certain wireless data transmission systems.

3. Phase Modulation (PM): Phase modulation is a technique where the phase of the carrier
signal is modified based on the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. PM is used
in certain digital communication systems, such as phase-shift keying (PSK) and quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM), which are widely employed in mobile computing for data
transmission.

4. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK): QPSK is a digital modulation scheme that encodes
data by varying both the phase and amplitude of the carrier signal. It is widely used in mobile
computing for wireless data transmission, particularly in cellular networks, Wi-Fi, and satellite
communications.

5. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM): OFDM is a multi-carrier modulation

technique that divides the available spectrum into multiple subcarriers and modulates each
subcarrier independently. OFDM is employed in mobile computing for high-speed data
transmission, such as in 4G LTE and 5G cellular networks and Wi-Fi.

6. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): CDMA is a digital modulation technique used in
cellular communication systems. It allows multiple users to share the same frequency band
simultaneously by assigning unique codes to each user. CDMA is employed in mobile
computing for cellular networks, including 3G and some 4G systems.

These are just a few examples of modulation techniques used in mobile computing. The choice
of modulation technique depends on factors such as the desired data rate, signal quality,
available bandwidth, and compatibility with existing communication standards. Different
modulation schemes and techniques are employed to optimize the efficiency, capacity, and
performance of wireless communication systems in mobile computing.

Multiplexing in mobile computing

Multiplexing in mobile computing refers to the technique of combining multiple data streams
or signals into a single transmission medium or channel. It allows multiple users or data sources
to share the available bandwidth efficiently. Multiplexing plays a crucial role in optimizing the
utilization of network resources and enabling simultaneous communication between different
devices or applications. Here are some common multiplexing techniques used in mobile
computing:

1. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): TDM divides the available time slots of a
communication channel into fixed intervals. Each time slot is allocated to a different user or
data stream, and the users take turns transmitting their data during their assigned time slots.
TDM is used in various mobile communication systems, such as 2G and 3G cellular networks,
to allocate time slots to different users.

2. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): FDM divides the available frequency spectrum of
a communication channel into multiple non-overlapping frequency bands. Each frequency
band is allocated to a different user or data stream, and they can simultaneously transmit their
data using their allocated frequency bands. FDM is used in systems like FM radio broadcasting
to allocate different frequencies to different radio stations.

3. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): CDMA is a form of multiplexing that assigns unique
codes to different users or data streams and allows them to transmit simultaneously over the
same frequency band. CDMA is used in mobile communication systems, such as 3G and some
4G cellular networks, to enable multiple users to share the same frequency band.

4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM): OFDM divides the available

frequency spectrum into multiple subcarriers that are orthogonal to each other. Each subcarrier
carries a separate data stream, and they are all transmitted simultaneously. OFDM is used in
various wireless communication systems, including Wi-Fi, 4G LTE, and 5G, to achieve high
data rates and efficient spectrum utilization.

5. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM): SDM involves using multiple spatial channels or
antennas to transmit independent data streams simultaneously. Multiple antennas are used to
create separate spatial channels, allowing multiple users or data streams to communicate
concurrently. SDM is used in technologies like Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) in
Wi-Fi and cellular networks to improve data throughput and enhance signal quality.

These are some of the key multiplexing techniques employed in mobile computing. Different
multiplexing methods are used depending on the specific requirements, characteristics of the
communication system, and the goals of efficient resource utilization and simultaneous
communication between multiple devices or data sources.

CDMA in mobile computing

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a channel access method used by
several radio communication technologies. It is a digital cellular technology and an
example of multiple access. It is generally used for mobile communication.

Multiple access means that several transmitters can send information simultaneously
over a single communication channel. In this system, different CDMA codes are
assigned to different users, and the user can access the whole bandwidth for the entire
duration. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire
frequency range and does not limit the user's frequency range.Thus, CDMA allows
several users to share a band of frequencies without undue interference between the
users. It is used as an access method in many mobile phone standards.

CDMA technology was developed during World War II. It was developed by English
allies to protect their wireless transmissions from jamming. When the war ended,
Qualcomm patented this technology and made it commercially available. The first
CDMA system was launched in September 1995 in Hong Kong by Hutchison Telephone
Co.

Usage
o It is used in the Global Positioning System (GPS).
o It is used by several mobile phone companies (e.g., Qualcomm standard IS-2000, also
known as CDMA2000)
o W-CDMA is used in UTMS 3G mobile phone standards.
o CDMA has been used in OmniTRACS satellite system for transportation.

Categories of CDMA
o Synchronous CDMA (orthogonal codes)
o Asynchronous CDMA (pseudorandom codes)

IMT 2000
• IMT-2000 Stands for International Mobile Telecommunications-2000.
• An initiative of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to create a global standard
for wireless data networks.
• The goal of International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) is to support data
transmission rates of up to 2 Mbps for fixed stations and 384 Kbps for mobile stations.
• Note that the “2000” in the term “International Mobile Telecommunications-2000” refers to
the transmission speed (approximately 2000 Kbps), not the deployment date (which might be
several years beyond the year 2000).
• The European proposal for IMT-2000 prepared by ETSI is called as Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System(UMTS)

• Features:
• It is used for all radio environments.
• It supports both packet switched and circuit switched data transmission.
• It offers high spectrum efficiency.
• It support wide range of telecommunication services like voice , data, multimedia and internet.

• IMT 2000 Architecture:

• Figure shows the IMT 2000 Architecture.
• The ITU standardize 5 group of 3G for radio access technology.
WCDMA and CDMA 2000
WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) and CDMA2000 are both cellular
technologies that are based on the CDMA modulation scheme. Here's an overview of WCDMA
and CDMA2000:
WCDMA:
WCDMA, also known as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), is a 3G
(third-generation) cellular technology that uses CDMA as its underlying modulation scheme.
It was developed to provide high-speed data and voice services in mobile networks.
Key Features of WCDMA:
1. High Data Rates: WCDMA offers higher data rates compared to previous 2G technologies.
It supports peak data rates of up to several megabits per second (Mbps), allowing for
multimedia streaming, video calling, and internet access on mobile devices.
2. Wideband Spectrum: WCDMA uses a wideband channel, typically 5 MHz, to carry multiple
data and voice channels simultaneously. This enables more users to be supported within the
same frequency band.
3. Flexibility: WCDMA supports both circuit-switched and packet-switched data services,
providing flexibility for voice and data communication.
4. Global Standard: WCDMA is adopted as a global standard for 3G networks and is used by
numerous mobile network operators worldwide.
CDMA2000:
CDMA2000 is a family of 3G cellular technologies based on CDMA. It encompasses multiple
standards, including CDMA2000 1x, CDMA2000 EV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized), and
CDMA2000 EV-DO Rev. A/B. CDMA2000 is an evolution of the earlier CDMA technology
and offers higher data rates and improved performance.
Key Features of CDMA2000:
1. Enhanced Data Rates: CDMA2000 offers higher data rates than its predecessor CDMA.
CDMA2000 1x provides data rates of up to 144 kbps, while CDMA2000 EV-DO delivers
higher-speed data services with peak rates ranging from several hundred kilobits per second
(kbps) to several megabits per second (Mbps).
2. Backward Compatibility: CDMA2000 networks can be backward compatible with CDMA
networks, allowing for a smooth transition and coexistence of older and newer devices.
3. Voice and Data Integration: CDMA2000 supports simultaneous voice and data transmission,
allowing users to make calls while accessing data services, such as internet browsing or email.
4. Evolution to 4G: CDMA2000 is a stepping stone toward 4G technologies. CDMA2000 EV-
DO Rev. B, in particular, provides high-speed data services and serves as a bridge to the next-
generation LTE (Long-Term Evolution) networks.
WCDMA and CDMA2000 are both widely used in different regions of the world. WCDMA
gained more popularity in Europe and many parts of Asia, while CDMA2000 saw significant
adoption in North America and some other regions. However, with the evolution of mobile
networks, both technologies have been largely superseded by 4G LTE and subsequent 5G
technologies, which offer even higher data rates and advanced features.

4G Mobile Communication Technology

Mobile communication is a way to communicate with other people at a different
locations without any physical connection. It enables to transmission of voice and
multimedia data from one mobile or computer device to another without any need for
a physical connection between them. A Mobile phone or Cellular phone is an example
of mobile communication.

Since the introduction of mobile communication, this technology has come a long way
and has evolved a lot. Many technological developments have been made to make
mobile communication more efficient and serve users better. It was introduced as 1G
(First Generation- Voice-only communication), and today we are widely using 4G
technology. 4G is the fourth Generation of mobile network technology, which is
the successor of 3G and preceded by the 5G network. It provides a much higher data
transmission speed than its successor networks, making it preferable at this stage of a
fast lifestyle. In this topic, we will learn more about 4G Mobile communication, its
introduction, working, availability, etc.

Features of 4G Mobile Network

o It aims to provide high data transmission speed without interruption at any location.
o As per ITU standard, a 4G network system must have the highest data rates of 100Mbs
for highly mobile stations like trains, cars etc.
o It provides seamless switching across heterogenous network areas.
o It is very well suitable for the transmission of voice, data, signals, multimedia, wireless
internet, and other broadband services.
o It provides high speed at a low cost.
o Global mobility, service portability, scalable mobile networks.
o It provides a better way for scheduling and calling admission control techniques.
 UNIT IV

IP and Mobile IP Network Layers

In networking, the Internet Protocol (IP) is a fundamental protocol that enables communication
between devices over the Internet or any other IP-based network. It operates at the network
layer (Layer 3) of the TCP/IP networking model. Mobile IP is an extension of IP designed to
support mobile devices as they move between different networks.

Here's an overview of the IP and Mobile IP network layers:

1. IP (Internet Protocol):

IP is responsible for the routing and addressing of packets in a network. It provides a

standardized set of rules and addressing conventions for transmitting data across interconnected
networks. IP addresses are used to uniquely identify devices on a network, allowing routers to
forward packets to the appropriate destination.

IP provides two main functions:

- Addressing: IP assigns a unique IP address to each device connected to the network. IPv4 and
IPv6 are the two versions of IP addresses currently in use.

- Routing: IP routers analyze the destination IP address of a packet and determine the
appropriate path to forward the packet through the network. They use routing tables and
protocols such as OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) or BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to make
routing decisions.

2. Mobile IP:

Mobile IP is an extension to the IP protocol that enables mobile devices to maintain

connectivity and network services while moving between different networks. It allows a mobile
device, such as a smartphone or laptop, to maintain its IP address and ongoing network
connections even as it moves from one network to another.

Mobile IP operates by introducing the concept of a home network and a foreign network:

- Home Network: The home network is the network where a mobile device has a permanent IP
address assigned. It is the network to which the device is originally registered.

- Foreign Network: The foreign network is the network the mobile device visits when it moves
away from its home network. The foreign network provides temporary connectivity to the
device.

Mobile IP uses a combination of mechanisms to ensure seamless mobility:

- Registration: When a mobile device moves to a foreign network, it registers its current
location with its home network. This allows the home network to know where to forward
packets destined for the mobile device.

- Tunneling: Mobile IP uses tunneling techniques to encapsulate IP packets and carry them
between the home network and the foreign network. The encapsulated packets are then routed
to the appropriate destination.

- Routing Updates: Mobile IP relies on routing updates to inform routers about the current
location of a mobile device, ensuring that packets are forwarded to the correct network.

Mobile IP enables transparent mobility for mobile devices, allowing them to roam between
networks without disrupting ongoing communications or requiring the device to obtain a new
IP address in each network.

In summary, IP is the fundamental protocol responsible for routing and addressing packets in
a network, while Mobile IP is an extension that adds mobility support to IP, enabling mobile
devices to maintain connectivity and ongoing network services while moving between different
networks.

Packet Delivery and Handover Management

Packet Delivery and Handover Management are critical components of mobile computing
systems that ensure reliable and uninterrupted communication as mobile devices move between
different network cells or access points. Let's explore these concepts in more detail:
1. Packet Delivery:
Packet delivery refers to the process of successfully transmitting data packets from a source
device to a destination device across a network. In mobile computing, packet delivery involves
the following steps:
- Packetization: The data to be transmitted is divided into smaller packets. Each packet contains
a portion of the data along with relevant headers and control information.
- Routing: The network infrastructure, such as routers, switches, and access points, determines
the most efficient path for the packets to reach their destination. Routing protocols like IP
(Internet Protocol) are used to determine the best route.
- Transmission: The packets are transmitted over the wireless network or wired infrastructure
using appropriate modulation techniques and medium access control methods.
- Reassembly: At the destination device, the packets are reassembled in the correct order to
reconstruct the original data.
To ensure reliable packet delivery, various mechanisms are employed, such as error detection
and correction, congestion control, and quality of service (QoS) techniques. These mechanisms
help mitigate packet loss, ensure data integrity, and prioritize certain types of traffic based on
their requirements.
2. Handover Management:
Handover, also known as handoff, occurs when a mobile device moves from one network cell
or access point to another. Handover management is the process of smoothly transitioning the
ongoing communication session from the source network to the target network without
disruption. It involves the following steps:
- Measurement: The mobile device measures the signal strength and quality of the current
network connection and neighboring cells or access points. This information is used to assess
the need for handover.
- Decision Making: Based on the measurements, the decision is made whether to initiate a
handover. Factors considered include signal strength, signal-to-noise ratio, and other network-
specific parameters.
- Handover Initiation: If a handover is required, the mobile device sends a handover request to
the network infrastructure, indicating the target network or cell to which it wants to connect.
- Handover Execution: The network infrastructure performs the necessary procedures to
transfer the ongoing communication session from the source network to the target network.
This may involve signaling messages, coordination with neighboring cells or access points,
and transfer of authentication and security information.
- Connectivity Restoration: Once the handover is successfully completed, the mobile device
establishes a new connection with the target network, and the ongoing communication session
resumes seamlessly.
Efficient handover management is essential for maintaining continuous connectivity,
minimizing call drops, and providing uninterrupted data services for mobile users. Various
handover techniques are employed, including network-controlled handover, mobile-assisted
handover, and hybrid approaches, depending on the specific network architecture and
requirements.
Both packet delivery and handover management are critical components of mobile computing
systems. They ensure reliable transmission of data and seamless connectivity as mobile devices
move within the network coverage area, enhancing the user experience and supporting various
mobile applications and services.

LOCATION MANAGEMENT IN MOBILE COMPUTING

Location management in mobile computing refers to the processes and techniques used to track and
manage the location of mobile devices within a wireless network. It involves maintaining and updating
the information related to the current location of mobile devices, allowing the network infrastructure to
efficiently deliver services and handle communication requests. Here's an overview of location
management in mobile computing:
1. Location Tracking:
Location tracking is the process of continuously monitoring and updating the location of mobile devices
as they move within the network coverage area. This is typically achieved using various positioning
techniques, including:
- Cell Identification: Mobile devices can determine their location based on the cell or access point they
are currently connected to. Each cell or access point has a unique identifier, which can be used to
approximate the device's location.
- Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS): GNSS, such as GPS (Global Positioning System), can
provide precise location information by leveraging signals from satellites. Mobile devices equipped
with GNSS receivers can determine their latitude, longitude, and altitude.
- Wi-Fi Positioning: Wi-Fi positioning uses the signal strength and characteristics of Wi-Fi access points
within range to estimate the device's location. This technique is commonly used in indoor environments
where GPS signals may be weak.
2. Location Registration:
Location registration is the process of informing the network infrastructure about the current location
of a mobile device. When a device enters a new network coverage area or changes its location
significantly, it registers its updated location with the network. This allows the network to track the
device's movements and efficiently route communication requests.
3. Location Updating:
Location updating involves periodic updates of the mobile device's location information to the network.
This ensures that the network infrastructure has the latest location details and can optimize services and
communication routing. Location updates can be triggered by events such as cell changes, time
intervals, or user-defined thresholds.
4. Paging and Call Delivery:
Location management enables the network to efficiently deliver incoming calls or messages to the
mobile device. When a call or message arrives, the network uses the stored location information to
identify the current location of the device and initiate the paging process. Paging involves broadcasting
a signal to the cells or access points within the expected coverage area of the mobile device to locate
and establish the connection.
5. Handover Optimization:
Location management plays a crucial role in optimizing handover procedures. By tracking the location
of mobile devices, the network infrastructure can predict the need for handover and initiate the process
proactively to ensure seamless connectivity and minimize call drops.
Efficient location management is essential for mobile computing systems to provide location-based
services, handle communication requests, optimize network resources, and support various mobility-
related functionalities. It forms the foundation for enabling mobility and delivering personalized and
context-aware services to mobile users.

Tunneling and Encapsulation in mobile computing

Tunneling and encapsulation are techniques used in mobile computing to transmit data packets
over networks that may not natively support the original packet format or protocol. These
techniques help ensure compatibility and secure transmission between different network
segments. Here's an overview of tunneling and encapsulation in mobile computing:
1. Encapsulation:
Encapsulation involves enclosing a data packet within another packet format or protocol. It is
used when the original packet format is incompatible with the network infrastructure or when
additional functionalities need to be added for secure transmission. The original packet
becomes the payload of the encapsulating packet. Encapsulation adds headers and possibly
other control information to the original packet, allowing it to be transmitted across the
network.
For example, in mobile computing, IP packets can be encapsulated within other protocols such
as GRE (Generic Routing Encapsulation), IPsec (IP Security), or L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling
Protocol) for various purposes such as adding security, enabling virtual private networks
(VPNs), or traversing network boundaries.
2. Tunneling:
Tunneling involves encapsulating packets within a different network protocol and forwarding
them across a network that does not natively support the original packet format. It allows the
transmission of packets through intermediate networks by creating a virtual tunnel between the
source and destination networks.
In mobile computing, tunneling is often used to transmit packets across networks that have
different protocols or network architectures. For example:
- Mobile IP: Mobile IP uses tunneling to enable a mobile device to maintain its IP address and
ongoing connections while moving between different networks. The original IP packets are
encapsulated within a tunneling protocol, such as GRE, as they are routed between the home
network and the foreign network.
- VPNs: Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) create secure tunnels over public networks, such as
the Internet, to transmit data securely. Data packets are encapsulated within a secure protocol,
such as IPsec or SSL/TLS, for secure transmission between the VPN endpoints.
- IPv6 over IPv4: Tunneling is used to transmit IPv6 packets over IPv4 networks that do not
support IPv6 natively. The IPv6 packets are encapsulated within IPv4 packets, allowing them
to traverse the IPv4 network infrastructure.
Tunneling and encapsulation ensure interoperability between different network segments and
enable the transmission of data packets across networks with different protocols or network
architectures. They provide flexibility, security, and compatibility in mobile computing
environments, allowing seamless communication between mobile devices and network
resources.

Conventional TCP/IP Transport Layer Protocol

The transport layer is responsible for error-free, end-to-end delivery of data from
the source host to the destination host. It corresponds to the transport layer of the
OSI model.
The functions of the transport layer are −

• It facilitates the communicating hosts to carry on a conversation.

• It provides an interface for the users to the underlying network.
 • It can provide for a reliable connection. It can also carry out error checking,
flow control, and verification.
The protocols used in this layer are −

• Transmission Control Protocol, TCP − It is a reliable connection-oriented

protocol that transmits data from the source to the destination machine
without any error. A connection is established between the peer entities
prior to transmission. At the sending host, TCP divides an incoming byte
stream into segments and assigns a separate sequence number to each
segment. At the receiving host, TCP reorders the segments and sends an
acknowledgment to the sender for correct receipt of segments. TCP also
manages flow control so that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slow
receiver.
• User Datagram Protocol, UDP − It is a message-oriented protocol that
provides a simple unreliable, connectionless, unacknowledged service. It is
suitable for applications that do not require TCP’s sequencing, error control
or flow control. It is used for transmitting a small amount of data where the
speed of delivery is more important than the accuracy of delivery.
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol, SCTP − It combines the features of
both TCP and UDP. It is message oriented like the UDP, which providing
the reliable, connection-oriented service like TCP. It is used for telephony
over the Internet.
The following diagram shows the transport layer in the TCP/IP protocol suite −

Introduction of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)

MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless Adhoc network or Adhoc
wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer
ad hoc network.. They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-
configured, self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free
to move randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router
as they forward traffic to other specified nodes in the network.
MANET may operate a standalone fashion or they can be part of larger internet. They form a
highly dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple different
transceivers between nodes. The main challenge for the MANET is to equip each device to
continuously maintain the information required to properly route traffic. MANETs consist of a
peer-to-peer, self-forming, self-healing network MANET’s circa 2000-2015 typically
communicate at radio frequencies (30MHz-5GHz). This can be used in road safety, ranging
from sensors for the environment, home, health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy
defense, weapons, robots, etc.
Characteristics of MANET –
Dynamic Topologies:
Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and rapidly with time, it
can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to
a wired network
Autonomous Behavior:
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behavior.
Energy Constrained Operation:
As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy. Mobile
nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight features.
Limited Security:
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is absent due to
the distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host configuration.
Less Human Intervention:
They require minimum human intervention to configure the network, therefore they are
dynamically autonomous in nature.
Pros and Cons of MANET –
Pros:
• Separation from central network administration.
• Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
• Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human intervention.
• Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub.
Cons:
 • Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions, etc.
• Lack of authorization facilities.
• More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
• High latency i.e. There is a huge delay in the transfer of data between two sleeping
nodes.

UNIT VI

Mobile Agents in Mobile Computing

In Mobile Computing, Mobile Agents are the composition of computer software and data that
can autonomously move from one computer to another computer and continue its execution on
the destination computer.

In other words, you can say that An Mobile Agent is an autonomous program that is capable
of moving from host to host in a network and interact with resources and other agents. In this
process, the chance of data loss is scarce because the state of the running program is saved and
then transported to the new host. It allows the program to continue execution from where it left
off before migration. The most significant advantage of mobile agents is the possibility of
moving complex processing functions to the location where you have enormous amounts of
data and that have to be processed.

Mobile Agents are also called as transportable agents. They are classified into two types:

o Mobile Agents with pre-defined path: They have a static migration path.
o Mobile Agents with undefined path i.e., Roamer: They have dynamic
migration paths. The mobile agents choose their path according to the present
network condition.

Life Cycle of Mobile Agents

The life cycle of mobile agents ensures the following conditions:

o They can adapt to the environment. For example, either home or foreign environment.
o They are capable of switching among the positions of one node to another.
o They are autonomous and focused on the final output.
Advantages of Mobile Agents
The following are some advantages of mobile agents over conventional agents:

o Mobile Agents are autonomous and self-driven in nature.

o They are maintenance-friendly or easily maintainable.
o They are Fault-tolerant. It means they are able to operate without an active connection
between client and server.
o They reduce the compilation time.
o They provide less delay in the network.
o They provide fewer loads on the network.
o They facilitate parallel processing. It means they can be asynchronously executed on
multiple heterogeneous network hosts.
o They provide dynamic adaptation in which their actions are dependent on the state of
the host environment.

Disadvantages of Mobile Agents

The following are some disadvantages of mobile agents:

o The most significant disadvantage of mobile agents is their security. They are less
secured

Applications of Mobile Agents

Mobile agents are used in the following applications:
 o Mobile Agents are applied in a wide range of domains such as E-commerce, traffic
control, network management, robotics, data-intensive applications etc.
o They are also used in grid computing, parallel computing, distributed computing and
mobile computing etc.

Mobile file system

A mobile file system is a software component that manages the organization, storage, and retrieval of files
and data on mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices. It provides an interface
for users and applications to access and manipulate files and directories on the device's storage.

Here are some key features and characteristics of mobile file systems:
1. File Organization: Mobile file systems handle the organization of files and directories on the device's
storage. They typically provide a hierarchical structure with directories (folders) and files. The file system
manages naming, location, and metadata associated with each file.
2. File Access and Permissions: Mobile file systems enforce access control and permissions for files and
directories. They ensure that only authorized users or applications can access or modify specific files.
Permissions may include read, write, execute, and ownership rights.
3. File Storage: Mobile file systems manage the physical storage of files on the device's internal memory,
external memory (such as SD cards), or cloud storage. They handle tasks like allocating storage space,
managing file fragmentation, and optimizing storage efficiency.
4. File Metadata: Mobile file systems store metadata associated with files, including attributes like file name,
size, creation date, modification date, file type, and file permissions. Metadata allows for efficient file
searching, sorting, and retrieval.
5. File Sharing and Synchronization: Mobile file systems often provide features for sharing files with other
devices or users. They enable file transfer via wireless communication protocols like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or
NFC. Some mobile file systems also support file synchronization across multiple devices or cloud storage,
ensuring consistency and accessibility across different platforms.
6. File Compression and Encryption: Mobile file systems may support file compression to reduce storage
space usage and optimize data transfer. Encryption features can also be provided to secure files and protect
sensitive data from unauthorized access.
7. File System Performance: Mobile file systems aim to optimize performance for mobile devices, which
have limited processing power, memory, and battery life. They employ techniques like caching, buffering,
and file system optimizations to enhance read and write operations, minimize latency, and reduce power
consumption.
Examples of mobile file systems include:
- FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32): A widely used file system supported by various operating systems and
compatible with many mobile devices.
- exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table): A newer file system that supports larger file sizes and storage
capacities than FAT32.

- Ext4 (Fourth Extended File System): A file system commonly used in Android devices based on the Linux
kernel.
- APFS (Apple File System): The default file system used in Apple's macOS, iOS, and other Apple devices.
The choice of mobile file system depends on the underlying operating system, device specifications,
performance requirements, and compatibility with other devices and platforms’

Mobile Operating Systems

Mobile operating systems (OS) are specialized software platforms designed to run on mobile
devices such as smartphones, tablets, and wearables. These OSs provide a user interface,
manage hardware resources, and enable users to run applications on their mobile devices. Here
are some popular mobile operating systems:
1. Android: Developed by Google, Android is the most widely used mobile operating system
globally. It is based on the Linux kernel and offers a highly customizable and open-source
platform. Android supports a vast ecosystem of applications through the Google Play Store and
provides features like multitasking, notifications, and integration with Google services.
2. iOS: Developed by Apple, iOS is the proprietary operating system used exclusively on
Apple's mobile devices, including iPhones, iPads, and iPod Touch. It offers a seamless user
experience, tightly integrated with Apple's hardware and services. iOS is known for its security,
stability, and curated App Store with a wide range of applications optimized for Apple devices.
3. Windows 10 Mobile: Windows 10 Mobile is a mobile operating system developed by
Microsoft. It is based on the Windows NT kernel and provides a unified experience across
different devices, including smartphones and tablets. However, Microsoft announced the end
of support for Windows 10 Mobile in 2019, indicating a shift in focus towards other platforms.
4. BlackBerry OS: Developed by BlackBerry Limited (formerly Research In Motion),
BlackBerry OS was the operating system used on BlackBerry smartphones. It offered features
like secure email, messaging, and enterprise-oriented functionality. However, BlackBerry OS
has been largely phased out, and BlackBerry devices now run Android OS.
5. Tizen: Tizen is an open-source operating system backed by the Linux Foundation and
supported by the Tizen Association, which includes companies like Samsung and Intel. Tizen
is designed for various devices, including smartphones, smart TVs, wearables, and IoT
(Internet of Things) devices. Samsung uses Tizen as the primary OS for its smartwatches and
some smartphones.
6. KaiOS: KaiOS is a lightweight operating system designed for feature phones, providing
smartphone-like functionalities on low-cost devices. It focuses on enabling internet
connectivity, apps, and services on devices with limited hardware capabilities. KaiOS is
gaining popularity in emerging markets and has partnerships with various mobile phone
manufacturers.
Each mobile operating system has its own features, user interface, and ecosystem of
applications. The choice of mobile OS depends on factors such as device compatibility, user
preferences, available applications, security, and integration with other devices or services.

Basic functionality of Operating Systems: Window 8

Windows 8 is an operating system developed by Microsoft and is the predecessor
to Windows 10. It introduced several new features and improvements over its
predecessor, Windows 7. Here are some of the basic functionalities of Windows
8:
1. Start Screen: Windows 8 introduced a new Start Screen, which replaced the
traditional Start Menu. The Start Screen consists of a grid of live tiles that provide
real-time updates from applications and allow quick access to programs, files,
and settings.
2. Modern UI (formerly known as Metro): Windows 8 introduced a new user
interface called Modern UI, characterized by its tile-based design and touch-
friendly interface. It provided a consistent experience across different devices,
including desktops, laptops, and tablets.
3. Charms Bar: Windows 8 introduced the Charms Bar, a set of icons that appear
when swiping from the right side of the screen. The Charms Bar provides quick
access to system functions like search, share, settings, devices, and the Start
Screen.
4. Touch Support: Windows 8 was designed to work well with touch-based
devices. It introduced touch gestures and optimized the user interface for touch
interaction, allowing users to navigate, scroll, zoom, and perform other actions
using touch.
5. App Store: Windows 8 introduced the Microsoft Store (formerly known as
Windows Store), which is a centralized marketplace for downloading and
installing applications. The store offered a wide range of apps, including
productivity tools, games, and entertainment applications.
6. Improved Performance: Windows 8 included performance improvements over
its predecessor, such as faster boot times, better resource management, and
improved power efficiency. These enhancements aimed to provide a more
responsive and efficient user experience.
7. Windows Defender: Windows 8 included Windows Defender as the built-in
antivirus and anti-malware solution. It provided real-time protection against
viruses, spyware, and other malicious software.
8. Integration with Cloud Services: Windows 8 integrated with Microsoft's cloud
services, such as OneDrive (formerly known as SkyDrive), allowing users to store
files and settings in the cloud for access across multiple devices.
9. Multi-monitor Support: Windows 8 introduced improved multi-monitor
support, allowing users to extend their desktop across multiple displays and
customize display settings for each monitor.
10. Improved Task Manager: Windows 8 featured an updated Task Manager that
provided a more detailed and user-friendly interface for managing running
processes, monitoring system performance, and optimizing resource usage.
These are some of the basic functionalities of Windows 8. It aimed to provide a
modern, touch-friendly interface while maintaining compatibility with traditional
desktop applications.

Basic functionality of Operating Systems: iOS

iOS is the operating system developed by Apple Inc. for its mobile devices,
including iPhones, iPads, and iPod Touch. It is known for its sleek and intuitive
interface and offers a range of functionalities. Here are some of the basic
functionalities of iOS:
1. Home Screen: iOS features a grid of app icons on the Home Screen, which
users can tap to launch applications. The layout is customizable, allowing users
to organize apps into folders and rearrange them according to their preferences.
2. Multitasking: iOS allows users to switch between multiple applications
seamlessly. Users can double-click the home button or use gesture-based controls
to access the App Switcher, which displays recently used apps. It enables users to
switch between apps or close them as needed.
3. Control Center: iOS includes a Control Center that can be accessed by swiping
up from the bottom of the screen. It provides quick access to essential settings
and controls, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, screen brightness, volume, music
playback, flashlight, and more.
4. Siri: Siri is Apple's virtual assistant integrated into iOS. Users can activate Siri
by voice or by holding down the home button. Siri can perform various tasks,
including answering questions, setting reminders, sending messages, making
phone calls, and controlling device settings.
5. Notifications: iOS delivers notifications for incoming calls, messages, emails,
and other events. Notifications appear as banners or alerts and can be accessed by
swiping down from the top of the screen. Users can manage and customize
notification settings for each app.
6. App Store: iOS includes the App Store, a centralized marketplace for
downloading and installing applications. The App Store offers a wide range of
apps, including games, productivity tools, social media platforms, entertainment
apps, and more.
7. iCloud: iOS integrates with Apple's cloud service, iCloud. iCloud allows users
to store and sync data, such as photos, contacts, calendars, notes, and documents,
across multiple devices. It also provides backup and restore functionality for iOS
devices.
8. Face ID and Touch ID: iOS devices feature biometric authentication methods.
Face ID uses facial recognition technology to unlock the device and authorize
purchases, while Touch ID uses fingerprint recognition. These security features
enhance device security and user privacy.
9. Camera and Photos: iOS devices come with a built-in camera app for capturing
photos and videos. The Photos app allows users to manage and edit their photos
and videos, organizing them into albums, applying filters, and sharing them with
others.
10. Safari Web Browser: iOS includes the Safari web browser for browsing the
internet. Safari supports tabbed browsing, bookmarks, private browsing mode,
and syncing of bookmarks and tabs across devices.
These are some of the basic functionalities of iOS. Apple regularly updates iOS
with new features and improvements, enhancing the user experience and
introducing innovative capabilities.

Basic functionality of Operating Systems: Android OS

Android is an operating system developed by Google for mobile devices such as
smartphones, tablets, smartwatches, and smart TVs. It is based on the Linux
kernel and offers a range of functionalities. Here are some of the basic
functionalities of Android OS:
1. Home Screen: Android features a customizable home screen where users can
place app icons, widgets, and shortcuts. Users can organize apps into folders,
rearrange items, and choose from a variety of home screen layouts and
wallpapers.
2. App Drawer: Android uses an app drawer to store all installed applications.
Users can access the app drawer by tapping the app drawer icon on the home
screen. It provides a complete list of installed apps and allows users to search for
specific apps.
3. Multitasking: Android supports multitasking, allowing users to switch between
multiple apps seamlessly. Users can access the Recent Apps screen by tapping the
Recent Apps button or using gesture-based controls. It enables users to switch
between recent apps or close them as needed.
4. Google Assistant: Android integrates Google Assistant, a voice-controlled
virtual assistant. Users can activate Google Assistant by voice or by long-pressing
the home button. It can perform various tasks, answer questions, set reminders,
send messages, make phone calls, and control device settings.
5. Notifications: Android delivers notifications for incoming calls, messages,
emails, app updates, and other events. Notifications appear in the notification
shade, which can be accessed by swiping down from the top of the screen. Users
can manage and interact with notifications, including dismissing them or
expanding them for more information.
6. Google Play Store: Android includes the Google Play Store, a marketplace for
downloading and installing applications. The Play Store offers a vast selection of
apps, including games, productivity tools, social media platforms, entertainment
apps, and more.
7. Google Services Integration: Android seamlessly integrates with various
Google services, such as Google Search, Google Maps, Gmail, Google Calendar,
and Google Drive. These services provide additional functionalities and allow
users to sync data across devices.
8. Customizability: Android offers extensive customization options. Users can
personalize their device by choosing different themes, wallpapers, and icon
packs. They can also install third-party launchers, widgets, and customization
apps to further customize the user interface.
9. Google Photos: Android devices come with Google Photos, a cloud-based
photo and video management app. It allows users to back up their photos and
videos, organize them into albums, perform basic editing tasks, and share them
with others.
10. Google Chrome Browser: Android includes the Google Chrome web browser
for browsing the internet. Chrome supports tabbed browsing, bookmarks,
incognito mode, and syncing of bookmarks and tabs across devices.
These are some of the basic functionalities of Android OS. Android offers a
versatile and open platform, allowing users to customize their devices, access a
wide range of apps, and benefit from Google's ecosystem of services and features.