CN

Introduction to AI

Syllabus
MAN

Introduction of Artificial Intelligence, Historical backdrop, Al Problems, Al

technique, production systems, problem characteristics, production systems
characteristics.
STOOMDECORDS

1.1
Introduction to Artificial
Intelligence

John McCarthy who has coined the word “Artificial Intelligence”

in 1956, has defined AI as “the science and engineering of
making intelligent machines”, especially intelligent computer
programs. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is relevant to any
intellectual task where the machine needs to take some
decision or choose the next action based on the current state
of the system, in short act intelligently or rationally. As it has a
very wide range of applications, it is truly a universal field. In
simple words, Artificial Intelligent System works like a Human
Brain, where a machine or software shows intelligence while
performing given tasks; such systems are called intelligent
systems or expert systems. You can say that these systems
can “think”.while generating output!!!. Al is one of the newest
fields in science and engineering and has a wide variety of
application fields. Al applications range from the general
fields like learning, perception and prediction to the specific
field, such as writing stories, proving mathematical theorems,
driving a bus on a crowded street, diagnosing diseases, and
playing chess. AI is the study of how to make machines do thing
which at the moment people do better. Section 1.1.1 shows the
four approaches to define AI.

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1.1.
1
AI
Approache
s

1.
Acting
humanly
2.
 Thinking
humanly

3.
Thinking rationally
4.
Acting
rationally

1.1.1(A) Acting Humanly: The Turing

Test Approach
Definition 1: “The art of creating machines that perform functions
that.
requires intelligence when performed by
people."
(Kurzweil, 1990) Definition 2: “The study of how to make
computers do things at which, at
the moment, people are better.” (Rich and Knight,
1991)
To judge whether the system can act like a human, Sir Alan
Turing had designed a test known as Turing test.
As shown in Fig. 1.1.1, in Turing test, a computer needs to interact
with a human interrogator by answering his questions in
written format. Computer passes the test if a human
interrogator, cannot identify whether the written responses
are from a person or a computer. Turing test is valid even after 60
year of research.
ARAN

Human

Human
interrogator
Al System

Fig. 1.1.1: Turing Test Environment For this test,

the computer would need to possess the following
capabilities : 1. Natural Language Processing (NLP) :
This unit enables computer
to interpret the English language and communicate successfully.
2. Knowledge Representation : This unit is used to store
knowledge
gathered by the system through input
devices.
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3. Automated Reasoning : This unit enables to analyze the
knowledge
 stored in the system and makes new inferences to answer
questions. Machine Learning : This unit learns new
knowledge by taking current input from the environment
and adapts to new circumstances,
thereby enhancing the knowledgebase of the system. To
pass total Turing test, the computer will also need to have
computer vision, which is required to perceive objects from
the environment and Robotics, to manipulate those objects.
Capabilities a Computer needs to
Possess

Natural
Language
Processing
Knowledge
Representation |
Automated Reasoning
Machine
Leaming
Computer
vision
Robotics

Fig. 1.1.2: Capabilities a Computer

needs to possess
:

Fig. 1.1.2 lists all the capabilities a computer needs to have in

order to exhibit artificial intelligence. Mentioned above are
the six disciplines which implement most of the artificial
 intelligence. If the programs aim to simulate human
performance, then it the criterion for success would be the
extent to which the program is able to perform like human and
it should also fail when human do. It is often possible to
develop a program that satisfies some standards of the
human intelligence by doing part of the task in intelligent
way or the way a human can do it.

When we design an Al program, we should at least attempt to

satisfy the criteria for success in that limited problem domain.

1.1.1(B) Thinking Humanly: The Cognitive

Modelling Approach
Definition 1:. “The exciting new effort to make computers think ..
machines with minds, in the full and literal sense”.
(Haugeland, 1985).

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Definition 2: “The automation of activities that we associate with human

thinking, activities such as decision making,
problem
 solving, learning ..." (Hellman, 1978) Cognitive science :
It is interdisciplinary field which combines computer models from
Artificial Intelligence with the techniques from psychology in order to
construct precise and testable theories for working of human
mind. In order to make machines think like human, we need
to first understand how human think. Research showed that
there are three ways using which human's thinking pattern can
be caught. 1. Introspection through which human can catch
their own thoughts as
they go by. 2. Psychological experiments can be carried out
by observing a person
in action. 3. Brain imaging can be done by observing the
brain in action. By catching the human thinking pattern, it can
be implemented in computer system as a program and if the
program's input output matches with that of human, then it can
be claimed that the system can operate like humans.
1.1.1(C) Thinking Rationally: The “Laws of
Thought" Approach

Definition 1:
“The study of mental faculties through the
use of computational models”. (Charniak and
McDermott, 1985) “The study of the computations
that make it possible to perceive, reason, and act”.
Definition 2:
 The laws of thought are supposed to implement the operation of the
mind and their study initiated the field called logic. It provides
precise notations to express facts of the real world. It also
includes reasoning and “right thinking that is irrefutable
thinking process. Also computer programs based on those
logic notations were
developed to create intelligent systems. There are two
problems in this approach : 1. This approach is not suitable to
use when 100% knowledge is not available
for any problem.
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2. As vast number of computations was required even to

implement a simple
human reasoning process; practically, all problems were
not solvable because even problems with just a few hundred
facts can exhaust the
computational resources of any computer.
1.1.1(D) Acting Rationally: The Rational
 Agent Approach

Definition 1:
“Computational Intelligence is the study of the
design of intelligent agents”. (Poole et at, 1998)
“Al ... is concerned with intelligent behaviour in
artifacts”. (Nilsson, 1998)
Definition
2:

Rational Agent

Agents perceive their environment through sensors over

a prolonged time period and adapt to change to create and
pursue goals and take actions through actuators to achieve
those goals. A rational agent is the one that does “right" things
and acts rationally so as to achieve the best outcome even when
there is uncertainty in knowledge.

The rational-agent approach has two advantages over

the other approaches 1. As compared to other approaches
this is the more general approach as,
rationality can be achieved by selecting the correct
inference from the
Rationality has specific standards and
several available. 2.
is mathematically well defined
and completely general and can be used to develop
 agent designs that achieve it. Human behavior, on the
other hand, is very subjective and cannot be proved
mathematically.
The two approaches namely, thinking humanly and thinking
rationally are based on the reasoning expected from intelligent
systems while; the other two acting humanly and acting
rationally are based on the intelligent behaviour expected from
them.

In our syllabus we are going to study acting rationally

approach.
.

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1.1.2 Task Domains

of AI (1) Mundane
Tasks
• Perception
o Vision O Speech
Natural
Languages o
Understanding o
 Generation O
Translation
Common sense
reasoning
• Robot
Control (2) Formal
Tasks
Games : chess,
checkers etc
• Mathematics : Geometry, logic, Proving properties
of programs (3) Expert Tasks
Engineering (Design, Fault finding,
Manufacturing planning)
Scientific
Analysis
• Medical Diagnosis
• Financial
Analysis 1.2 Historical
Backdrop

•
The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) was introduced by John
McCarthy, in 1955. He defined artificial intelligence as “The
science and engineering of making intelligent machines”.
Mathematician Alan Turing and others presented a study based
 on 103 driven computational theories which showed that any
computer program can work by simply shuffling “0” and “1”
(i.e. electricity off and electrica on). Also, during that time
period, research was going on in the areas Automations,
Neurology, Control theory, Information theory, etc.
Teclado

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This inspired a group of researchers to think about the
possibility of creating an electronic brain. In the year 1956 a
conference was conducted at the campus of Dartmouth College
where the field of artificial intelligence research was founded.
This conference was attended by John McCarthy, Marvin
Minsky, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, etc., who are
supposed to be the pioneers of artificial intelligence research for
a very long time. During that time period, Artificial Intelligence systems
were developed by these researchers and their students. Let's see
few examples of such artificial intelligent systems: o Game
- Checkers : Computer played as an opponent,
Education - Algebra : For solving word problems, O
Education - Math : Proving logical theorems, o Education
- Language : Speaking English, etc. During that time period
these founders predicted that in few years machines can do
 any work that a man can do, but they failed to recognize the
difficulties which can be faced. Meanwhile we will see the ideas,
viewpoints and techniques which Artificial Intelligence has
inherited from other disciplines. They can be given as follows:
1. Philosophy : Theories of reasoning and learning have
emerged, along
with the view port that the mind is constituted by the operation of
a
physical system. 2. Mathematical : Formal theories of
logic, probability, decision making
and computation have emerged. 3. Psychology :
Psychology has emerged tools to investigate the human
mind and a scientific language which are used to express the
resulting
theories. 4. Linguistic : Theories of the structure and
meaning of language have
emerged. Computer science : The tools which can make
artificial intelligence a reality has emerged.
5.

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1.3
AI Problems

Early work in the field of Al focused on formal tasks, like

game playing, proving theorems, etc. Games like chess,
checkers received good deal of attention, because in case of
machine opponents, system was using the experience gained in
previous games to improve the moves in next game. General
Problem Solving (GPS) was developed for commonsense
reasoning problems.

GPS used less amount of knowledge for performing simple

tasks. When the knowledge base was scaled up for the
problems which needed perception through vision and/or
speech, natural language understanding, problem solving
for medical diagnosis, chemical analysis, etc. it was difficult
because it involved analog signals which are generally very
noisy compared to digital signals.

Following are some of the famous search problems in

artificial intelligence,
1.3.1 Classic Artificial Intelligence
Search Problems 1. 3*3*3 Rubik's cube
problem
 Do I need to explain the problem ? In Rubik's cube, we have a
cube with six color faces. The goal is to arrange all the
cuboids in such a way that each face of cube will show distinct
color as shown in the Fig. 1.3.1.

Fig. 1.3.1: Rubik's cube

Problem

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Introduction of Artificial Intelligence
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2.

4
| 12

3
1
1
 6
|7| 8
Initial State
Goal State
Fig. 1.3.2

In 8-puzzle there are 8 tiles need to be arranged in a way showed in

the goal state. The condition is only the blank tile can be moved to
immediate up down, right or left positions and the goal state is to be
attained in minimum number of moves.

3.
N-queen
problem

Fig. 1.3.3 : N-Queen

Problem

In n-queen, the queens need to be placed on the n * n board, in

such a way that no queen can dash the other queen,
horizontally, vertically or diagonally. The river problem

In this problem, a farmer needs to carry a wolf, a duck

and corn across a river. The farmer has a small rowing
boat, which can carry at most the farmer and one other thing.
 The problem is that, the wolf will eat the duck and the duck will
eat the corn, if they are at the same side. How can the farmer
safely transport the wolf, the duck and the corn to the
opposite shore ?

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Farmer, Wolf,
Duck and Com

River
River

Farmer, Wolf, Duck and Com

Fig. 1.3.4 : The river problem From the above

examples, it must be clear that AI problems are the one in
which there are few conditions specified and the aim is to not
only generate the solution but also to improve
performance of the system; because that is where the intelligence
of the system gets challenged. The term intelligence includes
many cognitive skills, like the ability to solve problems,
learn, interpret and understand language. Artificial
intelligence does address all of these, but more progress
has been made in the area of problem solving concepts and
methods. These techniques enable to build programs that
not only find solutions but also are able to reason about
problems. Problem areas of artificial intelligence are
flourishing as the need for expert systems to perform day to
day operations is increasing, which earlier required human
expertise. It can be observed from above sub-section that
artificial intelligence problems have a very large scope.
Also those artificial intelligence problems are vivid and hard
to solve. Over the decades few techniques have been
developed to make the problem solving simple and easy
to tackle. Research showed that intelligence requires
knowledge and knowledge holds some less desirable
properties like : o It is enormous. 0 It is tough to
characterize precisely. O It is dynamic.
It is structured in a way that matches to the ways it
will be used.
t

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This information is useful for developing Artificial Intelligence

techniques. As artificial intelligence technique makes use of
knowledge to develop solutions. To take care of the above
mentioned limitations, knowledge should be represented in
such a way that: 0 Knowledge captures generalization : In
simple words, it is not
necessary to represent every individual instance. Instead,
instances that share important properties are grouped together.
It is
If knowledge does not have any property it is called DATA. o
easily modifiable for resolving errors and to reflect
changes
with respect to the system. o It should be feasible
for more number of instances.
.

1.4
AI Techniques

Al has a very broad variety of problems and all of them require

different approaches or techniques to solve them. The
common factor of all these problems is that they require
knowledge and the knowledge in spite of being the most powerful
asset, it come with some limitations.
 It is voluminous
0
0
0
0

0 It is hard to characterize accurately O It is constantly

changing o The format is quite different to put it directly to
use Following are the artificial intelligence techniques that
behave intelligently and can handle all the above said limitations
of knowledge. 1. Describe and match 4. Constraint satisfaction
2. Goal reduction
5. Generate and
test | 3. Tree searching
6. Rule based system

Describe and match In this technique, system's behaviour

is explained in terms of a finite state model and computation
model.
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 Finite state model : It consists of a set of states, a set of input
events and the relations between them. Based on the current
state and an input event, the next state of the model can be
determined. Computation model : It is a finite state
machine which includes a set of states, a start state, a
transition function and an input alphabet. The transition
function provides mapping between input symbols and current
states to a next state. Transition relation : If a pair of states
(S, S') is such that one move takes the system from S to S,
then the transition relation is represented by S → S.
State-transition system is called deterministic if every
state has at most one successor; it is called
non-deterministic if at least one state has more than one
successor. Representation of the computational system
includes start and end state descriptions and a set of
possible transition rules that might be
applied. Problem is to find the appropriate
transition rules. Example:
Problem of Towers of Hanoi with two discs. The state
transitions are
shown for the
same. Problem
Definition
Initial state
Goal state
ДТІ
 ТА

Fig.
1.4.1
Move the disks from the leftmost post to the rightmost
post with following conditions : o A large disk can
never be put on top of a smaller one; o Only one disk can
be moved at a time, from one peg to another; 0 The
middle post is only to be used for intermediate storage.
Complete the task in the smallest number of moves
possible. Possible state transitions in the Towers of Hanoi
puzzle with 2 disks.

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(1,2) 0
0

123.00
 i
12000

LITUM 121
121 0 Lt

( [0] [1, 2]
[] [1, 2) |
[ 1U (2) (1) (2) (
Fig. 1.4.2

In this problem, the optimal solution is the sequence of transitions

from the start state downward to the extreme left branch
of the
transition
tree. 2. Tree searching
Tree searching is a very commonly used technique to
solve many problems. Goal reduction, constraint
networks are few of the areas. Tree is searched through
many nodes to obtain the goal node and it gives the path from
source node to destination node. If each node of the entire
tree is explored while search for the goal node, it is called
as exhaustive search. All the searching techniques of AI
are broadly classified as uninformed searching and
informed
searching. Classification of uninformed
 and informed searching
Informed Searching techniques
Sr.
No.
Un-informed Searching
Techniques

Depth First
Search
Hill Climbing

Breadth First
Search
Best First Search

Uniform Cost
Search
A*
Search

Depth Limited
Search
Iterative deepening
A*
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Sr.
Informed Searching
techniques
Un-informed
Searching
Techniques
No.

Iterative Deepening
DFS
Beam
Search

Bidirectional Search
AO* Search

3.
Goal
reduction

In goal reduction technique, the main goal is divided into

sub goals. It requires some procedures to follow. Goal
reduction procedures are an alternative to declarative and
logic based representations. Goal reduction process
 includes hierarchical sub division of goals into sub goals is
carried out until the sub goals have an immediate solution.
An AND-OR tree/graph structure can represent relations
between goals and sub-goals, alternative sub-goals and
conjoint sub-goals.
There are different goal levels. Higher-level goals are higher in
the tree, and lower level goals are lower in the tree. There
are directed arcs from a higher level to lower level nodes,
representing the reduction of higher level goal to lower level
sub goals. Nodes are at the leaf nodes of
the tree. These goals cannot be
divided further. Example
An AND-OR tree structure to represent facts such as
“enjoyment”, "earning/save money”, “old age” etc.
Improve enjoyment of life

OR
Provide for old
eage
Provide for old
eage a

Save
money o
Improve standard
of living
Work less hard

improve
 standard O
And

Save money

am more
money
Eam more money
OR

Go on
strike
Improve productivity And-Or treelgraph structure

Fig. 1.4.3

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4.
The AND-OR tree structure describes following
things :
Hierarchical relationships between goals and sub-goals
o The “Earn more money", is a sub-goal of "Improve
standard of
living”, which in turn is a sub-goal of “Improve
enjoyment of life”. Alternative ways of trying to solve a
goal O The "Go on strike" and "Improve productivity" are
alternative
ways of trying to “Earn more money”. Conjoint sub-goals
o These are the goal which depends on more than one
sub-goals. O TO “Provide for old age”, not only need to
"Earn more money", but
also need to "Save
money”. Constraint
satisfaction
Constraint satisfaction is a process of generating solution
that satisfies all the specified constraints for a given
problem. There are variable which needs to get assigned
values from a specific domain.
To generate the solution it uses backtracking mechanism.
The optimal solution is the one which is generated in
minimum number of backtracks and satisfies all the
constraints, thereby assigning proper values to each of
the variable. There are multiple fields having application of
constraint satisfaction. Artificial Intelligence, Programming
Languages, Symbolic Computing,
and Computational Logic are few of
them to name. Example
N-queen problem, as in this problem the queens are the
variables to whom a position in an n * n matrix need to be
assigned, which is a value for those variables. Also the
problem states some conditions on placement of those'
queens (variable), i.e. no two queens can clash
either horizontally, vertically or diagonally. Generate and
test . It is the simplest form of searching technique.
Generate-and-test
method first generates a node in the search tree and then
checks for whether it's a goal node. It involves two processes
as shown in Fig. 1.4.4.
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(a) Generate the successor node. (b) Test

to match it with each of the proposed goal
node.
Generate
Solution Node

Goal
Test

6.
Fig. 1.4.4: Generate and Test As there are many unfruitful nodes gets
generated during this process,
it's not a very efficient technique.
Example
Problem of opening a combination lock by trial and error
 technique
without knowing the combination.
Rule based system
Rule based systems are the simplest and most useful
systems. In its simplest form they have set of rules, an
interpreter and input from the environment. Rules are of the
form IF<condition> THEN <action>
Change
Interprostor
Conditions
Rules Working
ESObserved
data
memory

Rulo-based
system

Fig. 1.4.5: Rule Based

System

Rule based system components are as follows: (a) Working

memory or knowledge base : It stores the facts of
the outside world that are observed currently. It may take a form of
a triplet <Object, Attribute, Value>,

(b)
For example : To represent the fact that "The colour of my car is black”, the
 knowledgebase will store <car, colour black> triplet.
Rule base : Rule base is the basic part of the system. It
contains all the rules. Rules are generated from the
domain knowledge and can be used or modified based on
the current observations.

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For example : IF <(temperature, over,

20)>
THEN <add (ocean, swimmable, yes)> While using a
particular rule, first the conditions are matched to the
current observations and if satisfied, then rule may be
fired. Interpreter : It performs the matching of the
rule with respect to the current precepts observed in the
environment. It has three repetitive tasks to follow :
Retrieval of the matching rule, refinement of the rule and
execution of the rule by performing the corresponding
action.
(c)
1.5
Production
Systems

Production system is a mechanism that describes and performs the

search process. It consists of :
1. A global database 2. A
set of production rules and
3. A control system A production system consists of rules
and factors. Knowledge is encoded in a declarative from which
comprises of a set of rules of the form Situation -Action
i.e. SITUATION that implies
ACTION. Example
IF the initial state is a goal state THEN quit. The goal database is
the central data structure used by an Al production system. The
production rules operate on the global database. Each rule has a
precondition that is either satisfied or not by the database. If the
precondition is satisfied, the rule can be applied. Application of
the rule changes the database. The control system chooses which
applicable rule should be applied and finishes computation when a
termination condition on the database is satisfied. If several rules are to
fire at the same time, the control system resolves the conflicts.

1
.5.1
1. 2.
Four Classes of Production
Systems A monotonic
production system A non
monotonic production system
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4.
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Introduction of Artificial Intelligence (GTU) 1-18 A
partially commutative
production system A commutative production system.
Table 1.5.1: The four categories of
production system

Monotonic Non-monotonic

Partially commutative
Theorem proving
Robot navigation

Not partially commutative Chemical synthesis

Bridge
Advantages of Production
Systems
2.
1. Production systems provide an excellent tool for structuring
AI programs.
Production Systems are highly modular because the
individual rules can be
added, removed or modified independently. 3. The production
rules are expressed in a natural form, so the statements
contained in the knowledge base should be according to
an expert thinking. Disadvantage of Production Systems
One important disadvantage is the fact that it may be very
difficult analyse the flow of control within a production system
because the individual rules don't call each other.

1.6
Problem
Characteristics

In order to choose the most appropriate method(s) for a

particular problem, must analyze the problem along several dimensions.
Following are few of the possible dimensions, by analyzing which we
can have a fair idea about the characteristics and type of problem.
1. Is the problem Decomposable ?
to the problem can be divided into small pieces which are independent of
och other for execution, then it is called as decomposable problem. Few
woms can be partially decomposable. i.e. few steps can be cut into small
 forts and can be executed independently and few parts are need to be taken
together for execution because of their mutual dependencies. Example
: Block world problem.

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2.
Can the solution steps be ignored or
undone ?

Three types of problem can be considered under this title. a.

Solving a theorem : If we proceed to prove a lemma which
turns out
to be no use, we can easily backtrack because all of the
initial information is still true and in memory. Any rules that
could have been applied at any stage, still can. We will only
loose the effort exploring the dead end. The 8 puzzle game :
Moving any tile to solve the problem may or not take us
towards a solution. A dumb move can be undone using
backtracking. It requires more effort to undo than the
theorem example, but it is possible. The player need to keep
track of what
 moves were made. c. Chess game : Making a dumb move
here cannot be backtracked or
restarted, must make the best of a bad situation. The
recoverability of a problem influences the complexity of the
control structure used. These three are the examples of
following three types of problems based on the recoverability,
Three types of problem
Ignorable Problem : in which steps can be ignored. These are
easy problems. Recoverable Problem : in which solution steps can
be undone. Recoverable requires a more complicated
strategy. Backtracking will be necessary to recover, so the
control structure must use a push down stack to record
decisions. Irrecoverable Problem : in which solution steps cannot be
undone. Irrecoverable can use some sort of planning. Examine
several steps before one is actually playing the next step. Is the
problem universe predictable ?
You can plan the 8 puzzle. You know what will happen every
time you move a square. Therefore a control structure that allows
backtracking will be necessary. However, this may not be so
in other situations. For example, Playing cards. While playing
cards, one need to investigate several plans and try to use
probabilities to choose a plan that may lead to a good score; as we
don't know which card to play first as we have no clue about the
location of all other cards.

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illustrates certain outcome and uncertain outcome problems. Certain outcome

problems can be easily planned, not so with uncertain.
To solve uncertain outcome problems, one need to allow for plan revision as
an initial plan is carried out and feedback is provided. The characteristics
ignorable, recoverable and irrecoverable and certain and uncertain
interact.

Already stated that to solve an irrecoverable problem, plan an entire

solution. But, it is only possible with certain outcome problems. So one of
the hardest problems to solve will be irrecoverable uncertain
outcome. Example : Playing cards, Helping a lawyer to
decide how to defend a client against a murder charge. Is a
 good solution relative or absolute ? In the problems like,
travelling salesman or any resolution problem, there are many
possible ways to arrive at solution. Then how do one judge that
the solution found is best or not. For that we require to find other
solutions and then compare. Is the solution a state or a path to a
state ? In some problem finding the required solution itself is
sufficient and does not requires to show the solution path.
However, in some problem the solution path carries some meaning
or the process to reach till the solution is important. For example :
For natural language understanding, the interaction among the
interpretations of the constituents of a sentence may cause ambiguity. To solve
the problem of finding the interpretation required, we need to produce only the
interpretation itself, the workings are not necessary, However,
for the jug
problem, the final state of (2,0) is not sufficient. What is required is
the path to the solution. What is the role of knowledge ?
Knowledge base in a vital part of any problem. In various problem it plays
various levels of roles. Consider the following two situations.
Plaving chess. Even with unlimited computing power, the only knowledge
required is the legal moves, and an appropriate search engine. Additional
knowledge will help, but is not essential.

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 Introduction to AI

b. Scanning a paper to see which party they support need

names of party
members, party objectives and the association with people.
In the first instance, a lot of knowledge helps to constrain the
search for a solution. In the second, need a lot of knowledge to
even recognise a solution. Does the task require interaction
with a person ? There are few problems which require the
human intervention and for few it won't be required. Consider
the two types of problem here : a. Solitary problem : in which
the computer is given a problem
description and produces an answer with no intermediate
communication and no demand for an explanation of the
reasoning
process.

b. Conversational Problem : in which there is intermediate

communication between a person and the computer,
either to provide additional assistance to the computer
or to provide additional
information to the user, or both. Looking at these questions,
it is clear that there are several broad classes of problems.
These classes can be associated with generic control strategies
appropriate to solving the problem. Classification Problem :
examine input and classify. Example : medical diagnosis.

Propose and refine : design and planning problems. There

is no one single way of solving all problems. However, each
 new problem need not be considered in isolation.

1.7
Production System
Characteristics

Production systems describe the operations that can be

performed in a search for a solution to the problem. They can be
classified as follows:
Monotonic production system : A system in which the application
of a rule never prevents the later application of another rule that
could have also been applied at the time the first rule was
selected.

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...Nonm

Non.monotonic production system: A non-monoton " system is one

in which this is not true. Part
ially commutative production system : A production system in which the
application of a particular sequence of rules transforms state X into state Y,
then any permutation of those rules that is allowable also transforms state x into
state Y. A partially commutative production system is a proud.com system
with the property that if the application of a particular sequence rules
transforms state x into state y then any permutation of those rules that is
allowable (i.e. each rules preconditions are satisfied when it is applied) also
transforms state x into state y. Partially commutative, monotonic
production systems are useful for solving ignorable problems.
Commutative production system : A commutative production
system is a production system that is both monotonic and
partially commutative. Theorem proving falls under
monotonic partially communicative system. Blocks world and 8
puzzle problems like chemical analysis and synthesis come under
monotonic, not partially commutative systems. Playing the game
of bridge comes under non monotonic, not partially commutative
system. For any problem, several production systems exist. Some
will be efficient than others. Though it may seem that there is no
relationship between kinds of problems and kinds of production
systems, in practice there is a definite relationship. Partially
commutative, monotonic production systems are useful for solving
ignorable problems. These systems are important for man
implementation standpoint because they can be implemented without the
ability to backtrack to previous states, when it is discovered that an
incorrect path was followed. Such systems increase the efficiency since
it is not necessary to keep track of the changes made in the
search process. Monotonic partially commutative systems are useful
for problems in which changes occur but can be reversed and in which the
order of operation is not critical (ex : 8 puzzle problem). Production
systems that are not partially commutative are useful for many
in which irreversible changes occur, such as chemical analysis.
When dealing with such systems, the order in which operations are performed is
 very important and hence correct decisions have to be made at the first time itself.

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Review
Questions
Q. 1
Q.2
Q.3
Q.4
Q.5
Explain turing test designed for satisfactory
operational definition of AI. Explain various
techniques for solving problems by searching. What
are the various Al techniques ? Formulate Al
problem for N-queen puzzle. Define AI.
Q. 6
What is artificial intelligence
?

Q.7 What are the task domains of AI ? Q.8 Discuss iypes of

problems requiring Intelligence to solve it. Q.9 What is production
System? Q. 10 What is production system? Explain it with an example.
Discuss the characteristics of
a production system. Q. 11
Discuss Al problem Characteristics in
detail. Q. 12 What are the characteristics
of production system?

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