CHAPTER-1

SOLUTIONS

Solutions and its Expression of Concentration,

Topic- 1 Solubility of Gases
Concepts Covered  Types of solution,  Molarity,  Normality,  ppm,  Mass by volume%
,  Mole Fraction,  Volume by volume%,  Henry’s Law

Revision Notes

Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more pure substances is known as solution.

Two constituents of the solution are:
(i) Solute: A substance that is dissolved in another substance in lesser amount, forming a solution. For example:
Sugar, salt, etc.
(ii) Solvent: A substance in which another substance is dissolved in larger amount, forming a solution. For example:
Water, milk, etc.
Note: Solvent determines the physical state of the solution.
Types of Solutions: Any state of matter (solid, liquid or gas) can act both as a solvent and solute during the
formation of a solution. Therefore, depending upon the physical states of solute and solvent, we can have
following nine different types of solutions:

S. No. Types of Solution Solute Solvent Examples

1. Solid – Solid Solid Solid Alloys like brass, bronze, etc.
2. Solid – Liquid Solid Liquid Solution of sugar, salt, urea, etc., in water.
3. Solid – Gas Solid Gas Sublimation of substances like iodine, camphor
etc. into air, dust or smoke particles in air.
4. Liquid – Solid Liquid Solid Hydrated salts, mercury in amalgamated zinc etc.
5. Liquid – Liquid Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water, benzene in toluene.
6. Liquid – Gas Liquid Gas Aerosol, water vapour in air.
7. Gas – Solid Gas Solid Hydrogen adsorbed in palladium.
8. Gas – Liquid Gas Liquid Aerated drinks.
9. Gas – Gas Gas Gas Mixture of gases, etc.

Key Word
Aerosol: It is suspension of fine solid or liquid particles in air , e.g.,: Fog.

Aqueous solution: A solution containing water as solvent is known as aqueous solution. For example: sugar
solution.
Non-aqueous solution: A solution containing solvent other than water is known as non-aqueous solution. For
example: iodine dissolved in alcohol.
Saturated solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature is known as
saturated solution.
Unsaturated solution: A solution in which more amount of solute can be dissolved at the same temperature is
known as unsaturated solution.
Method of expressing concentration of solution: The concentration of solution is the amount of solute present
in the given quantity of solute or solvent. It can be expressed in any of the following types:
 2 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class-
(i) Mass percentage w : It is the amount of solute in grams dissolved per 100 g of solution.
W

Mass of solute in the solution

Mass% of a solute = Total mass of the solution × 100
v
(ii)
Volume percentage : It is defined as volume of a solute dissolved per 100 mL of solution.
V
Volume of solute
Volume% of a solute = × 100
Total volume of the solution
w
(iii)
Mass by volume percentage : It is defined as mass of solute dissolved per 100 mL of solution. It is
V
commonly used in medicine and pharmacy.
Mass of solute
Mass by volume % of solute =  100
Volume of solution
(iv)
Parts per million (ppm): It can be defined as the parts of a component per million (106) solution. It is used to
express the concentration of a solute present in trace quantities.
Number of the parts

of the component (A) 6

ppm (A) Total number of parts of all the  10
components of the solution

Parts per million can be expressed in three ways:

(a) Mass to mass
Mass of a component
ppm (mass to mass) =  106
Total mass of solution
(b) Volume to volume
Volume of a component
ppm (volume to volume) =  106
Total volume of solution
(c) Mass to volume
Mass of a component
ppm (mass to volume) =  106
Volume of solution
(v)
Mole Fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number of moles of all the
components. e.g., mole fraction of component A.
n
A = n An ,
A B

where nA is the number of moles of component ‘A’ and nB is the number of moles of component ‘B’.
nB
Similarly, B =
nA  nB
Sum of mole fractions of all the components is always one.

A + B = 1
(vi)
Molarity (M): It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of solution.
Number of moles of solute
Molarity = Volume of solution (in Litres)

WB  1000
M=
MB  V
where, WB = Weight of solute, V = Volume of solution in mL, MB = Molar mass of solute.
Unit is mol L–1 or M (molar).
And
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class- 3
Weight of solute WB 
Molar mass of solute MB = Moles of solute

(vii)
Molality (m): It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per 1000 g or 1 kg of solvent.
Number of moles of solute
Molality =
Mass of solvent in kg

WB  1000
m= MB  W

where, WB = Weight of the solute, MB = Molar mass of solute, W = Mass of solvent in g

Unit is mol kg–1 or molal (m). Molality and mole fraction do not change with change in temperature.
(viii)
Normality (N): It is defined as number of gram equivalents of solute dissolved per litre of solution.

Number of gram equivalents of solute

Normality = Volume of solution in Litre

WB  1000
N= EB  V
where, WB = Mass of solute, EB = Equivalent weight of solute, V = Volume of solution in mL
Relationship between Molarity (M) and Molality (m):
1 d MB
m = M 1000
where, m = Molality of solution, M = Molarity of solution,
MB = Molar mass of solute, d = Density of solution in g ml–1
Relationship between Mole fraction of solute (B) and Molality (m):
  1000
m  (1 B  ) 
B
MA

where B is mole fraction of solute, m is molality and MA is molar mass of solvent.

Solubility: Solubility can be defined as the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100 g of solvent
to form a saturated solution at a given temperature.
 Factors affecting Solubility:
(i) Nature of Solute and Solvent: “Like dissolves like” i.e., polar solvents like water and ammonia can
dissolve polar solute or ionic solute while non- polar solvents can dissolve non- polar organic solutes.
(ii) Temperature: Solubility increases with increase in temperature. It increases for endothermic reaction
while it decreases for exothermic reaction.
(iii) Pressure: The solubility of solid in liquid is not affected significantly by pressure because solids and
liquids cannot be compressed.
Henry’s Law:
The relationship between pressure and solubility is guided by Henry’s Law. According to this law, ‘‘The mass
of a gas dissolved in given volume of the liquid at a constant temperature depends upon the pressure
applied.’’
It can also be stated as the partial pressure of the gas (p) in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of
the gas () in the solution.
p= K , H
where KH = Henry’s constant.
 Applications of Henry’s law:
(i) To increase the solubility of CO2 in soda water and soft drinks, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.

Key Diagram
Partial pressure

 (mole fraction)
The slope of the line in Henry’s constant, (KH)
4 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class-
(ii) To avoid the toxic effects of high concentration of nitrogen in blood, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled
with air diluted with helium (11.7%), nitrogen (56.2%) and oxygen (32.1%).
(iii) At high altitudes, low blood oxygen level in climbers cause Anoxia causes climber and make them unable to
think clearly.
 Limitations of Henry’s law: This law is applicable only when:
(i) The pressure of gas is not too high and temperature is not too low.
(ii) The gas should not undergo any chemical change.
(iii) The gas should not undergo association or dissociation in the solution.

Raoult’s Law, Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions

Topic-2 Concepts Covered  Raoult’s law, Ideal solutions, Non - Ideal Solutions, Azeotropes-
Maximum boiling and Minimum Boiling

Revision Notes

Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by vapours over a liquid at equilibrium state at constant temperature.
Vapour pressure depends on the following factors:
(i) Nature of the liquid: Liquids having intermolecular forces are volatile and possess higher vapour pressure.
(ii) Temperature: Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase in temperature.
Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile liquids: It states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour
pressure of each component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution.
Suppose a solution is prepared by mixing two volatile liquids A and B. Let A and B respectively be their mole
fractions,
o and
o let pA and pB be their partial vapour pressures respectively in the solution at a particular temperature.
If p and p are their vapour pressures in the pure state respectively, then according to Raoult’s law:
A B
o
p A = p A
oA
p = p 
B B B
Considering Dalton’s law of partial pressure,
ptotal = pA + pB
Substituting values of pA and pB,
ptotal = o o
p A + B p B
A
o o
= (1 –  ) p +  p
B A B B
o o o
= p + ( p – p )
A B A B
The composition of the vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution can be determined from the partial pressure
of the two components. If A and B are the mole fractions of components A and B respectively in the vapour
phase, then
pA = Aptotal
and pB = Bptotal
In general pi = i ptotal
Raoult’s law as a special case of Henry’s law: According to Raoult’s law, the vapour pressure of volatile component
(A) in a given solution is given as:
o
p A = p A
A
According to Henry’s law, in the solution of a gas in a liquid, the gaseous component is normally so volatile
that it exists as a gas and solubility depends upon Henry’s law to which:
pA = KHA
o
On comparing both expressions p is equal to KH.
A
Raoult’s law for non-volatile solute: For a solution containing non-volatile solute present in a volatile solvent,
Raoult’s law may be stated as the relative lowering of vapour pressure for a solution is equal to the mole fraction
of solute.
 = p p
0
,
A A
B
pA
0
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class- 5
where,   Mole fraction of solute,
B
o
p – pA  Lowering of vapour pressure.
A
Ideal solution: A solution which obeys Raoult’s law over a wide range of concentration at specific temperature is
called ideal solution.

Mnemonics
Concept: Raoult’s law for Non- volatile Solute
Mnemonics: R.L. is Very Poor Student = Most Failure Student
Interpretations:
Relative Lowering Of Vapour Pressure For A Solution Is Equal To The Mole Fraction Of Solute.

(i) Raoult’s law is obeyed. o o

=p  pB = p B
pA A A, B
(ii) mixH = 0,
(iii) mixV = 0,
(iv) The force of attraction between A-A and B-B is nearly equal to A-B.
Some examples of ideal solutions are:
(i) n-hexane and n-heptane,
(ii) Ethyl bromide and ethyl chloride,
(iii) Benzene and toluene,
(iv) Chlorobenzene and bromobenzene.
Non-ideal solution: A solution which does not obey Raoult’s law for all the concentrations is called a non-ideal
solution.
o o
(i) Raoult’s
p law is not obeyed, i.e.,  p  and p  p 
A A B B B
A
(ii)  mixH  0,
(iii)  mixV  0,
(iv) The force of attraction between A-A and B-B is not equal to A-B.
Some examples of non-ideal solutions are:
(i) Water and ethanol
(ii) Chloroform and acetone
(iii) Ethanol and cyclohexane

Mnemonics
Concept: Ideal solution
Mnemonics: ISRaeL
Interpretations:
Ideal Solution Obeys Raoult’s Law
Concept: Non-Ideal solution
Mnemonics: Nano Scale Device Research Laboratory
Interpretations:
Non-Ideal Solution Does Not Obey Raoult’s Law
A non-ideal solution can show either positive or negative deviation from Raoult’s law.
Positive deviation from Raoult’s law: In this type of deviation, A-B interactions are weaker than the interaction
between A-A or B-B and leads to increase in vapour pressure.
Some examples are:
(i) Water and ethanol,
(ii) Chloroform and water,
(iii) Ethanol and CCl4,
(iv) Methanol and chloroform,
(v) Benzene and methanol,
(vi) Acetic acid and toluene.
6 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class-
Negative deviation from Raoult’s law: In this type of deviation in non-ideal solutions, the intermolecular
attractive forces between A-A and B-B are weaker than those between A-B and leads to decrease in vapour
pressure.
Some examples are:
(i) Chloroform and acetone,
(ii) Chloroform and methyl acetate,
(iii) H2O and HCl,
(iv) H2O and HNO3,
(v) Acetic acid and pyridine,
(vi) Chloroform and benzene.

Key Diagram
Vapour pressure
of solution Vapour pressure
of solution

p
p
Vapour

Vapour
2
1 p p
2 1

1 = 0 Mole fraction  = 1 1 1 = 0 Mole fraction  = 1 1

 = 1 1
 =0  =1   =0
2 2 2 1 2
 
2
2
(a) (b)

The vapour pressures of two component systems as a function of composition:

A solution that shows positive deviation from Raoult’s law, and
A solution that shows negative deviation from Raoult’s law.

Azeotropes: Liquid mixtures which distil over without change in composition are called constant boiling mixtures
or azeotropes or azeotropic mixtures.
Minimum boiling azeotropes: Non-ideal solutions showing large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form
minimum boiling azeotropes at a specific composition. e.g, water and benzene, chloroform and methanol.
Maximum boiling azeotropes: Non-ideal solutions showing large negative deviation from Raoult’s law form
maximum boiling azeotropes which boil at temperature higher than the boiling points of its components. e.g.,
mixture of HNO3 and H2O.

Colligative Properties, Determination of Molecular

Topic- 3 Mass, abnormal Molecular Mass, Van’t Hoff Factor
Concepts Covered  Colligative properties, calculation of abnormal molecular mass and
Van’t Hoff Factor

Revision Notes

Colligative properties: Certain properties of solutions depend only on the number of particles of the solute
(molecules or ions) and do not depend on the nature of solute, such properties are called colligative properties.
These are:
(i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure,
(ii) Depression of freezing point,
(iii)Elevation of boiling point,
(iv) Osmotic pressure of the solution.
Relative lowering of vapour pressure: The relative lowering of vapour pressure is the ratio of lowering of vapour
pressure and vapour pressure of pure solvent which is equal to the mole fraction of solute.
o
Vapour pressure of pure solvent = p A
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class- 7
o
Lowering of vapour pressure = p – pA
A
Relative lowering of vapour pressure
po A p A n
o = solute =
p
A Nn

where n and N are the number of moles of solute and solvent respectively.
Elevation of the boiling point: The difference in boiling point of solution and pure solvent is called elevation
of the boiling point.
Boiling point of pure solvent = Tb
Boiling point of solution = Tb
Increase in boiling point Tb = Tb – Tb is known as elevation of boiling point for dilute solution.
Tb  m
Tb = Kbm

Kb  1000  w2
Tb = M 2  w1

Where, w2 = weight of solute in g

M2 = Molar mass of solute
w1 = weight of solvent in g
Tb = Kbm
Kb = Boiling point elevation constant or molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant.

Key Diagram

Elevation of boiling point

Depression of freezing point: According to Raoult’s law, when a non-volatile solid is added to the solvent its
vapour pressure decreases and it would become equal to that of solid solvent at lower temperature. Thus, the
difference in the freezing point of pure solvent and that of the solution is known as depression of freezing point.
o
The freezing point of pure solvent = T
f

The freezing point when non-volatile solute is dissolved in it = Tf (Freezing point of solution)
o
The decrease in freezing point T = T – T is known as depression in freezing point.
f f f
For dilute solution,
Tf  m
Tf = Kfm.
We know,
WB  1000
(i) = molality
MB  W A
 8 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class-
K f  1000  W2
(ii) Tf = M2  W1

Kf = Freezing point depression constant or molal depression constant or Cryoscopic constant.

Key Diagram

Vapour
Diagram showing Tf , depression of the freezing point
 of a solvent in a solution.

f f

f

Temperature/K

Osmosis: The process in which there is net flow of solvent to the solution by a semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis.
Osmotic pressure: The extra pressure that is applied to stop the flow of solvent to solution across a
semipermeable membrane is called osmotic pressure of the solution.
For dilute solution, osmotic pressure is proportional to the molar concentration (C) of the solution at a given
temperature T.
Thus  = CRT as  is the osmotic pressure and R is the gas constant.
n
 (n is the number of moles, V is the volume of solution)
VRT

Key Diagram
Patm +  P
atm

SPM

Solution Solvent

The excess pressure equal to the osmotic pressure must be applied on the solution side to prevent osmosis.

Reverse osmosis: The direction of osmosis can be reversed, if a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is
applied to the solution side. Now the pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semipermeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis.

Key Diagram
Piston

Pressure >

Fresh water Salt water

Water
outlet
SPM
Reverse osmosis occurs when a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution.
 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, CHEMISTRY, Class- 9
Abnormal molecular mass: When the molecular mass calculated with the help of colligative property is different
from theoretical molecular mass, it is called abnormal molecular mass.
Van’t Hoff factor(i): The ratio of the observed (experimental) value of a colligative property to the normal
(calculated) value of the same property is called as Van’t Hoff factor.
Mathematically,
Observed (experimental)
value of a colligative property
i  Normal (calculated) value of
the same colligative property
obs
Or, i
cal

where obs and cal respectively represent the observed and calculated value of a colligative property.
Thus,
(p)obs
(i) For lowering of vapour pressure, i
(p)cal
(Tb )obs
(ii) For elevation of boiling point, i ;
( b cal
( Tf )
 obs
(iii) For depression of freezing point, i ;
( f cal

obs
(iv) For osmotic pressure, i ;
cal
Since a colligative property is proportional to number of particles of solute.
Normal molecular mass
i  Observed molecular mass

Normal molecular mass = i  Calculated molecular mass.

Total number of moles of particle
after association/dissociation Total number of moles of particle
i
before association/dissociation

Hypertonic solution: A solution is called hypertonic, if its solute concentration is higher than that of the solution
separating it by a semipermeable membrane.
Hypotonic solution: A solution is called hypotonic, if its solute concentration is lower than that of the solution
separating it by a semipermeable membrane.
Isotonic solution: Two solutions are called isotonic, if they exert the same osmotic pressure at a given
temperature. Isotonic solutions have same molar concentration. When such solutions are separated by
semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs between them.

Mnemonics

Concept: Different Colligative properties

Mnemonics: RLVP_DFP_EBP_OP
Interpretations:
Relative Lowering Of Vapour
Pressure Depression OF Freezing
Point Elevation Of Boiling Point
Osmotic Pressure