Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Applied Artificial Intelligence and Computing (ICAAIC 2023)

IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP23BC3-ART; ISBN: 978-1-6654-5630-2

A Review on Quantum Communication and

Computing
Gowri T Sridhar Ashwini P
School of Electronics and Communication Engineering School of Electronics and Communication Engineering
2023 2nd International Conference on Applied Artificial Intelligence and Computing (ICAAIC) | 978-1-6654-5630-2/23/$31.00 ©2023 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ICAAIC56838.2023.10140821

REVA University REVA University

Bengaluru, India Bengaluru, India
[email protected] [email protected]

Nikhath Tabassum
School of Electronics and Communication Engineering
REVA University
Bengaluru, India
[email protected]

Abstract—Quantum communication is based on a number of II. FUNDAMENTALS OF QUANT UM COMMUNICAT ION

novel ideas. It is propelled forward by intriguing physics and
associated disciplines such as superposition, entanglement, To understand quantum co mmunication and quantum
quantum tunneling, etc. This necessitates acquiring new skills computing an individual has to learn and understand the
ranging from physics, programming, computer science, fundamentals of quantum physics and the principles of
communication engineering, mechanical engineering, and quantum network.
electrical engineering. The first applications have already
reached market segments, and laboratories in universities are A. Quantum Entanglement:
working on and developing advanced quantum networks, but the
majority of the updates are yet to come. The quantum network When two electron waves meet and their waves intrude with
is a new scientific field that is expected to become one of the core each other and mix up, it mathemat ically results in one surge-
networking technologies in the future. In this research work, the function that describes everything about both the electrons and
fundamentals of quantum mechanics, the principles underlying they’re inextricably lin ked indeed if they move veritably far
it, and the progress made thus far in quantum computing and down fro m each other. This is known aa s trap. A quantum trap
quantum communication are discussed.
Index Terms—Quantum, Entanglement, S uperposition, is when two quantum patches are linked or are in a co mmon
Quantum tunneling, Quantum network, Quantum mechanics, state irrespective of the distance between them. When one
Quantum computing of these two patches is altered or measured it incontinently
and fully affects the other electron wh ich is linked to it [2].
I. INT RODUCT ION Here, in quantum co mmunication, a pair of entangled electrons
Co mmunicat ion is the means by wh ich informat ion or or photons are generated in which the data or information is
data is sent from and received by devices like co mputers, encrypted. One of the electrons/photons among the two is sent
mobile phones, etc. In classical commun ication encryption and to the receiver through a quantum channel and the other one
decryption of the data are done on the basis of mathemat ical remains with the sender.
computation whereas encryption and decryption in quantum
communicat ion are done on the basis of quantum mechanics. B. Superposition:
In quantum mechanics, the data or in formation is encrypted One examp le of Superposition is Schrodinger’s cat
in photons using a method called QKD (Quantum Key experiment in which Erwin Schrodinger imagines a bo x
Distribution) based on different principles of quantum physics inside of which a cat is sealed and later to xins and a
such as superposition, quantum entanglement, quantum radioactive substance are introduced. Now the cat inside the
tunnelling, quantum teleportation, etc. [1]. Classical box is dead as well as alive simultaneously but later after the
communicat ion is more vulnerab le and prone to threats the box is opened the cat is either dead or alive (in either one of
data or information is in the form of electrical pu lses i.e., in the two states but not both at the same time). Similarly, an
the form of 0s and 1s which makes it easy for a third person electron exists in spin up and spin down state at the same time.
or a hacker to access, read, and copy the data without leaving And only when it is measured it drops out of superposition. If
any trace. But in quantum communicat ion the data is not in the right algorith m is built it is possible to fully make use of
the form o f 0s or 1s since the qubits exist in the state of the power of superposition. simultaneously, it adapts to one of
superposition wh ich makes hacking d ifficu lt. This research the states only when it is measured [1], [2]. In quantum
study further discusses about the fundamentals of quantum communicat ion when the entangled photon pair is generated
computing and communications. and the data is

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 Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Applied Artificial Intelligence and Computing (ICAAIC 2023)
IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP23BC3-ART; ISBN: 978-1-6654-5630-2

encrypted. One of the photons is sent to the receiver and the 1) No Cloning Theorem: Th is states that it isn’t possible
other one remains with the sender. When one of the photons to copy an arbitrary quantum state but doesn’t enjoin us from
reaches the receiver, the receiver can then measure the qubit approximate cloning. nonetheless, an approximate quantum
and which then exists in one of the two states and obtain the copying machine can be constructed (no-cloning and no-
data. omission theorems). In simple words, it is impossible to copy
a qubit but an approximate clone can be created[6].
C. Quantum Tunnelling:
2) No omission Theorem: This theorem tells us that among
This is where the patches can pass through walls, allo wing two clones of an unknown quantum state, one dupe cannot be
effects such as electrons to pass through. When a surge deleted against the other using any physical operations. But
function encounters a hedge, it decays exponentially in the an approximate quantum deleting machine can be constructed
hedge unless the hedge is narrow enough for the surge function like an appro ximate clon ing machine. (no-cloning and no-
to continue to exist on the other side of the hedge. In simple omission theorems) It means that among the two clones of
words when an electron in its waveform meets a wall or an the qubits, one cannot be deleted against the other using any
obstruction and passes through it, it decays exponentially in kind of physical operations[6].
the wall unless the wall or the obstruction is narrow enough
for it to pass through before it completely decays[3]. F. Principles of Quantum Network and Fundamentals:
D . Quantum Teleportation: The quantum internet is an emerg ing field of science that is
Teleportation is the process of transporting a flyspeck fro m expected to be one of the many core networking advancements
its original location to its destination without having to travel of future. Quantum networks are analogous to large virtual
the distance in between, which can be accomplished by col- quantum co mputers with a large quantity of qubits within it.
lapsing the flyspeck at its original location and reconstructing This computer gets larger as more quantum devices are lin ked
it at the destination. Quantum teleportation is possible by together. This would mean that as the quantum network’s
collapsing an unknown quantum of state at one location and physical resources grow, the abilit ies of quantum co mputing
reconstructing it at the destination. Both the Bell state and the would also grow linearly, wh ich means that the traditional
Bell dimension must be known for this[3],[4]. networks will be modified or co mpletely removed. Rather,
they have been discovered to be one another’s complement,
E. QUBITS: as a few of the applications that are difficult to imp lement
A quantum bit or qubit in short is the introductory unit in classical networks can be imp lemented more quickly and
of informat ion in quantum co mmunication or in a quantum more easily using the quantum internet. These applications in -
computer[1]. The classical bit we know exists in the state clude distributed consensus, clock synchronisation, and secure
of either 0 or 1 but the qubit is in a state of superposition remote computation.
i.e., it can live in states other than just 0 or 1. This means
the value of qubits can be anywhere between 0 and 1 which G . Quantum Measurement
can be called a superposition of 0 and 1, as shown in Table The purpose of quantum dimension is acquiring the data
1. thus a set of qubits have further values than the bits[4]. contained in a qubit. However, if a single qubit carries two
The outermost electron in a phosphorous atom can be used possible outcomes for the data transmitted, equal chances can
as a qubit by embedding the single phosphorous atom in a be attained after quantum dimension because the probability
silicon crystal placed right next to a s mall transistor. And of qubit having a value of zero and one is both 50-50 while
then a strong magnetic field should be applied to make the their states aren’t independent. When the quantum dimension
distinction between the electron’s energy state when it is in is added, the qubit collapses when the quantum dimension
spin down or spin up. This strong magnetic field is applied is added, wh ich means that the qubit collapses once the
using a superconducting magnet.[5] informat ion on it is obtained. Still the initial value or state
of the that was created at one end can’t be regained. This
T ABLE I improves the security of informat ion exchange in quantum
COMPARISSION BETWEEN CLASSICAL BIT AND QUBIT communication[7].
Classical Bit Q ubit
Quantum co mmunication is an extremely secure method
Has the value of 0 or 1 Value can be anywhere between 0 of transmitt ing informat ion because any unauthorized party
and 1 . cannot view the contents of the qubits and the informat ion
Has two possible exclusive states Has two simultaneous possible can only be seen by the sender and the receiver as the sender
states
Represented in terms of 0 or 1 Represented in form of a 2- generates a pair o f qubits, keeps one of the qubits, and sends
dimensional vector the other to the receiver via a channel. However, because
Logic gates are used Quantum gates are used the qubits are entangled, the sender can detect and stop the
Dimensionality is 1 binary digit Dimensionality is 2 floating num-
transfer if the qubit is tampered with before it reaches the
bers
receiver. Even so, the unauthorized party cannot access the
There are two important theorems that we must know to informat ion on the tampered qubit. Even though there has been
understand quantum more: some research into quantum dispatches, it is still fairly difficult

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 Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Applied Artificial Intelligence and Computing (ICAAIC 2023)
IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP23BC3-ART; ISBN: 978-1-6654-5630-2

to transmit information over a long distance using quantum signal is decoded by the receiver. In quantum co mmunication,
communicat ion. As a result, in order to solve this problem, the classical output of quantum pre-processing is mapped
certain tackle factors are enforced in the quantum network, into a classical signal that is suitable for the channel by the
making info rmation trans mission over long distances easier. classical transmitter. The entangled particle is converted into a
The factors in a quantum network or a quantum network are quantum signal that is suitable for a chosen quantum channel
by the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen(EPR) trans mitter, transmitting
H . Quantum Channels the entanglement to a remote node. The classical channel is
These are either optic fiber channels or free space which the means through which the signal is transmitted to the tele-
transfer qubits between quantum bu mps by connecting the receiver fro m the tele-transmitter . Due to the quantum mea-
quantum bu mps. But the channels be they tradit ional channels surement, the entanglement is transmitted to remote nodes, and
or quantum channels are affected by external factors wh ich the communicat ion range cannot be increased using amp lify-
leads to the success rate of transmission drop as the length of and-forward techniques. Quantum Repeaters must be modi-
the channel increases[8]. fied. To obtain the quantum pre-processing blocks’s classical
input, the received classical signal is decoded by the classical
I. Quantum Memories receiver. The entangled input of the quantum post-processing
Quantum memories are used inside quantum repeaters to and pre-processing blocks are decoded by the EPR receiver
store entangled or non-entangled qubits. The only majo r draw- from the received quantum signals[10].
back of quantum memories is that they ca store the informat ion
or qubits for a short time after wh ich it will be deprecated. T ABLE II
This can be overcome by quantum distillation[2],[5],[8]. COMPARISON BETWEEN CLASSICAL COMMUNICATION AND QUANTUM
COMMUNICATION

J. Quantum Key Distribution [QKD]:

Classical Communication Q uantum Communication
Quantum key d istribution or QKD is a secure way to T he source output can be read without
affecting the embedded data.
exchange information or encryption keys only known be- It can be copied and retransmitted
tween shared and trusted parties. This method implements whenever corrupted by noise The source output cannot be read
a cryptographic protocol that includes quantum mechanics without affecting the data embed-
ded. It cannot be copied or dupli-
components. cated. Can’t be retransmitted when
Implementation of Q uantum key distribution: disturbed by noise.
ISRO depart ment of Space demonstrated quantum co mmu - EPR source is not present Entanglement of a specific inner
nication that was based on entanglement, over free space state of pair of particles
Has only the classical transmitters
of 300m along real-time cryptographic applications at SAC, and receivers Has classical transmitters and re-
Ahmedabad, between two buildings on January 27, 2022[9]. ceivers as well as EPR transmitters
and receivers
The world’s largest quantum co mmunicat ion chain, stretch -
Uses only classical channel Uses both classical and quantum
ing over 2000 kilo meteres in China connects the cities of channel
Jinan, Shanghai, Hefei, and Beijing. This network is made Ordinary bits are used for
of various topology, with a total of 32 trusted nodes and data representation Qubits, that are 2D vectors are used
for data representation.
10 hubs in each of the cities The largest quantum network Data can be created and distributed
without trust was also established in Bristol, UK. Which uses across classical and quantum
a single source of entangled photon pairs shared with no networks Data can be created and distributed
across quantum networks only
active switching between users to support up to 8 users using Subject to the classical physics laws Subject to the laws of quantum
frequency multiplexing[6]. physics
A Quantum communicat ion network between space and Earth Has wired or wireless channels Free Space or Fibre Optical chan-
has also been established in recent years by Chinese and nels are used
Routers, Switches and Repeaters are the
Japanese scientists. In 2016 China launched Micius satellite network hardware
into space and the experiment lasted for 23 days. In 2017 a devices used Network hardware devices used are
Repeaters
video conference was established between China and Austria
Architecture Follows T CP/IP mode Architecture Follows a layered
through Micius satellite. The Japanese researchers conducted model
an experiment with SOTA (Small Optical TrAnsponder) laser Router device uses routing protocol
communicat ion terminal wh ich was carried by LEO (Lo wer based routing Routing is at the quantum repeater,
based on quantum routing proto-
Earth Orbit) satellite. [6] cols
As shown in Table 2, in classical co mmun ication, the informa- No mathematical computations Very high and complicated mathe-
tion over a channel is mapped into a signal suitable for trans - matical computations
Security and efficiency are
mission by the transmitter. Chancing the encoded informat ion Highly secured and efficient
dependent on the device
is not necessary to measure the signal, amp lify-and-forward Speed is limited to the media type Has a very high speed irrespective
or decode-and-forward techniques can be used to extend the of the media type
communication range. To generate the classical message, the

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 Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Applied Artificial Intelligence and Computing (ICAAIC 2023)
IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP23BC3-ART; ISBN: 978-1-6654-5630-2

T ABLE III
A SURVERY ON RESEARCH PAPERS RELATED TO QUANTUM COMPUTING AND COMMUNICATION

Authors Title Contributions Limitations/Improvements

A. Jain et al. Development of NavIC •A free space quantum communi- •Any deviation in linear polarisa-
(2022) [11]. synchronized fully auto- cation link of over 300m estab- tion states increases QBER errors.
mated inter-building QKD lished using linearly polarised pho- •The possibility of increasing rate
framework and demon- tons. of quantum-secure deration can be
stration of quantum se- •End-to-end QKD framework that improved by increasing the pulse
cured video calling uses NavIC-based synchronisations repetition rate
and the BB84 protocol.
•Built a video calling app that uses
the quantum key generated over a
TCP/IP link.
Garc´ıa-Cobo and Designing large quantum •It was discovered that the de- •The area can be expanded.
H.D. Menéndez. key distribution networks signed system needed to be oper- •Can be strengthened by imple-
(2021) [12]. via medoid-based algo- ated over a commercial fibre optic menting anti-attack algorithms.
rithms network. •Shows that number of
repeaters required varies with dis-
tance.
S. Sasikumar et Modeling and simulation •The quantum mechanism for •Can be tested for security in
al. (2022) [13]. of a novel secure quantum cloud security underpins the a real-time environment and en-
key distribution (SQKD) QKDP simulation model. hancement can be accomplished
for ensuring data security •To improve data security, it through high-security big data pro-
in cloud environment employs a Non-Abelian group- cessing in the cloud.
based encryption and decryption
model.
S. Tarantino, et Feasibility study of Quan- • A feasibility evaluation of various •More research is needed to de-
al. (2020) [14]. tum Communications in QKD protocols in three different velop a better system for an under-
Aquatic Scenarios types of seawater links is proposed. water link to transmit the quantum
•The proposed link can be used in states that takes into account fac-
most scenarios where secure com- tors such as turbulence.
munication is required.
J. Wang et al. Modelling research •Developed an algorithm for calcu- •By switching the satellites
(2021) [15]. of satellite-to-ground lation of selection scheme with a halfway through a pass, more key
quantum key distribution consistent daily key size. size can be obtained.
constellations •A key re-distribution optimization •Constellation of multiple planes
model. to be studied for building global
•For a single-plane constellation, quantum key distribution network.
an optimal model of key consump- •It will be critical in the future
tion along inter-satellite link is pro- to investigate the limitations of
vided. inter-satellite links.
J. Wu, Y. Tan, Research on a real-time • An improved optical system de- • This method’s implementation
L. Zhang et al. polarization compensation sign for a dynamic quantum com- necessitates the addition of a po-
(2022) [16]. method for dynamic quan- munication terminal is proposed. larisation detection system.
tum communication ter- •A set of waveplates used to com-
minals pensate for polarisation degrada-
tion.
• An equivalent experimental de-
vice is established to test feasibility
of polarisation compensation.
S. Kumari, M. Signature based Merkle • to secure communication between • At 128 bits of security, the confi-
Singh, R. Singh Hash Multiplication algo- IoT devices, a Hash-based PQC dential rate is lowest and the error
et al. (2022) [17]. rithm to secure the com- algorithm is developed. rate is highest, but power and area
munication in IoT devices • Faster execution and anti-attack consumption are lowest.
measures.
Chandra et al. Direct Quantum Commu- •A noisy EPR based quantum com- •It is necessary to identify the ad-
(2022) [18]. nications in the Presence munication scheme is proposed. equate and required conditions for
of Realistic Noisy Entan- •Despite the fact that it is based generation of the quantum encoder
glement on noisy pre-shared EPR pairs, its and decoder pair.
error detection and correction ca-
pability level is the same.

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 Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Applied Artificial Intelligence and Computing (ICAAIC 2023)
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Q_SWAP
counterparts in the field of computing and communications in
the coming years.
Q_SWAP Q_SWAP REFERENCES
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Q−SOURCE Q−SOURCE Q−SOURCE Q−SOURCE
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Quantum co mputers currently require specialized handling and Quantum Teleportation for the Quantum Internet”,IEEE Transactions On
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example, is only a few degrees above absolute zero. This Shashank Kumar, Rohan S. Urdhwareshe, and Nilesh M. Desai, ”De-
is due to the fact that they are working at the subatomic velopment of NavIC synchronized fully automated inter-building QKD
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level. You probably don’t have a spare quantum co mputer Vol 252, 2022.
running at home. As a result, quantum computing will aid [12 ] Ga rc´ı a - Cobo and H. D. M ené nd e z, ” Designin g larg e qu antu m k ey distri -
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services enable and will continue to enable access to quantum [13 ] S Sasikumar, K Sundar, C Jayakumar, Mohammad S. Obaidat,Thompson
computers. IBM makes their quantum cloud available, and Stephan , Kuei-Fang Hsiao,”Modeling and simulation of a novel secure
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environment”,Simulation Modelling Practice and T heory, Vol 121, 2022.
AI and machine learning all rely on massive data sets, which
[14 ] Silvia Tarantino, Beatrice Da Lio, Daniele Cozzolino, and Davide
quantum co mputers can process much faster than traditional Bacco,”Feasibility study of Quantum Communications in Aquatic Sce-
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or modeling and possibly recreating the wo rkings of the human satellite-to-ground quantum key distribution constellations”,Acta Astro-
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Quantum mechanics is making inroads into computing and tion in IoT devices”,Knowledge-Based Systems, Vol 253, 2022.
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networks. Quantum co mputing not only opens up new oppor-
tunities for RD, but it also guarantees a more safe and effective
method of communicating and co mputing data. Though a lot
of research is still going on currently regarding techniques
to implement quantum co mputing in various fields and on
ways to imp rove it’s efficiency quantum co mmunicat ion and
computing will soon overthrow and substitute their traditional

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