Subject Name: RDBMS Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4330702

Unit – III
Database Integrity Constraints & Objects

constraints:
❖ A Constraint is a rule that restricts the values that may be present in the database
❖ As oracle is based on a Relational data model, Constraints provided by Oracle follows the general
Constraints provided by relational model.
❖ These Constraints can be broadly classified into two categories.
1. Entity Integrity Constraints
2. Referential Integrity Constraints

1. Entity Integrity Constraints :

❖ Entity integrity constraints are constraints that restrict the values in row of an individual table.
❖ This constraints also divided into two sub categories:
(I) Domain Integrity Constraints
(II) Key Constraints
2. Referential Integrity Constraints :
❖ Referential integrity Constraints specifies that a row of one table that refers to another row must
refer to an existing row in that table.

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Subject Name: RDBMS Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4330702

3.1 Domain Integrity constraints: Not null, Check

❖ NOT NULL Constraints

• There may be Records in table that do not contain any value for some fields. In Oracle, Null
values are stored in such fields. In other words, a NULL value represents an empty field.

• CHARACTERSTICS:
o A NULL value indicates ‘not applicable’, ‘missing’, or ‘not known’.
o A NULL value distinct from zero or other numeric value for numerical data.
o A NULL value is also distinct from blank space for character data.
o A NULL value will evaluate to null in any expression.
o The result of any condition including null value is unknown, and treated as a FALSE.

ENFORCED RESTRICTION:

• A column, defined as a NOT NULL, cannot have a NULL value. In other words, such
column becomes a mandatory column and cannot be left empty for any record.
• A NOT NULL CONSTRAINT DEFINED AT COLUMN LEVEL only

Syntax :
ColumnName datatype (size) NOT NULL

Example:
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEES
(
EMPID INTEGER NOT NULL,
EName VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
DOJ DATE
);

❖ CHECK constraints

• “The CHECK constraint is used to implement business rules. This constraint is also referred as
business rule constraints. Business rules may vary from system to system.”

ENFORCED RESTRICTION :

• The CHECK constraint is bound to a particular column.

• Once a CHECK constraint is implemented, any insert or update operation on that table must
follow this constraints.
• If any operation violates condition, it will be rejected.

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Subject Name: RDBMS Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4330702

❖ A CHECK CONSTRAINTS DEFINED AT COLUMN LEVEL :

Syntax:
columnName datatype (size) CHECK ( CONDITION )

❖ A CHECK CONSTRAINTS DEFINED AT TABLE LEVEL :

Syntax:
CHECK ( CONDITION )
Example:
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
order_id number(10),
amount number(10) CHECK (amount > 0)
);

3.2 Entity Integrity constraints: Unique, Primary key.

❖ Unique Constraints

• A column must have unique values. This is required to identify all records stored in table uniqly,

ENFORCED RESTRICTION:

• A column, defined as a UNIQUE, cannot have duplicate values across all records. In other words,
such column must contain unique values.

❖ A UNIQUE CONSTRAINTS DEFINED AT COLUMN LEVEL :

Syntax:
columnName datatype (size) UNIQUE

❖ A UNIQUE CONSTRAINTS DEFINED AT TABLE LEVEL :

Syntax:
UNIQUE ( columnName [, columnName …] )

Example:
CREATE TABLE Colleges (
college_id number(5) UNIQUE,
college_code VARCHAR(20) UNIQUE,
college_name VARCHAR(50)
);

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Subject Name: RDBMS Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4330702

❖ Primary Key Constraints

• “A primary key is a set of one or more columns used to identify each record uniquely in a
column”. A single column primary key is called as simple key, while a multi-column primary key
is called a composite key

ENFORCED RESTRICTION:
• A column defined as a primary key, cannot have duplicate values across all records and cannot
have NULL values.

❖ A PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS DEFINED AT COLUMN LEVEL :

Syntax:
columnName datatype (size) PRIMARY KEY

❖ A PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS DEFINED AT TABLE LEVEL :

Syntax:
PRIMARY KEY ( columnName [, columnName …] )

3.3 Referential Integrity constraints: Foreign key, referenced key, on delete cascade

❖ Foreign Key Constraints

• “A Foreign key is a set of one or more columns whose values are derived from the primary key
or unique key of other table.”
• The table, in which a foreign key is defined, is called a foreign table, detail table or child table.
• The table in which primary key or unique key is referred, is called a primary table, master table
or parent table.

ENFORCED RESTRICTION:

• The foreign key constraints enforce different restriction on detail table and master table.
• If bname is defined as a foreign key in Account table referring to bname in branch table, then,
there will be following restriction on both of these tables.

1. Restriction on detail table:

- Detail table contains a Foreign key. And, it is related to master table.
- Insert or update operation involving value of Foreign key are not allowed, if
corresponding value does not exist in the master table.

2. Restriction on master table:

- Master table contains a primary key or unique key, which is referred by Foreign key in
detail.

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- Delete or update operation on records in master table are not allowed, if corresponding
records are present in detail table

❖ A FOREIGN KRY CONSTRAINTS DEFINED AT COLUMN LEVEL:

syntax :
columnName datatype ( size )
REFRENCES tablename ( columnName )
[ON DELETE CASCADE]

❖ A FOREIGN KRY CONSTRAINTS DEFINED AT TABLE LEVEL:

syntax :
FOREIGN KEY ( columnName [, columnName …] )
REFERENCES tablename (columnName [, columnName …] )

Example:
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
OrderID number(10),
OrderNumber number(10),
PersonID number(10),
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);

3.4 Views – Create, Alter, Drop views

• A view is a virtual or logical table that allows viewing or manipulating the parts of the tables.
• A view is derived from one or more tables known as base tables.
• A view looks like and works similarly to normal tables. But, unlike tables, a view does not have
storage space to store data.
• A view is created by a query, i.e. a SELECT statement which uses base tables.
• Data for views are extracted from these base tables based on specified query.
• A view is dynamic and always reflects the current data of the base tables.
• Only definition of view is stored in the database.
• When a view is referenced in SQL statement following steps will be followed:
o Its definition is retrieved from database.
o The base tables are opened.
o A query, specified in definition is executed. o A view is created on top of the base tables.
• When any operation is performed on view, it is actually performed on the base table.

• For example, any SELECT operation on view displays data from the base table. In a similar way,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE operations modify the contents of the base table.

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❖ Types of Views

• View can be classified into two categories based on which type of operations they allow:

1) Read-only View:

• Allows only SELECT operation, this means user can only view data.
• No INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE operations are allowed. This means contents of base table
cannot be modified.

2) Updateable View:

• Allows SELECT as well as INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE operations. This means contents
of the base tables can be displayed as well as modified.

❖ Creating a View
o A view can be created using syntax as given below:

Syntax:
CREATE [ OR REPLACE ] VIEW viewName
As SELECT … ….
[ WITH READ ONLY ];

• This statement creates a view based on query specified in SELECT statement.

• OR REPLACE option re-creates the view if it is already existing maintaining the privileges
granted to view that is given by view Name.
• WITH READ ONLY option creates read-only views. If this option is not provided then by
default updatable views are created.
• The SELECT statement can include WHERE, ORDER BY, GROUP BY clauses if required.
• A view can be created using single base table as well as multiple base tables using joins.
• The following examples explain how to create views and how to use them in SQL statements.
Consider tables – Account and Branch as given in below figure:

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Example:
CREATE VIEW Acc_Rjt
AS SELECT * FROM Account
WHERE B_Name = ‘Rjt’;

Output:
View created.

❖ Advantages of View

• View the data without storing the data into the object.
• Restricts the view of a table. i.e. can hide some of columns in the tables.
• Join two or more tables and show it as one object to user.
• Restricts the access of a table so that nobody can insert the rows into the table.
• There are two major advantages of views:
o Flexible enforcement of security
o Simplification of complex query
o
❖ Disadvantages of Views

• Cannot use DML operations on view.

• When table is dropped view becomes inactive.
• View is an object, so it occupies space.

❖ Destroying a View

• The DROP VIEW command drops the specified view.

• The base table will not be affected if a view is destroyed.
• If a base table is dropped or column included in view are altered then view will not be valid
further.
• Oracle issues an error message while using such in-valid views.

Syntax:
DROP VIEW viewName;

Example:
DROP VIEW Acc_Branch;

Output: View Dropped.

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3.5 Synonym: Create, Drop synonym

• A synonym is an alternative name for database object such as tables, indexes, sequences.

• A synonym can be used to hide the actual identity of the object being referenced.

• For example, if there is a need to hide name of some particular table, then a synonym can be
created to refer that table, hiding the original name.

• Another use of the synonym is to abbreviate (Shorten) the table names, particularly tables from
other users.

• For example, user1 can create synonym for Customer table owned by user2.Appropriate privileges
must be granted to a user before the user can use the synonym.

❖ Creating a Synonym:
Syntax:
CREATE SYNONYM synonymName
FOR objectName;

Example:
CREATE SYNONYM Cust
FOR user1.Customer;

Output:
Synonym Created.

❖ Destroying a Synonym:

Syntax:
DROP SYNONYM synonymName;

3.6 Sequences: Create, alter, Drop sequences

• To distinguish different records of a table from each other, it is required that each record must
have distinct values.
• The primary key constrain ensures this by not allowing duplicate or NULL values in columns
defined as a primary key.
• Such column generally contain sequential numbers such as 1, 2, 3,… or combination of sequential
values with some strings, such as ‘A01’, ‘A02’,….
• While entering data manually in insert or update operations, it is difficult to track such type of
sequence.
• An Oracle object, a Sequence helps to ease the process of creating unique identifiers for a record
in a database.

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• A Sequence is simply an automatic counter, which generates sequential numbers whenever

required.
• A value generated can have maximum 38 digits.
• A sequence can be defined for following purpose:
• To generate numbers in ascending or descending order. o To provide intervals between numbers.
• To caching sequence numbers in memory to speed up their availability.

❖ Creating a Sequence

Syntax:
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence_name
START WITH initial_value
INCREMENT BY increment_value
MINVALUE minimum value
MAXVALUE maximum value
CYCLE|NOCYCLE ;

sequence_name: Name of the sequence.

initial_value: starting value from where the sequence starts.

Initial_value should be greater than or equal to minimum value and less than equal
to maximum value.

increment_value: Value by which sequence will increment itself.

Increment_value can be positive or negative.

minimum_value: Minimum value of the sequence.

maximum_value: Maximum value of the sequence.

cycle: When sequence reaches its set_limit it starts from beginning.

nocycle: An exception will be thrown if sequence exceeds its max_value.

• A default sequence created without any options, always start with 1, is in ascending order and
values are incremented by 1.

❖ NEXTVAL and CURRVAL

• Oracle provides two pseudo column – NEXTVAL and CURRVAL.

• Once a sequence is created, you can access its values in SQL statements with the CURRVAL
pseudo column, which returns the current value of the sequence.
• The NEXTVAL pseudocolumn, which increments the sequence and returns the new value.
• These pseudo columns are used with a Sequence name as described below:

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Syntax:
squenceName.CURRVAL

• Returns the current value of the sequence.

Syntax:
squenceName.NEXTVAL

• Increases the value of the sequence and returns the next value.
• Generally the values generated by the Sequence are numerical values.

Example
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence_1
start with 1
increment by 1
minvalue 0
maxvalue 100
cycle;

Output:
Sequence Created.

❖ Destroying a Sequence

• A sequence can be destroyed as described below.

Syntax:
DROP Sequence sequence_name

3.7 Index: Unique and composite – Create, Drop

• Search is always efficient when data to be searched is sorted in some specific order such as in
ascending order.
• If records are not sorted then any query fired on a table to search sequentially testing values of all
records one by one.
• An Index is an ordered list of contents of the column ( or a group of columns ) of a table.
• An index is similar to a table. It contains at-least two columns:
1) A column having sorted data on which an index is created.
2) A column representing RowID for each row in a table.
• A RowIDis a unique identifier for each record inserted in a table.

❖ Advantage:

• As content of the name column is sorted in index, searching process will be faster.
• Also index contains only two columns. So, updating index on each insert, update, delete
operation on table will not consume much time.

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❖ Disadvantages:

• Indexes slow down DML (i.e. inserts, updates and deletes).

• Indexes may make your queries slower instead of faster.

❖ RowID – A Unique Identifier of a Record

• A RowID is a unique identifier for each record inserted in a table.

• A RowID is a hexadecimal string and contains logical address of the location in a database where
a particular record is stored.
• Oracle assigns a unique id for each and every record inserted in a table and that is used to create
indexes.
• Oracle provides a pseudo column, named ROWID, to retrieve RowID associated with records in
a table.
• ROWID column can be used like any other column in SELECT statement.
• The format for RowID can be any of the following:

1) Extended:
This format is an 18 digit string of the form OOOOOOFFFBBBBBBRRR. o This format is
used by Oracle8i and higher versions.

2) Restricted:
This format is a 15 digit string separated with dots of the form BBBBBBBB.RRRR.FFF. o
This format is used by Oracle7 and earlier releases.

❖ Types of Indexes

• There are four types of indexes:

1) Duplicate Indexes
2) Unique Indexes
3) Simple Indexes
4) Composite Indexes

❖ Simple Indexes:
• An index created on a single column of a table is called a Simple Index.

❖ Composite Indexes:
• An index created on more than one column is called a Composite Index.

❖ Creating simple Index

Syntax:
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX indexName
ON tableName (columnName);

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• By default indexes are created as Duplicate Indexes.

• If UNIQUE option is provided while creating an index, it will be considered as a unique Index.

Example:

CREATE INDEX indCustName ON Customer (Name);

Output:
Index Created.

❖ Creating Composite Index

Syntax:
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX indexName
ON tableName (columnName1, columnName2 );

• If more than one column is provided while creating an index, it will be considered as as
Composite Index. Otherwise, indexes are created as Simple Indexes.
• If index is created on more than two columns, other column will be considered only when the
previous all columns contain duplicate data.
• In above syntax, second column will be considered only when the first column contains duplicate
data. In such case, sorting is performed based on data of the second column.

❖ Destroying an Index
Syntax:
DROP INDEX indexName;

• This command drops an index given by indexName.

• Once an index is dropped, it can be recreated whenever required.

Example
DROP INDEX indCustName;

Output:
Index Dropped.

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