INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

(WLANS)

1. Introduction to WLANs
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) represent a
significant innovation in the field of network
communications. They are computer networks that
link two or more devices using wireless
communication within a limited area such as a home,
school, computer laboratory, campus, or office
building. WLANs allow users the freedom to move
around within the coverage area while maintaining a
connection to the network. This mobility is a distinct
advantage over traditional wired networks, where
devices must remain stationary.
A typical WLAN configuration employs a gateway to connect to the wider internet. This setup
is especially beneficial in environments where cabling is impractical, costly, or simply
impossible due to physical constraints. WLANs have become ubiquitous in various settings,
providing flexibility and convenience in networking.

2. IEEE 802.11 Standards and Wi-Fi

The most widely used WLANs are based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, commonly known by
the trademark Wi-Fi. These standards provide a robust framework for wireless
communication, ensuring interoperability between different devices and manufacturers.
2.1 IEEE 802.11 Standards
The IEEE 802.11 family includes several specifications, each addressing different aspects of
wireless communication. These standards outline the technical specifications for both the
physical (PHY) and media access control (MAC) layers of the network.
 802.11a : Operates in the 5 GHz band with a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps. It uses
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) to minimize interference and
enhance data integrity.
 802.11b : Operates in the 2.4 GHz band with a maximum data rate of 11 Mbps. This
standard uses direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) to spread data across a wide
channel.
 802.11g : Operates in the 2.4 GHz band but provides data rates up to 54 Mbps by adopting
OFDM, similar to 802.11a, while maintaining backward compatibility with 802.11b.
 802.11n : Operates in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, supporting data rates up to 600
Mbps with MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) technology. MIMO uses multiple
antennas to transmit and receive data, enhancing speed and reliability.
 802.11ac : Enhances 802.11n by increasing the maximum data rate to 1.3 Gbps and
utilizing wider channels in the 5 GHz band. It also supports beamforming, which improves
signal strength and range.

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  802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) : Further improves upon previous standards with higher data rates,
increased capacity, better performance in dense environments, and reduced latency. Wi-Fi
6 introduces orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) and target wake
time (TWT) for efficiency.

2.2 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi, a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, refers to wireless networks that use the IEEE
802.11 standards. Wi-Fi networks are ubiquitous in homes, offices, cafes, and many public
spaces. They facilitate the connection of various devices such as laptops, printers,
smartphones, web TVs, and gaming consoles to the internet through a wireless router.
The flexibility and convenience of Wi-Fi have made it a critical component of modern
communication infrastructure. The technology not only supports personal and professional
connectivity but also powers IoT (Internet of Things) devices, which are increasingly
prevalent in smart homes and offices. Wi-Fi networks can be secured using encryption
protocols like WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) and WPA2, ensuring that data transmitted over
the network is protected from unauthorized access.

3. Evolution of WLAN Technology

The evolution of WLAN technology is marked by significant milestones that have shaped the
current state of wireless networking.
3.1 Early Development: ALOHAnet
The first wireless computer communication system, ALOHAnet, was developed in 1971 by
Norman Abramson at the University of Hawaii. ALOHAnet connected seven computers over
four islands using radio communications, without relying on phone lines. This pioneering
effort laid the groundwork for subsequent wireless communication technologies.
ALOHAnet employed a novel communication protocol that allowed multiple devices to
communicate over a shared medium. This protocol, known as the ALOHA protocol,
introduced the concept of random access, where devices transmitted data whenever they had
information to send, and used acknowledgments and retransmissions to handle collisions.
This method significantly influenced the development of later network protocols, including
Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
3.2 Standardization in the 1990s
During the 1990s, wireless LAN hardware began to transition towards standardization.
Initially, the hardware was expensive and used as an alternative to cabled LANs in scenarios
where cabling was difficult or impossible. Proprietary protocols and industry-specific
solutions gradually gave way to standardized protocols, primarily the IEEE 802.11 family.
The establishment of the IEEE 802.11 Working Group in 1990 marked the beginning of
formal standardization efforts. The group's goal was to develop a set of standards that would
ensure interoperability among products from different manufacturers. The first IEEE 802.11
standard, published in 1997, provided data rates of 1 and 2 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band using
either FHSS or DSSS. Subsequent amendments, such as 802.11b and 802.11a, introduced
higher data rates and additional frequency bands, paving the way for widespread adoption of
WLAN technology.

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3.3 European Alternatives: HiperLAN
In parallel with the development of IEEE 802.11 standards, Europe pursued the High
Performance LAN (HiperLAN) series. HiperLAN/1 and HiperLAN/2 were designed to
provide high-speed wireless networking. Although HiperLAN/2 specifications influenced the
IEEE 802.11a PHY, the HiperLAN standards did not achieve the same widespread adoption
as IEEE 802.11.

HiperLAN/1, developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI),

offered data rates up to 20 Mbps in the 5 GHz band. It featured sophisticated medium access
control (MAC) mechanisms to support real-time applications and quality of service (QoS).
HiperLAN/2, released in 2000, aimed to provide even higher data rates and enhanced QoS
features, supporting multimedia applications and integration with various network
technologies. Despite its technical advantages, HiperLAN faced challenges in gaining market
traction due to the dominance of IEEE 802.11 standards and regulatory issues related to
spectrum allocation.

3.4 Modern Advancements: 802.11n and Beyond

The introduction of 802.11n in 2009 marked a significant advancement in WLAN
technology. Operating in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, 802.11n supports a maximum
data transfer rate of 600 Mbps using MIMO technology. This standard addressed many of the
limitations of previous standards, including interference and bandwidth constraints.
802.11n introduced several key enhancements:
 MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) : Utilizes multiple antennas to transmit and
receive data, improving throughput and reliability by taking advantage of spatial diversity.
 Channel Bonding : Combines two adjacent 20 MHz channels into a single 40 MHz channel,
effectively doubling the available bandwidth and increasing data rates.
 Frame Aggregation : Combines multiple frames into a single transmission, reducing
overhead and improving efficiency.

4. WLAN Architecture
The architecture of a WLAN includes several key components and concepts that ensure
effective communication and network management.
4.1 Stations
Stations (STAs) are all components that can connect to a wireless medium in a network. Each
station is equipped with a wireless network interface controller. Stations are categorized into
two main types:
 Wireless Access Points (WAPs) : These are base stations for the wireless network. They
transmit and receive radio frequencies, allowing wireless-enabled devices to
communicate with each other and with wired networks. WAPs manage the wireless
communication, ensuring that data packets are transmitted and received correctly. They
also handle authentication and security protocols to prevent unauthorized access to the
network.
 Clients : These are devices such as laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), VoIP
phones, smartphones, desktop computers, and printers that are equipped with wireless
network interface controllers. Clients connect to the network through WAPs, enabling
them to access network resources and the internet.

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4.2 Service Set
The Service Set is a fundamental concept in WLAN architecture, describing a group of
wireless devices that communicate within a network. There are different types of service sets:
 Basic Service Set (BSS) : A set of stations that can communicate with each other. Each
BSS is identified by a Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID), which is the MAC address of
the access point serving the BSS. The BSS is the building block of a WLAN, consisting of
an access point and associated client devices.
 Independent BSS (IBSS) : An ad hoc network that does not include access points, meaning
the stations cannot connect to other base service sets. Stations in an IBSS are configured in
peer-to-peer mode. This mode is useful for temporary networks where devices need to
communicate directly without a centralized access point.
 Extended Service Set (ESS) : A set of interconnected BSSs. Access points in an ESS are
connected by a distribution system. Each ESS is identified by a Service Set Identifier
(SSID), which is a maximum 32-character string. The ESS enables seamless roaming
between different BSSs, allowing devices to move freely within the coverage area without
losing connectivity.

4.3 Distribution System

The distribution system (DS) connects multiple access points to form a single network. It
provides the backbone for data transmission between different BSSs within an ESS. The DS
can be a wired network, such as Ethernet, or a wireless network. The DS ensures that data
packets are routed correctly between access points, enabling seamless communication across
the entire WLAN.

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5. Working of WLAN
WLANs transmit data using various techniques, eliminating the need for physical cables.
Data transmission can be accomplished through radio waves, infrared, and microwave
transmission. The key techniques used in WLAN data transmission include:
5.1 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
FHSS employs a narrowband carrier that changes frequency in a pattern known to both the
transmitter and receiver. This technique helps to avoid interference and ensures successful
data transmission by hopping across different frequencies within a band. FHSS minimizes the
risk of interference from other wireless devices and provides a robust method for wireless
communication. The hopping pattern is determined by a pseudorandom sequence, and both
the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to use the same pattern.

Advantages : FHSS provides resilience against interference and eavesdropping, as the signal
is spread across multiple frequencies. It is also less susceptible to multipath fading, where
signals reflect off surfaces and cause interference.
Disadvantages : The maximum data rate achievable with FHSS is relatively low compared
to other spread spectrum techniques, such as DSSS and OFDM.

5.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

In DSSS, each bit of data is multiplied by a unique code (PN-code) known only to the
transmitter and receiver. This code spreads the signal over a wider bandwidth, making it more
resistant to interference and eavesdropping. The receiver uses the same code to de-spread the
signal and retrieve the original data. DSSS is widely used in IEEE 802.11b WLANs.
Advantages : DSSS provides better data rates than FHSS and offers strong resistance to
narrowband interference. The spread signal is also harder to detect and intercept, enhancing
security.
Disadvantages : DSSS requires more bandwidth than FHSS and can be more affected by
wideband interference.

5.3 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

OFDM is a digital multi-carrier modulation method that divides the radio signal into multiple
smaller sub-signals that are transmitted simultaneously at different frequencies. This
technique reduces interference and enhances data transmission rates. OFDM is used in many
modern WLAN standards, including 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, and 802.11ac.
Advantages : OFDM offers high spectral efficiency, robustness against multipath fading, and
resistance to interference. It supports higher data rates and can efficiently use the available
bandwidth.
Disadvantages : OFDM systems are more complex and require sophisticated signal
processing techniques. They can also be sensitive to frequency and phase noise.

5.4 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

CSMA/CA is a network protocol used to avoid collisions in a shared communication
medium. Before transmitting data, a device listens to the channel to check if it is idle. If the
channel is busy, the device waits for a random backoff period before attempting to transmit
again. This protocol helps manage access to the shared wireless medium and minimizes the
likelihood of collisions.

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 Advantages : CSMA/CA efficiently manages access to the shared medium, reducing the
chances of collisions and ensuring fair access for all devices.
Disadvantages : The random backoff mechanism can introduce delays, especially in
networks with high traffic. CSMA/CA also does not completely eliminate the possibility of
collisions.

6. Modes of Operation
WLANs operate in two primary modes: infrastructure mode and ad hoc mode.
6.1 Infrastructure Mode
In infrastructure mode, mobile units communicate through a wireless access point (WAP)
that also serves as a bridge to other networks, such as a local area network (LAN) or the
internet. This mode is predominant in Wi-Fi networks.
 Connection : Wireless clients, such as laptops
and smartphones, connect to the WAP. The
WAP manages network traffic, assigns IP
addresses, and provides authentication and
encryption services to ensure secure
communication.
 WAP Functions : The WAP provides a wired
network connection and can connect wirelessly
to other WAPs, allowing for network extension
and redundancy. WAPs can be configured to
operate in different modes, such as access point
mode, repeater mode, or bridge mode,
depending on the network requirements.
 Fixed Location : Wireless access points are usually in fixed locations and serve clients
within their range. The placement of WAPs is critical for optimizing coverage and
minimizing interference.

6.2 Ad-hoc Mode

In ad-hoc mode, mobile units communicate directly with each other peer-to-peer, without a
central access point. This mode is useful for temporary or spontaneous networks.

 Direct Communication : Devices communicate directly with each other, forming a peer-to-
peer network. Each device acts as both a client and a router, forwarding data to other
devices in the network.
 No Central Access Point : There is no need for a central access point, making this mode
suitable for situations where infrastructure is unavailable or impractical. Ad-hoc networks
are commonly used in scenarios such as emergency response, military operations, and
temporary event setups.
 Configuration : Devices in an ad-hoc network must be manually configured to operate in
this mode, including setting the network SSID and security parameters.

6.3 Peer-to-Peer (IBSS)

In the peer-to-peer mode, devices communicate directly without relying on a central access
point, utilizing an Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS).

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 Example : A group of laptops connecting directly in a conference room to share files without
a router or internet connection. Each device in the IBSS communicates with others within its
range, enabling collaborative work and resource sharing. Stations connect on-the-fly as
needed, providing flexibility for ad hoc networking. IBSS networks are easy to set up and do
not require additional infrastructure, making them suitable for quick, temporary networks.

7. Bridging and Roaming

Bridging and roaming are essential features in WLANs that enhance network flexibility and
user experience.
7.1 Bridging
Bridging in WLANs refers to the connection of two or more network segments to form a
single cohesive network. Wireless bridges are used to connect different LANs or to extend
the range of a WLAN.
Types of Bridging :
 Point-to-Point : Connects two separate networks, typically over long distances. This setup
is useful for connecting buildings on a campus or linking remote offices.
 Point-to-Multipoint : Connects multiple networks to a central access point. This
configuration is often used in wireless ISP networks and large enterprise deployments.
Implementation : Wireless bridges can be implemented using dedicated bridge devices or
configured access points. They use various protocols, such as the Spanning Tree Protocol
(STP), to manage data traffic and prevent loops.
Advantages : Bridging extends network coverage, improves connectivity in remote areas,
and allows seamless integration of wired and wireless networks.
Challenges : Wireless bridging can introduce latency and bandwidth limitations. Proper
planning and configuration are required to ensure optimal performance and avoid
interference.

7.2 Roaming
Roaming enables a mobile device to maintain a seamless connection while moving between
different access points within a WLAN. As a device moves out of the coverage area of one
access point, it automatically connects to another access point with a stronger signal. This
handover process ensures uninterrupted connectivity. The transition between access points is
managed by the network, often involving protocols like IEEE 802.11r (Fast BSS Transition)
to minimize disruption. Roaming is crucial in large environments such as corporate
campuses, hospitals, and educational institutions, where users need continuous connectivity
while moving between different areas. Ensuring smooth roaming requires careful network

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 design, including optimal placement of access points, adequate overlap in coverage areas, and
efficient management of authentication and security processes.

Internal Roaming : Mobile station (MS) moves between access points (APs) within the
home network due to weak signal strength. MS re-authenticates via an authentication server
(e.g., 802.11) and periodically searches for stronger APs to re-associate. Connection
interruptions may occur. Billing is managed within the home network.
External Roaming : The MS connects to a WLAN of another wireless Internet service
provider (WISP), using the foreign network independently from the home network. Special
authentication and billing systems are required. User experience is dependent on the policies
of the foreign network.

8. Advantages of WLAN over Wired Networks

 Mobility : WLANs provide users with the freedom to move within the coverage area
without losing connectivity. This mobility is particularly beneficial in environments such
as offices, schools, and public spaces where users need to access the network from
different locations.
 Ease of Installation : Setting up a WLAN is generally simpler and quicker than installing a
wired network, as it eliminates the need for extensive cabling and infrastructure
modifications. This ease of installation reduces deployment time and costs.
 Flexibility : WLANs offer the flexibility to connect a wide range of devices, including
laptops, smartphones, tablets, and IoT devices, to the network. This versatility supports
diverse applications and use cases.
 Scalability : WLANs can be easily expanded by adding more access points, allowing the
network to grow as needed without significant changes to the existing infrastructure. This
scalability makes WLANs suitable for dynamic environments where network demands
may change over time.
 Cost-Effective : While the initial cost of wireless equipment can be high, the overall cost is
often lower than that of a wired network due to reduced cabling and installation expenses.
WLANs also reduce maintenance costs associated with physical network infrastructure.

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9. Disadvantages of WLAN over Wired Networks
 Security : WLANs are more susceptible to security threats such as unauthorized access,
eavesdropping, and denial-of-service attacks. Effective security measures, including
encryption, authentication, and network monitoring, are essential to mitigate these risks.
 Interference : WLANs can be affected by interference from other wireless devices,
household appliances, and physical obstacles. Interference can degrade network
performance and reduce the effective range of the WLAN.
 Range Limitations : The coverage area of a WLAN is typically limited to a few hundred
feet, depending on factors such as access point placement, signal strength, and
environmental conditions. Extending coverage often requires additional access points or
repeaters.
 Bandwidth Constraints : The shared nature of the wireless medium means that bandwidth
is divided among all connected devices. High network traffic can lead to congestion and
reduced performance, especially in densely populated environments.
 Latency : Wireless networks can introduce higher latency compared to wired networks due
to factors such as signal processing, interference, and retransmissions. Latency can impact
the performance of real-time applications such as video conferencing and online gaming.

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) have revolutionized the way we connect and
communicate, offering unprecedented mobility, flexibility, and convenience. The evolution
of WLAN technology, driven by the IEEE 802.11 standards, has enabled the development of
robust, high-performance wireless networks that cater to a wide range of applications and
environments.
Understanding the working principles of WLANs, including the various transmission
techniques and modes of operation, is crucial for designing and managing effective wireless
networks. The advantages of WLANs, such as mobility and ease of installation, are balanced
by challenges such as security concerns and interference management. By addressing these
challenges through proper planning, configuration, and security measures, WLANs can
provide reliable and efficient connectivity to meet the demands of modern users.
As WLAN technology continues to evolve, the introduction of new standards and innovations
will further enhance the capabilities and performance of wireless networks, paving the way
for future advancements in wireless communication.

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