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FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS

8 BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

1. INTRODUCTION

When a real fluid flows past a solid body or a solid wall the fluid particles at the surface of the
body flow with the same velocity as that of the surface to satisfy no slip condition, so the
relative velocity of fluid particles at the surface of solid body is zero.
Away from the solid body in the transverse direction the velocity of fluid particles increases
gradually. Thus the velocity gradient exists in this region closed to the boundary. Due to
du
velocity gradient viscous stresses, ' 0 =  ' exists in this region. This narrow region is known
dy

as boundary region.
Boundary
U¥ layer

=0
velocity
profile

no slip condition

As we moves away from the surface there is a development of velocity in the transverse
direction of flow therefore, slowly viscous shear stresses are decreasing and the velocities are
increasing and after travelling the distance in the transverse direction almost viscous shear
stresses are closed to zero and the velocity are almost constant.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF BOUNDARY LAYER OVER A FLAT PLATE

Turbulent
U¥ boundary
layer

Laminar
baundary
r
layer Laminar sub
layer
r

x x
Wading
edge
Laminar Transition velocity
zone zone profile

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For defining the boundary layer consider the flow of a fluid, having free stream velocity over
thin plate which is flat. It was experimentally found that upto a certain distance the flow in the
boundary layer is laminar and as the boundary layer grows, instability occurs and the flow
changes from laminar to turbulent through transition.
Fully developed flow con not be achieved in external flows. It can only be in internal flows.
Here x = distance from leading edge in the flow direction
u = free stream velocity of fluid
v = kinematic viscosity of fluid
ru¥ x  
The reynald’s number, (Re)x = v = r 
  
(Re)x< (Re) cr (laminar)
(Re)x> (Re) cr (turbulent)
Here, (Re)cr = critical reynold’s number
Value of Recr = 5 × 105

3. BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS (r)

It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by
which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account
of boundary layer formation.
It is the perpendicular distance from the surface of solid body measured at a particular point
(x), at which the velocity of fluid particle is 99% of free stream velocity.

3.1 Displacement Thickness (r* )

It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate
on account of boundary layer formation.
Mathematically,

 u
* =  1 − u
o
 dy
¥ 

3.2 Momentum Thickness ()

It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum
of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.

u  u

= u
o
1 −
¥ 
 dy
u¥ 

3.3 Energy Thickness (** )

It is defined as the distance, measured per pendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in kinetic
energy of flowing fluid.

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Mathematically,

u  u2 

** = o u¥  u2¥  dy
1 −

Important: Relation between different thickness.

Displacement thickness (* )
Shape factor (H) =
Momentum thickness ()

Example :
Find the displacement thickness δ* for a Laminar BL modelled by the equation u = u 1
sin(π y/2δ)
Sol:
 
 u   y  
* = 0 1 − u1  dy =  1 − sin  2 
0


 2  y    2 
*
 = y + cos    =   + 0 − 0 +  = 0.364
   2  0  

Example :
Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness and energy thickness the
u y
velocity distribution in the boundary layer given = , where u is the velocity at a
U 
distance from the plate and u = U at y = δ, where δ, where δ = boundary layer thickness.
Also calculate the value of δ*/θ.
Sol: Given:
u y
Velocity distribution =
U 
(i) Displacement thickness δ* is given by equation
  u   y  u y
* =  0
1 − dy =
U  0
1 −  dy



= 
U 

 y2 
= y −  {δ is constant across a section}
 2 0

2  
=− =− = 
2 2 2
(ii)Momentum thickness, θ is given by equation
 u u
θ= 
0 U
1 −  dy
U
u y
Substituting the value of = ,
U 
 y y   y y2 
=  0 
1 −  dy =
  0
 − 2  dy
 

 y2 y3  2 3   3 − 2 
= − 2 = = = − = =  Ans.
 2 3 0 2 32 2 3 6 6

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(iii)Energy thickness δ** is given by equation
 u u2   y  y2   u y
** =  0

U
1 −  dy =
U2  0 


1 −  dy
2 


= 
U 

  y y3   y2 y4  2 4
= 
0
 − 3  dy = 
  
− 3
= −
 2 4  0 2 43

  2 −  
= − = =  Ans.
2 4 4 4
 
*    6
(iv) = 2 =  = 3. Ans.
   2 8
 
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Example:
They velocity distribution inside a laminar BL over a flat plate is described by the cubic
law:
u/u1 = a0 + a1y + a2y2 + a3y3
Show that the momentum thickness is 39δ/280
Sol:
At y = 0, u = 0 so it follows that a0 = 0
d2u/dy2 = 0 @ y = 0 so a2 = 0. Show for yourself that this is so.
The law is reduced to u/u1 = a1y + a3y3
At y = δ, u = u1 so 1 = a1δ + 3a3δ2
hence a1 = (1-a3δ3)/δ
Now differentiate and du/dy = u1 (a1 + 3a3y2)
At y = δ, du/dy is zero so 0 = a 1 + 3a3=δ2 so a1 = -3a3δ2
Hence by equating a1 = 3/2δ and a3 = -1/2δ3
Now we can write the velocity distribution as u/u 1 = 3y/2δ – (y/δ)3/2
and du/dy = u1{3/2δ + 3y2/2δ3}
If we give the term y/δ the symbol η we may rewrite the equation as:
u/u1 = 3η/2 – η3/2
The momentum thickness θ is given by:

u u
=  u
0
 1 − u  dy
3  1
but dy = δ dη

1
 3 3   3 3 
=   2
0
−  1 −
2  2
−  d
2

Integrating gives:
 32 4 93 7 35 
 =  − − − + 
 4 8 12 28 10 
Between the limits η = 0 and η = 1 this evaluates to
θ = 39δ/280

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3.4 Laminar Boundary Layer Over a Flat Plate
(i) Boundary Layer Thickness ()

x
Mathematically,
 5
=
x Rex

from the above expression, we can say that

  x
 u¥ x
Also, here, Rex =


(ii) Local Skin Friction Coefficient (CF,X)

Mathematically is is expressed aa
0.664
CF,x =
Rex

We can also say,

constant
CF,x =
Rex

o,x
Also, CF,x =
1 2
u
2 ¥
here, o,x is the shear stress at distance ‘x’ from the leading edge.

So, shear stress at wall can be given as

0.664 1
o,x =   u2¥
Rex 2
0.332
 o,x =  u2¥
Rex
1
 o,x 
x

(iii) Average Skin Friction Coefficient or Drag Coefficient (CD)

Mathematically,
CD = 2 CF,X
1.328
Or, we can say that, CD =
ReL

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(iv) Drag Force (FD)
The drag force on the plate can be determined if the velocity profile near the plate is
known.
Mathematically,
1
FD = CD   r  A  u2¥
2
here, r = density of the flowing fluid.

CD = drag coefficient
Example:

Show that δ/x = 4.64 R 0.5

e for the same case as discussed in previous example.

Sol:
We must first go back to the basic relationship. From the previous page
du/dy = u1 {3/2δ + 3y2/2δ3}
At the wall where y = 0 the shear stress is
 = μdu/dy = μu1{3/2δ + 3y2/2δ3} = (μu1/δ) δ [(3/2δ) + 3y2/2δ3]
Putting y/δ = η we get:
 o = (μu1/δ) δ [(3/2δ) + 3 δ2/2δ]

 o = (μu1/δ) [(3/2) + 3δ2/2]

at the wall η = 0  o = (μu1/δ) [(3/2) ………..(1)

The friction coefficient Cf is always defined as

Cf =  o /(ρ u12/2)……….(2)

It has been shown elsewhere that Cf = 2dθ/dx. The students search out this information
from test books.
Putting θ = 39δ/280 (from the last example) then
Cf = 2dθ/dx = (2x 39/280) dδ/dx ……. (3)
Equating (2) and (3) gives
 o = (ρu12) (39/280)dδ/dx …… (2.4)

equation (1) and (4) gives

(ρu12)(39/280(dδ/dx = (μu/δ)(3/2)
Hence (3 x 280)/(2 x 39)(μdx)/ρu = δdδ
Integrating 10.77(μx/ ρu1) = δ2/2 + C
Since δ = 0 at x = 0 (the leading edge of the plate) then C=0
hence δ = {21.54μx/ρu 1} 1/2

Dividing both sides by x gives δ/x = 4.64(μ/ρ1x) -1/2 = 4.64Re-1/2

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4. TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER OVER A FLAT PLATE

The most appropriate velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate is 1/7 th
power law. According to which,
1/7
u y
= 
u¥   

(i) Boundary Layer Thickness

Mathematically,
 0.376
=
x Re1/7
x

(ii) Local Skin Friction Coefficient (CF,X)

Mathematically,
0.059
CF,X =
Re1/5
x

(iii) Drag Friction (CD)

0.074
CD =
Re1/5
L

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Also, CD = C
4 F,X
Example
Show that the mean velocity in a pipe with fully developed turbulent flow is 49/60 of the
maximum velocity. Assume the 1/7th law.
Sol: For a pipe, the B.L. extends to the centre so δ = radius = R. Consider an elementary ring
of flow.

The velocity through the ring is μ.

The volume flow rate through the ring is 2πrudr
The volume flow rate in the pipe is Q = 2π∫rudr
Since δ = R then u = u1(y/R)1/7
also r = R-y
Q = 2π∫ (R-y)udr = 2π∫ u1R-1/7 (R-y)y1/7 dy
Q = 2πu1 R-1/7 [Ry1/7 –y8/7]
Q = 2πu1R-1/7 [(7/8)Ry8/7 – (7/15)y15/7]
Q = (49/60)πR2u1.

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The mean velocity is defined by um = Q/πR2
Hence um = (49/60)u1
Example: (S.I. Units). Determine the thickness of the boundary layer at the trailing edge of
smooth plate of length 4 m and of width 1.5 m, when the plate is moving with a velocity of 4
m/s in stationary air. Take kinematic viscosity of air as 1.5 × 10 -5 m2/s.
Solution:
Length of plate, L=4m
Width of plate, b = 1.5 m
Velocity of plate, U = 4 m/s
Kinematic viscosity,  = 1.5 × 10-5 m2/s

UL 4.0  .40

Reynold number, R eL = = = 10.66  105
 1.5  10−5
As the Reynold number is more than 5 × 10 5 and hence the boundary layer at the trailing edge
is turbulent.
The boundary layer thickness for turbulent boundary layer is given by equation (13.44) as
0.37
= |Here x = L and R ex = R eL
(R )
1/5
ex

0.37  4.0
= = 0.0921 m = 92.1 mm Ans.
(10.66  105 )1/5

5. BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION

Various conditions of gradient

du
(i) = positive
dy y =0

Flow is attached.
du
(ii) =0
dy y =0

flow is at the verge of separation.

du
(iii) = negative
dy y =0

flow has separated.

5.1 Methods to Control the Flow Separation
(i) By the suction of fluid
(ii) By the injection of fluid
(iii) By providing the bypass in slatted wings.
(iv) By stream lining of body shape.

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