1. Explain the history of philosophy language?

Language is a fundamental aspect of the human species and its development .

That’s why it’s been approached by philosophy from various angles since ancient
times.

Ancient philosophy
In the West, the investigation of language dates back to the 5th century B.C. with
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. For example, in the dialogue Cratylus, Plato
questioned whether the names of things were determined by convention or by nature.

In this case, he was against conventionalism, for this meant that anything could be
conventionally named by any name.

For his part, Aristotle was interested in questions of logic, categories, and the
creation of meaning. He separated things into categories of species and genera. He
thought that the meaning of a predicate was established through an abstraction of the
similarities between various individual things. This theory was later called nominalism.

Medieval philosophy
For their part, medieval philosophers were very interested in the subtleties of language
and its use. For many scholars, this interest was triggered by the need to translate
Greek texts into Latin.

St. Augustine, for example, proposed that a symbol is a material reality that evokes the
understanding of a foreign reality. Thus, the linguistic symbol is constituted by an
intrinsic union of sound and meaning.

Considering this Augustinian position – which is very similar to that established by

Plato – it could be assumed that there’s a direct connection between a symbol and the
thing it represents.

Modern philosophy
Although language was approached long before modernity, it was not until this era that
it began to arouse greater interest. This gives rise to two different approaches to the
understanding of language. According to the Canadian philosopher Charles Taylor,
these are designation theory and constitutive theory.
On the one hand, designation theory conceives language as an instrument that
allows us to designate things and ideas. Therefore, this approach adopts an
atomistic stance on language, emphasizing the individual’s relationship to words. The
most prominent representatives are Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-
1704), and Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1714-1780).
In contrast, the constitutive approach conceives language as something prior to
individuals, which constitutes the world they inhabit and which expresses and
transforms their ways of being. In this sense, it develops a holistic view in which
language predefines the conditions of existence of human beings and whose adequate
understanding is not reached from the actions undertaken by individuals.

The main representatives of the constitutive current are Johann Georg Hamann (1730-
1788), Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), and Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835).

Contemporary philosophy
The two approaches mentioned above will develop in parallel until the 20th century.
From then on, the constitutive theory of language began to gain more relevance.

In particular, this occurred thanks to the birth of modern linguistics and Ferdinand de
Saussure (1857-1913). It also occurred also thanks to the contributions of Gottlob
Frege (1848-1925), the referent of modern logic and the distinction between meaning
and reference.

Now, from these contributions, language began to take a central role in Western
philosophy. In fact, the phrase “linguistic turn” is often used to refer to the growing
and notable emphasis that contemporary philosophers placed on the subject.

Later, with the development of analytic philosophy, there was a growing interest in
ordinary language. This implies a shift in the emphasis previously placed on formal
languages.

Among the philosophers who dealt with ordinary language are G.E. Moore (1873-1958)
and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), who argued that ordinary language was the
substratum for understanding formal languages. For the latter, the general
phenomenon of language and its derivations is born of the ordinary .
2. List and discuss the function of language?

Michael Halliday (2003:80) stated a set of seven initial functions, as follows:

Regulatory, Interactional, Representational, Personal, Imaginative, Instrumental
and Heuristic.
 Regulatory Function
The Regulatory Function of language is language used to influence the behavior
of others. Concerned with persuading/commanding/requesting other people to
do things you want. For example: Could you like to give some money?

 Interactional Function
The Interactional Function of language is language used to develop social
relationship and ease the process of interaction, concerned with the phobic
dimension of talk. For example, I love you and I want to live with you forever.

 Personal Function
The Personal Function of language is language used to express the personal
preferences, identity, feelings, emotions, personality, opinion and reaction of the
speaker. Sometimes referred to as the “Here I am” function announcing oneself
to the world. For example, Toba Lake is a good place to get refreshing.

 Representational Function
The Representational Function of language is language used to exchange
information. Concerned with relay or requesting information. For example,
Europe Island is a place that makes us to find out our dream.

 Heuristic Function
The Heuristic Function of language is used to learn and explore the
environment. Child uses language to learn, this may be question and answers, or
the kind of running commentary that frequently accompanies children’s play.
For example, what the tractor doing?

 Imaginative Function
The Imaginative Function of language is language used to explore the
imagination or to create imaginary system or ideas and also to tell stories, and
jokes, telling fairy tales. May also accompany play as children crate imaginary
worlds, or may arise from storytelling. For example, a good player can make a
successful in this drama.
  Instrumental Function
The Instrumental Function of language is language uses to express what the
peoples need. For example, I want to buy a car to make me easy for everything.

3. List and discuss techniques of definition?

Techniques of definition may be classified in terms of the two kinds of meaning, intensional
and extensional.

The Extensional (Denotative) Definitional Techniques

An extensional definition is one that assigns a meaning to a term by indicating the members of the
class that the definiendum denotes. There are at least three ways of indicating the members of a
class: pointing to them (demonstrative or ostensive definitions), naming them individually
(enumerative definitions), and naming them in groups (definitions by subclass).

1) Demonstrative (Ostensive) Definitions

Demonstrative (Ostensive) Definitions are probably the most primitive form of definition.
All one need know to understand such a definition is the meaning of pointing. Such
definitions may be either partial or complete, depending on whether all or only some of the
members of the class denoted by the definiendum are pointed to.

Demonstrative definitions differ from the other kinds of definitions in that the definiens is
constituted at least in part by a gesture- the gesture of pointing. Since the definiens in any
definition is a group of words, however, a gesture, such as pointing, must count as a word.
While this conclusion may appear strange at first, it is supported by the fact that the
‘‘words‘‘ in many sign languages consist exclusively of gestures.

2) Enumerative Definitions

Enumerative Definitions assign a meaning to a term by naming the members of the class the
term denotes. Like demonstrative definitions, they may also be either partial or complete.

Complete enumerative definitions are usually more satisfying than partial ones because
they identify the definiendum with greater assurance. However, relatively few classes can
be completely enumerated.

3) Definition by Subclass

Definition by Subclass assigns a meaning to a term by naming subclasses of the class

denoted by the term. Such a definition, too, may be either partial or complete, depending on
whether the subclasses named, when taken together, include all the members of the class
or only some of them. As with definitions by enumeration, complete definitions by subclass
are more satisfying than partial ones; but because relatively few terms denote classes that
admit of a conveniently small number of subclasses, complete definitions by subclass are
often difficult, if not impossible, to provide.

The Intensional (Connotative) Definitional Techniques

An intensional definition one that assigns a meaning to a word by indicating the qualities or
attributes that the word connotes. There are at least four strategies that may be used to
indicate the attributes/qualities that a word connotes. These strategies result synonymous
definitions, etymological definitions, operational definitions, definitions by genus and
difference.

1) Synonymous Definition

Synonymous Definition is one in which the definiens is a single word that connotes the
same attributes as the definiendum- that the definiens is a synonym of the word being
defined.

When a single word can be found that has the same intensional meaning as the word being
defined, a synonymous definition is a highly concise way of assigning a meaning. However,
many words have subtle shades of meaning that are not connoted by any other single word.
For example, the word “wisdom“ is not synonymous with
either “knowledge“, “understanding‖, or “sense“.

2) Etymological Definition

Etymological Definition assigns a meaning to a word by disclosing the word‘s ancestry in

both its own language and other languages. For example, the English word ‘‘license‘‘ is
derived from the Latin verb licere, which means to be permitted. Etymological definitions
have special importance for at least two reasons. The first reason is that the etymological
definition of a word often conveys the word‘s root meaning or seminal meaning from which
all other associated meanings are derived. Unless one is familiar with this root meaning,
one often fails to place other meanings in their proper light or to grasp the meaning of the
word when it is used in its most proper sense.

3) Operational Definition

Operational Definition assigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental

procedures that determine whether or not the word applies to a certain thing. Operational
definitions were invented for the purpose of tying down relatively abstract concepts to the
solid ground of empirical reality. In this they succeed fairly well; yet, from the standpoint of
ordinary language usage, they involve certain deficiencies. One of these deficiencies
concerns the fact that operational definitions usually convey only part of the intensional
meaning of a term. ‘‘Acid‘‘, for example, means more than blue litmus paper turning red.
Moreover, operational definitions cannot apply to terms outside the framework of science.
 4) Definition by Genus and Difference

Definition by Genus and Difference assigns a meaning to a term by identifying a genus term
and one or more difference words that, when combined, convey the meaning of the term
being defined. It is more generally applicable and achieves more adequate results than any
of the other kinds of intentional definition. To explain how it works, we must first explain
the meanings of the terms ‘‘genus,‘‘ ‘‘species,‘‘ and ‘‘specific difference.‘

4. Write and discuss the meaning, types and purposes of definition?

 The Meaning of Definition

Definition is a technical and structural organization of words and/or terms or phrases in

explaining the meaning of a given term. For most logicians, definitions are intended
exclusively to explicate the meaning of words. Hence, we may define definition as a group
of words that assigns a meaning to some word or group of words. Accordingly, every
definition consists of two parts: the definiendum and the definiens. The definiendum is the
word or group of words that is supposed to be defined, and the definiens is the word or
group of words that does the defining. For example, in the definition “Tiger‘ means a large,
striped, ferocious feline indigenous to the jungles of India and Asia,‘‘ the word ‘tiger‘‘ is the
definiendum, and everything after the word “means‘‘ is the definiens. The definiens is not
itself the meaning of the definiendum; rather, it is the group of words that symbolizes (or
that is supposed to symbolize) the same meaning as the definiendum. Because we
presumably know in advance what the definiens symbolizes, we are led, via the definition,
to understand what the definiendum symbolizes. It is in this way that the definition
“assigns‘‘ a meaning to its definiendum.

 The Types and Purposes of Definitions

There are various kinds of definitions that are actually used in our practical life. Based on
the functions that they actually serve, definitions can be classified into five: stipulative,
lexical, précising, theoretical, and persuasive definitions.

1) Stipulative Definitions

A stipulative definition assigns a meaning to a word for the first time. This may involve
either coining a new word or giving a new meaning to an old word. The purpose of a
stipulative definition is usually to replace a more complex expression with a simpler
one.

The need for a stipulative definition is often occasioned by some new phenomenon or
development. For example, the attempt, which has made a few years ago at a certain
zoo to crossbreed tigers and lions, has been succeeded because of the genetic similarity
of the two species- that offspring were produced from a male tiger and a female lion
and from a male lion and a female tiger. When the offspring were born, it became
appropriate to give them names. Of course, the names “offspring of male tiger and
female lion‘‘ and “offspring of male lion and female tiger‘‘ could have been used, but
these names were hardly convenient. Instead, the names “tigon‘‘ and “liger‘‘ were
selected. Any two new words would have sufficed equally well for naming the offspring-
“topar‘‘ and “largine‘‘, for example, but “tigon‘‘ and “liger‘‘ were considered more
appropriate, for obvious reasons. Hence, “Tigon‘‘ was taken to mean the offspring of a
male tiger and a female lion, and “liger‘‘ the offspring of a male lion and a female tiger.
These assignments of meanings were accomplished through stipulative definitions.

Another use for stipulative definitions is to set up secret codes. For example, during
World War II, “Tora, Tora, Tora‘‘ was the code name Admiral Yamamoto transmitted to
the war office in Tokyo signaling that the Japanese fleet had not been spotted in the
hours preceding the bombing of Pearl Harbor. More recently, “Operation Desert Storm‘‘
was the code name given to the military invasion of Iraq. Law enforcement
organizations have adopted similar code names for sting operations against organized
crime. It is important to note that because a stipulative definition is a completely
arbitrary assignment of a meaning to a word for the first time, there can be no such
thing as a “true‘‘ or “false‘‘ stipulative definition. Furthermore, for the same reason, a
stipulative definition cannot provide any new information about the subject matter of
the definiendum. The fact that the word “tigon‘‘ was selected to replace “offspring of a
male tiger and a female lion‘‘ tells us nothing new about the nature of the animal in
question. One stipulative definition may, however, be more or less convenient or more
or less appropriate than another.

Stipulative definitions are misused in verbal disputes when one person covertly uses a
word in a peculiar way and then proceeds to assume that everyone else uses that word
in the same way. under these circumstances that person is said to be using the word
“stipulatively”. In such cases the assumption that other persons use the word in the
same way is rarely justified. It is important, however, to be aware that insofar as people
keep coming up with new creations, whether it be new food concoctions, new
inventions, new modes of behavior, new kinds of apparel, new dances, or whatever, the
demand for stipulative definitions will continue.

2) Lexical Definitions

This definition is used to report the meaning that a word already has in a language.
Dictionary definitions are all instances of lexical definitions. Thus, in contrast with a
stipulative definition, a lexical definition may be true or false depending on whether it
does or does not report the way a word is actually used. Because words are frequently
used in more than one way, lexical definitions have the further purpose of eliminating
the ambiguity that would otherwise arise if one of these meanings were to be confused
with another.

an expression is ambiguous when it can be interpreted as having two or more clearly

distinct meanings in a given context. Words such as “light,‘‘ “mad,‘‘ and “bank‘‘ can be
used ambiguously. Because a lexical definition lists the various meanings that a word
can have, a person who consults such a definition is better prepared to avoid
ambiguous constructions of his or her own and to detect those of others. Undetected
ambiguity causes the most trouble. In many cases the problem lies not with the obvious
differences in meaning that words such as “light‘‘ and ‘bank‘‘ may have but with the
subtle shadings of meaning that are more likely to be confused with one another. For
example, if a woman is described as “nice,‘‘ any number of things could be intended. She
could be fastidious, refined, modest, pleasant, attractive, or even lewd. A good lexical
definition will distinguish these various shadings and thereby guard against the
possibility that two such meanings will be unconsciously jumbled together into one.

3) Précising Definitions

The purpose of a précising definition is to reduce the vagueness of a word. As we saw in

the first section of this chapter, an expression is vague if there are borderline cases in
which it is impossible to tell if the word applies or does not apply. Words such as
“fresh,‘‘ “rich,‘‘ and “poor‘‘ are vague. Once the vagueness of such words is reduced by a
précising definition, one can reach a decision as to the applicability of the word to a
specific situation. For example, if legislation were ever introduced to give direct
financial assistance to the poor, a précising definition would have to be supplied
specifying exactly who is poor and who is not. The definition “Poor‘ means having an
annual income of less than $4,000 and a net worth of less than $20,000‘‘ is an example
of a précising definition.

Whenever words are taken from ordinary usage and used in a highly systematic context
such as science, mathematics, medicine, or law, they must always be clarified by means
of a précising definition. The terms “force,‘‘ “energy,‘‘ “acid,‘‘ “element,‘‘ “number,‘‘
“equality,‘‘ “contract,‘‘ and ”agent‘‘ have all been given précising definitions by specific
disciplines.

Sometimes the substance of a court trial may revolve around the precise usage of a
term. A trial in California addressed the question of whether a man who had driven a
bicycle while intoxicated violated the motor vehicle code. The question concerned
whether, for these purposes, a bicycle could be considered a “vehicle.‘‘ The court
decided in the affirmative, and the decision amounted to an incremental extension of an
already existent précising definition of the word “vehicle.‘‘

Another example involves the practice of surgical transplantation of vital organs. Before
a heart transplant can be conducted, the donor must be dead; otherwise, the surgeon
will be accused of murder. If the donor is dead for too long, however, the success of the
transplant will be imperiled. But exactly when is a person considered to be dead? Is it
when the heart stops beating, when the person stops breathing, when rigor mortis sets
in, or some other time? The question involves the meaning of the term “moment of
death.‘‘ The courts have decided that ”moment of death‘‘ should be taken to mean the
moment the brain stops functioning, as measured by an electroencephalograph. This
decision amounts to the acceptance of a précising definition for ”moment of death.‘‘
4) Theoretical Definitions

A theoretical definition assigns a meaning to a word by suggesting a theory that gives a

certain characterization to the entities that the term denotes. Such a definition provides
a way of viewing or conceiving these entities that suggests deductive consequences,
further investigation (experimental or otherwise), and whatever else would be entailed
by the acceptance of a theory governing these entities. The definition of the term “heat‘‘
found in texts dealing with the kinetic theory of heat provides a good example: ”heat‘
means the energy associated with the random motion of the molecules of a substance.‘‘
This definition does more than merely assign a meaning to a word; it provides a way of
conceiving the physical phenomenon that is heat. In so doing, it suggests the deductive
consequence that as the molecules of a substance speed up the temperature of the
substance increases. In addition, it suggests a number of experimentsexperiments
investigating the relationship between molecular velocity and the phenomena of
radiation, gas pressure, molecular elasticity, and molecular configuration. In short, this
definition of “heat‘‘ provides the impetus for an entire theory about heat.

However, not all theoretical definitions are associated with science. Many terms in
philosophy, such as ”substance‖, ”form”, ”cause‖,” change‖, ”idea‖,” good‖,” mind‖, and
”God‖ have been given theoretical definitions. In fact most of the major philosophers in
history have given these terms their own peculiar theoretical definitions, and this fact
accounts in part for the unique character of their respective philosophies. For example,
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz‘s definition of :substance‘‘ in terms of what he called
“monads‘‘ laid the foundation for his metaphysical theory, and John Stuart Mill‘s
definition of “good‘‘ as the greatest happiness of the greatest number provided the
underpinnings for his utilitarian theory of ethics.

5) Persuasive Definitions

The purpose of a persuasive definition is to engender a favorable or unfavorable

attitude toward what is denoted by the definiendum. This purpose is accomplished by
assigning an emotionally charged or value-laden meaning to a word while making it
appears that the word really has (or ought to have) that meaning in the language in
which it is used. Thus, persuasive definitions amount to a certain synthesis of
stipulative, lexical, and, possibly, theoretical definitions backed by the rhetorical motive
to engender a certain attitude. As a result of this synthesis, a persuasive definition
masquerades as an honest assignment of meaning to a term while condemning or
blessing with approval the subject matter of the definiendum.

While persuasive definitions may, like lexical definitions, be evaluated as either true or
false, the primary issue is neither truth nor falsity but the effectiveness of such
definitions as instruments of persuasion. Giving their primary objective- i.e., influencing
the attitudes of the reader/listenerpersuasive definitions may be used with
considerable effectiveness in political speeches and editorial columns
 5. What are the criteria of lexical definition?

Giving the function of a lexical definition, lexical definitions are what we most
frequently encounter and are what most people mean when they speak of the
“definition” of a word. Accordingly, it is appropriate that we have a set of rules that we
may use in constructing our own lexical definitions and in evaluating the lexical
definitions of others. While some of these rules apply to the other kinds of definitions as
well, the unique functions that are served by simulative, précising, theoretical, and
persuasive definitions prescribe different sets of criteria.

Rule 1: A Lexical Definition Should Conform to the Standards of Proper Grammar.

Rule 2: A Lexical Definition Should Convey the Essential Meaning of the Word Being
Defined.

Rule 3: A Lexical Definition Should Be Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow.

Rule 4: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Circularity.

Rule 5: A Lexical Definition Should Not Be Negative When It Can Be Affirmative.

Rule 6: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Figurative, Obscure, Vague, or Ambiguous

Language.

Rule 7: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Affective Terminology.

Rule 8: A Lexical Definition Should Indicate the Context to Which the Definiens Pertains.