PHYSICS SUMMARY 2020

ADVANCED MECHANICS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

| Projectile Motion |

Projectile motion is the motion of an object propelled in the air following a parabolic trajectory. The object experiences
a vertical acceleration due to gravity and constant horizontal velocity.

Galileo discovered that the vertical and horizontal components of a projectile’s motion are independent of each other
and can be analysed separately. Furthermore, the horizontal velocity is constant while the vertical velocity is
accelerated by gravity. Objects launched at complementary angles with the same velocity will also have the same
range.

Horizontal Component of Motion

● Has constant velocity (experiences no acceleration influenced by gravity) when air resistance is negligible.

Vertical Component of Motion

● Is subjected to constant (generally) acceleration of gravity, Ag or g.
● Acceleration of gravity on earth is approximately -9.8 m/s².
● Acceleration is still present when there is zero velocity and increases/decreases with flight time.

Half Flight
0
● Has a constant horizontal velocity. At 1 sec, vᵧ =
● An object projected horizontally off a At 2 sec, vᵧ = -
cliff will have an initial velocity of 0 m/s At 3 sec,
in the vertical component, as the
At 4 sec, vᵧ
object at maximum height has a point
where it has no velocity.
At 5
● Flight path shows a curve launched
onto or from a level of elevation.
Therefore, displacement is always
positive or negative. At 6 sec, vᵧ = -

Full Flight
● Has a constant horizontal velocity.
● Object’s flight launches and lands on the
same plane. Therefore, displacement is
0 m.
● Addition of horizontal and vertical
velocity vectors gives net velocity.
● Object is launched Ө degrees to the
horizontal.
● At maximum height the vertical velocity
is 0 m/s
● Vector sum gives the net velocity of the
two components of motion.
Newton’s Law of Motion

Table 1
Newton’s Laws of Motion Horizontal Component ( aₓ = 0) Vertical Component

v=u+at vₓ = uₓ vᵧ = uᵧ + aᵧ t

v2 = u2 + 2 a s vₓ 2 = uₓ 2 vᵧ2 = uᵧ2 + 2 aᵧ △𝘺

s = u t + ½ a t2 △𝑥 = uₓ t △ = uᵧ t + ½ aᵧ t2

The figure below displays the triangles formed through the tangents at the start and end of a projectile’s trajectory
used to calculate net, initial and final velocity using the properties of trigonometry. The axes of the x and y
components are perpendicular hence why they can be expressed as Ax = A cos 𝛳 and Ay = A sin 𝛳. Net velocity can
also be found through the vector sum of the horizontal and
vertical component.
vx=
Initial
�
�
u
v vvsinθ
y=
u y=
usin
� Final
�
ux=
| Circular Motion |

objects in circular motion is subjected to centripetal force, F𝒸 which acts towards the centre of motion.

Fc = m ac = m v² / r
Veloc
F N (Newtons) kg m/s

Newtons (N) = kgm/s²

The motion of the object at any point in time is perpendicular (⟂) to F𝒸 .

The F𝒸 can be tension in a string, friction between wheels and a surface,

gravitation (of a central object) and electrostatic.

Note: UCM - Uniform Circular Motion: maintains constant velocity (linear velocity)

Circular motion always has centripetal acceleration, ac .

a = v² / r
m/s² m/s m
Angular Velocity

Angular Velocity refers to the speed of an object rotating in a circular path.

USE RADIANS → (circumference/radius)

Note: 1 radian - 360/2𝝅 radians, 360°/2𝝅 = 57.3°

⍵ = Angular Velocity (rads/s)

ω = Δθ / Δt
rads/s radians seconds

ω=2π/T=2πf
Periods Frequency:Hz (hertz)

v=rw ω = 2π / T v = 2πr / t

Angular Acceleration

Angular acceleration is the time rate of change of angular velocity.

a = Δω / ΔT
rads/s

To convert from rads/s multiply by

Circular Motion on Banked Tracks and Strings

Conical Pendulum

- Consists of a weight fixed on the end of a string or rod

from a pivot.

Horizontal Tracks

FNormal

Ff = F c

Fg

Ff = Fc = mv² where Ff = μ k FN

Banked Tracks
Banking a road reduces the amount of frictional force required to keep a vehicle on a circular path.
It makes it easier for cars to turn and increases the speed threshold for a vehicle to remain in a circular path
without flying off the track.

FNx = FN
sinθ Ffx = Ff
F FN cosθ

F
F
F

Ff
cosθ
F
F

FN is perpendicular to the slope.

𝚺 Fx = FNx + Ffx = mv²/r

Banked Tracks Without Friction

V² = r g tanθ

F 𝚺 Fx = FNx = mv²/r
FNco

FNsi F

F
Torque

𝛕 = F⟂r = r F sinθ
The ‘turning effect of a force’.

θ = angle between the applied force and lever arm.

| Motion in Gravitational Fields |

NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION (Equations)

Universal Gravitational Constant: 6.67 x 10-11

Fg = G M m / r 2 Fg = G m 1 m2 / r 2

M or m1 = central mass
m or m2 = orbital mass

Gravitational force

Fg = m g = GMm/r2

Fg = GMm/r2
Fg/m = GM/r2 g = G M / r2
Similarly,
Radius,
mg = GMm/r2 distance
Gravitational Gravitational Central
2 acceleration from centre
g = GM/r of mass M
(ms-2)
| Escape Velocity |

The velocity an unpowered projectile needs to escape the gravitational field of the planet/moon, etc, when
shot straight vertically.

RECALL: v = 2𝝅r / T

Vesc = √ 2 GM / T

This formula is derived from KE (k) and GPE (u)

KE = ½ m Vesc 2
GPE = - GMm/r = mgh
(-GMm/r becomes positive because energy is added to projectile to escape).

KE = GPE or k=u or k+u = 0

∴ ½ mv2 = GMm / r
V2 = GMm / ½ mr
V2 = 2GM / r

| Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) |

The amount of work in joules required to move an object from one place to another in the gravitational field (from
infinity to a particular point, eg. point A = ∞ , GPE = 0).

U = Ep = GPE = - GMm / r

Moving towards a mass requires an increase in KE (Ek) which then by the law of conservation of energy requires a
decrease in GPE hence a negative in the formula.
| Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion |

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion describe how objects move within a solar system along orbital paths.

(the sun as one of the foci or point of focus of the ellipse.)

An object’s velocity is at is it’s slowest at the furthest point from the sun (aphelion), and fastest at the closest point to
the sun (perihelion). A planet orbiting the sun will not have a constant speed but it will maintain its angular
momentum (m x d x vel.) Since the momentum does not change when the distance increases the velocity decreases.
The third law states that however long an object takes to orbit the sun (its period, T) is related to the mean of its
distance from the sun, the T2/d3 (mean distance of object to sun) = k (constant), and the constant applies to all planets
circulating in a solar system, no matter the period or distance, the same constant applies.

In the Nesa Physics datasheet, the equation is not equated to the constant, instead, it is arranged to r3/T2 equated to
GM/4𝝅2, hence r3/T2 = GM/4𝝅2.

r3/T2 = GM/4π2
Types of Orbits

Low Earth Orbit

The Minimum altitude to avoid significant atmospheric friction is 250 km. The low earth orbit is generally
160-2000 km above the earth's surface. Manned spacecraft usually orbit between 250 km and 400 km.

Medium Earth Orbit

The region 2000km to 35786km (The geostationary or geosynchronous level) is referred to as the medium
earth orbit (MEO). The most common use for satellites in this region is for navigation, such as the GPS (with
an altitude of 20,200km).

High Earth Orbits

The regions higher than the geostationary and geosynchronous orbits are referred to as the high earth
orbit (HEO) level. This region is not used often as getting satellites there (as it becomes more costly to send
a satellite higher and time delays in signals are extended), only some radio communications networks use
HEO orbiting satellites.

Geostationary Orbits
A geostationary satellite will occupy the same position in space above the earth over the equator. They
orbit at an altitude of 35786 km and have a period of 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds, one sidereal day-
the time earth rotates once on its axis. The geostationary orbits are used for communications and weather
satellites.

Geosynchronous Orbits
The geosynchronous orbit allows geosynchronous satellites to match the earth’s rotation. Located at
22,236 miles (35,786 kilometers) above Earth's equator, this position is a valuable spot for monitoring
weather, communications and surveillance

THe Van Allen belts of ionization limit the region of space above the earth that satellites can occupy
because of the threat the ionisation poses to humans and electronic equipment. The Van Allen belts are
regions of high concentration of charged particles from solar winds that are trapped by the earth’s
magnetic field.

ELECTROMAGNETISM--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Electric Fields
A region around a charged particle or object where an object experiences a force.

Law of Electrostatics
● Like charges repel ( + + or - - )
● Unlike charges attract (+ - )

The vectors are always coming out of the positive charge and directed towards the negative charge.

A null point is a point in a field where the field quantity is zero as

the result of two or more opposing quantities completely
cancelling each other.

Null point
Parallel Electric Plates
two parallel plates are connected across a battery, the plates become charged and an electric field is
established between them.

High Potential

Low Potential

For Parallel Plates

E
F=Eq Charge
(C, coulombs)
d =V/ Distance
between

N (kgms- Electric field -1 Electric Voltage or

1
) strength (NC field potential

Equating force due to an electric field and Newton’s Second Law

F = E q = ma

Work that’s done in an Electric Field

W = △ KE (difference in kinetic energy, from mechanics)

W
V =q = q 2E d = ½
mv

This is the work done in moving a charge from high potential to low potential and vice-versa.
Moving Charges in Magnetic Fields

The force experienced by particles/objects in a magnetic field is given by:

N ms-

F B = B q v
sinθ

Magnetic field Charg

The direction of movement of the charge is given by the right-hand rule (RHR).

B (Magnetic Field

F (the direction that

V (the current, points

 B

N vsinθ
v S

+
Straight Line Conductor
Magnetic Field produced by a coil

When the charge ⟂ to the magnetic field, the charge experiences a centripetal force and thus moves in a
circular path. Therefore:

FB = B q v sinθ = mv2./r = Fc

The Motor Effect

“ A conductor carrying a current in a magnetic field experiences a force”. The force is the result of the
interaction between the magnetic field and the magnetic field that is induced by the motion of the current-
carrying conductor.

N
N

Conduct Stron
or ger
X moves field

Weak
S er
field
S

Using the Right-hand Grip Rule, the direction of the force can be deducted.

Thumb - Conventional Current, +ve to -ve

Fingers - Direction of the magnetic field

The force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field is given by:

 Length of For Coils
Force
F=nBIL
F=BIL
n = number of coils

Magnetic Curr

Force Between Parallel Conductors

The force between 2 parallel conductors is due to the interaction of the magnetic fields around each
conductor caused by a moving charge.

Attract Repelli
I I I I

The parallel conductors will experience an attractive force if the two magnetic fields are moving in the same
direction and repel if they are going in opposite directions.

Force Current in
Current in

I2)/ /l r= (k I1
F

Common Magnet Distance

between
(Note: when a question does not give a common length, the common length between wires is most likely to
be 1 m)

F / l = (I1 I2) / r x (μ0 / 2π)

Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic flux - the amount of magnetic field permeating a space. It is measured in Webers (wb),
represented by dots or crosses or field lines.

Magnetic flux intensity/density - the concentration of magnetic field lines in a given area. It is measured in
Tesla (T).

Greater magnetic flux

Same flux, ¼ of the flux
density

Note: 1 Tesla = 1 Weber per m2

Magnetic flux is given by:

Magnetic flux Angle that A

B = Φ / A cosθ
Φ = B x A cosθ

Flux
Area normal

Faraday’s Principle of Electromagnetic Induction

When there is relative movement between a conductor and magnetic field (either physical movement or
change in the magnitude of the magnetic field) a potential difference or emf (electromotive force) is
generated. If the conductor is part of an electric circuit a current is induced in the circuit.

The magnitude of the induced potential difference or EMF is directly proportional to the rate at which the
conductor ‘cuts through’ the magnetic field.

Change in
magnetic Time for flux
to occur (s)

ε = - n △Φ / △T

EMF (V)
Number of
turns in

Lenz’s Law of Induction

The direction of any induced emf will always be such that it opposes the change that caused it. Hence, in
the equation for induced emf, there is a negative.

Transformers
Transformers use the properties of electromagnetic induction to change the voltage of a current travelling
between circuits.
This involves the application of Faraday’s Law, which implies that when there is relative movement
between a conductor and a magnetic field (either physical movement or change in the magnetic field’s
magnitude) a change in magnetic flux is experienced and an emf (electromotive force) is induced. Hence,
there will be an induced current in the conductor as a result of the emf generated. The magnitude of
induced emf is given by:
ε = -N ΔΦ/Δt
Where ΔΦ is (Φi - Φf) and Δt is the time (s) required for change in magnetic flux to occur, N is the
number of turns in a solenoid.

The transformer is made up of a soft iron core with 2 solenoids wounded around it, a primary coil
and secondary coil. Linking to Faraday's Law, an input AC in the primary coil produces a changing
magnetic field ( a change in magnetic flux) in the iron core which generates an emf in the secondary
coil, inducing a current (as seen in figure 3).
The ratio Vp / Vs = Np / Ns is deduced by applying Faraday’s Law to the transformers:

Assuming secondary and Primary coil experiences the same magnetic flux change.
εp = -Np ΔΦp /Δt p= εs = -Ns ΔΦs /Δts

Rearranging, εp / -Np = ΔΦp/Δtp = εs / -Ns = ΔΦs /Δts

ε = emf = V (electrical potential difference)

Hence, εp / -Np = εs / -Ns = Vp / -Np = Vs / -Ns

Rearranging vp / -Np = Vs / -Ns gives, Vp / Vs = Np / Ns

These equations can be applied to ‘step-up’, ‘step-down’ transformers. If a transformer has more coils in
the primary coil than the secondary, it is a ‘step down’, and vice-versa, it is a ‘step-up’. In a ‘step-up’
transformer, the input voltage is less than the output voltage, while the input current is greater than the
output current. It is the opposite in ‘step-down’ transformers.

generat To
>132 kV 33

11 or 33 11 City
33 kV
Power Grid Main Intermedi City
Station Substati Substati ate Substati
Transmiss
‘Step-up’ ‘Step- 240
‘Step-
Transmission process (with transformers)
Transmission and Transformers - Energy Losses and Operation
By the Law of conservation of energy, the energy input through wires and transformers are equal to the
energy output. However, inefficiencies in transmission cause energy losses.

Transmission wires are long conductors and have resistance (Approximately 6 Ohms per 100 km of wire).
Over a long distance, the total resistance causes significant heat losses. Ploss = I2R (derived from Ohm's Law,
into the equation P= VI ) is used to calculate heating losses, the equation implies that lower resistance and
current minimises heat lost in transmission.
‘Step-up’ transformers are used to increase the voltage for transmitting larger quantities of power over a
long distance. Increasing the voltage allows for a lower current as shown in P = V I, where power is directly
proportional to VI (lowering one variable increases the other), and a smaller current means there is less
resistance in the transmission wires, reducing energy loss.

For transformers, energy is lost to heat due to resistance in conductors such as the coils and eddy currents
(as a result of the change in flux) in the soft iron core. Furthermore, realistically, flux linkage (total magnetic
flux through the coils, given by λ = NΦ) between primary and secondary coils is not perfect,
Φp ≠ Φs . This means that a fraction of the magnetic field of the primary coil doesn’t pass through the
secondary, creating flux leakage and smaller ΔΦ, contributing less output emf, current and power (Ideally,
from P = IV, Vp Ip = Vs Is ).
Heat is mediated through thicker wires to reduce resistance (increasing the cross-sectional area for
electrons to pass) and laminating the iron core to minimize the size of the eddy current (as shown in Figure
below).

Figure - basic (left) vs Laminated iron core (right) 🠞 Eddy Currents

Transformers can be placed in open air, use sink blades, air vents, dark coloured casing and
coolants to reduce the rate energy is converted to heat, as they cool the structure.

Torque (generators and motors)

Equation for Torque:

τ=BIA
Area
 Anticlockwise

B l d

N S

● Use the Right Hand Rule to determine the force on each side of the coil that is
perpendicular to B. This also determines the current direction in the coil loop.

Force is given by:

F=BIL

Torque on one side = Fd = BIL x ½ d

Total Torque = 2Fd/2 = BIL x d = BIA

No torque
Maximum
N Minimum
N
torque

S
S

To even out
torque, add more
coils so there’s a
degree of torque

τ = n B I A cosθ

Number of turns in coil

Generators
Generators involves electromagnetic induction, using mechanical energy that transforms into
kinetic energy which transforms into electrical energy through a generator. Noting Faraday’s Law in
Part 1, c, a simple generator has a conductor such as a coil moving inside an external magnetic field
(referred in figure 5) which causes a change in magnetic flux (given by Φ = BAcos𝚹) . This induces an emf
which induces a current. The flux varies depending on 𝚹, the angle of the rotor to the magnetic field (εmax
when ε⟂Φ, εmin when ε∥Φ ). The conductors are connected to the circuit via stationary carbon brushes that
maintain metal contact with the rings of a generator.

Note: ε = emf

Generators are separated into DC and AC

DC generators convert mechanical energy into DC power (direct current) and AC generators convert it into
AC power (alternating current). DC power is used for batteries and large motors. AC power is used for small
motors, household and industrial electrical supply to power appliances, and is more suitable for long
transmission via transformers (noting Part 1,c). DC and AC generators are also arranged together through a
rectifier for purposes of electrolysis and metal purification.

Structural Differences
AC Generator DC Generator

Armature and magnetic field may be rotor or Armature is the rotor, permanent magnet is the
stator stator

Utilizes slip rings Utilizes split-ring commutators

The slip rings spin with the coil, hence the coil ends To maintain a direct current, a DC generator needs
will always be connected to the circuit via the rings a commutator which changes the current direction
slipping between the brushes (as seen in figure 5). (by changing contact between the ends of the coil
It allows the AC to alternate every half rotation and the split rings) every half rotation where the
where coil and magnetic field are perpendicular. coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Split-ring commutator
Slip rings
 The emf occuring sinusoidal fashion is maintained by slip
rings. The split ring commutator
allows emf induced to be
unidirectional.

Figure 5 - DC and AC generator

Note: each brush is connected to a separate ring in AC generator

Functional Advantages include:

Slip rings have a smooth surface which lessens the wearing out of brushes unlike in split-ring commutators,
hence it’s more likely for an DC generator to short-circuit or experience ‘sparking’ than an AC. AC
generators are lighter, more efficient and have a much higher voltage output, the rings also better maintain
electrical contact.
Motors
Simple motors have the same structure as simple generators. However, electrical energy is supplied to a
motor and transformed into mechanical -> kinetic energy.
A motor always has a stator (the stationary component) and a rotor (the rotating component).

The DC motor
Features of a DC motor includes:
Stator - The magnetic field
Rotor - Coil/s (copper, to allow for good conductivity)
Amature - rotor on an axel of rotation
Split ring commutator - changes the direction of the current every half rotation.

To improve the DC motor

- Increase the number of coils to even out the torque and current of the motor.
- Increasing the magnitude of the magnetic field, increasing the torque and current. This can be done
by winding coils to the armature on a soft iron core.
- Improving the stator magnetic field by having curved magnets that have a radial magnetic field
rather than a straight rectangular magnetic field. As shown below:
AC Induction Motor
The AC induction motor operates through electromagnetic induction where the current in the rotor is
induced by the stator windings to produce torque. They are used in many industrial and household
electrical appliances, automobiles and water pumps. They are self-starting, do not require brushes and
operate with low friction.

3 Phase AC Induction Motor (Credit: The New York Times)

A 2 phase induction motor involves a 2 phase alternating current where individual AC is supplied to 4 stator
wires (90° apart) creating a set of north-south and east-west electromagnets. By delaying the time where
the current in a set of electromagnets reaches its peak (amplitude) in respect to the other AC, a 2 phase
wave is created where there’s a sinusoidal and cosinusoidial current with alternating amplitudes. Hence,
when one current peaks, the other is at 0 meaning one set of electromagnets is energized every 90° (shown
in Figure 6). This allows the direction magnetic field to change, and when in succession, a rotating magnetic
field is formed in the stator. The speed of the field rotation is controlled by the frequency of the current fed
to the stator.

Figure 6

By placing a squirrel-cage rotor- a cylindrical core with copper rods

connecting two rings embedded in a laminated iron armature into the
stator. The rotating magnetic field will cut the vertical rods and induce a
current in the rotor via Faraday’s Law (see Part 1, c). A current carrying
conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force as described by the
motor effect (given by F = BIL), meaning the opposite-facing rods
experience a torque (given by 𝝉 = NBIAcosӨ).
Back Emf (back electromotive force)
When the coil of a motor is turned, magnetic flux changes through the coil, and an emf (consistent with
Faraday’s law) is induced. The motor thus acts as a generator whenever its coil rotates. This happens
whether the shaft is turned by an external input, or by the action of the motor itself. That is, when a motor
is doing work and its shaft is turning, an emf is generated. Lenz’s law tells us the emf opposes any change,
so that the input emf that powers the motor is opposed by the motor’s self-generated emf, called the back
emf of the motor.

The motor effect in a DC motor

1) When the supply emf provides a current to a coil which is within a magnetic field, there is
a second magnetic field induced around the coils.
2) This magnetic field interacts with the supply magnetic field to produce the motor effect
forces in the two sides of the coil perpendicular to the supply field.
3) The torque produced by these forces rotates the coil.
Supplied emf is opposed by back emf, limiting how fast the coil can spin in a magnetic field.

The application of Lenz’s Law ( ε = - ΔΦ/Δt) in DC motors is back emf ( εb = V - IR ), it opposes flux change
caused by the coil’s rotation so that its speed and current does not increase indefinitely as that violates the
LCE.
In running motors, an emf is induced in the coil as it is cutting the magnetic field, and this induced emf will
oppose the motion of the rotor. Hence, the induced emf will be directed opposite to the supply emf,
meaning the net emf is the supply emf (V) - the induced emf, causing a reduction in effective emf, current
and torque.
Back emf is proportional to the angular velocity of the motor or change in magnetic flux. There is no back
emf when the motor is off, and supply emf equals back emf when the motor operates at maximum speed,
bringing net emf to 0.
Back emf allows DC motors to self-regulate and prevent ‘burning out’ as the εb regulates the armature
current in response (I = (Δ V- εb)/R) to change in voltage and torque.
Eddy Currents
Electromagnetic braking utilises Eddy currents which is an application of Lenz's law. When metal
conductors come into contact with magnets, there is a change in magnetic flux causing an emf to be
induced in the conductor, which induces current loops or eddy currents in it. The magnetic field of the eddy
currents oppose the changes in magnetic field that induced them, exerting a repulsive force against the
motion of the magnet or current-carrying conductor causing the change (Figure 7). This creates a breaking
effect.

Figure 6 - Eddy currents exerting force on the motion of the disk that cuts the magnetic field
| Module 6 |

Determining The speed of light

Galileo
1638 Florence - Galileo and his assistant stood on different hilltops (with a known distance
between them) with covered lanterns. One of them uncovers his lantern and as soon as the other
observes this, he uncovers his own. As soon as Galileo reacted to the return light he noted the
time, presumably with a water clock.
Galileo’s conclusion was that light was at least 10 times the speed of sound, but realise that his
results were likely to be inaccurate due to the small time interval, human reaction time and the
Limited equipment. Hence, he concluded that light was too fast to be measured using this method.

Ole Roemer
1675 - Astronomer Ole Roemer measured the speed of light by studying the orbital period of Io, one of
Jupiter’s moons. He studied the time it took for Io to travel behind Jupiter (eclipse time). He noted that Io
disappeared behind Jupiter 22 minutes later when the Earth was at the far side of its orbit and he
concluded that light must take 22 minutes to travel the diameter of Earth’s orbit. Romer concluded that the
speed of light was therefore finite. Christian Huygens used Roemer’s result and measured 220000 m/s.

James Bradley
1728 - The aberration of starlight, astronomer James Bradley used the shit in the position of the stars
caused by the earth;s orbital velocity, stellar aberration to calculate 3.01 x 10 8 m/s.

Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau

1849 - Fizeau was the first to form an experimental measure of the speed of light. Fizeau passed light
through a gap in a spinning toothed wheel and, after reflecting the light from a mirror 8 m away he
adjusted the speed of light from a mirror 9km away, he adjusted the speed of his wheel until the reflected
light passed through the next gap in the wheel. Fizeau obtained a velocity of 3.133 x 10 -1 m/s.

Leon Foucault
1862 - Foucalt obtained a more accurate value for c by replacing Fizeau’s spinning-toothed wheel with a
spinning mirror and relating the shift in the reflected image from the rotating mirror to the distance
covered by the beam. The experiment was then refined by Physicist Albert Michelson, who used a longer
reflecting path.

1950s Onwards
In 1958, Keith Froome measured speed of light using a microwave interferometer and a Kerr cell shutter.
After 1970 the development of lasers with very high spectral stability and accurate caesium clocks gave
even better results.
Young’s Double Slit - interference and diffraction, evidence for the wave theory of light

Planks and Black Bodies

E=hf
Photoelectric Effect

Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect occurs when light of an appropriate frequency (equal to or greater than the
threshold frequency) is shone onto a metal surface and electrons are emitted from that surface.

Observations of the Photoelectric Effect

- As the light intensity falling on the cathode increases, the current flowing increases (the amount of
electrons being ejected increases), but the energy of each photoelectron does not increase and
there is a maximum value for the photocurrent which increasing intensity does not further increase.

- As the anode voltage increases, the photocurrent increases to a maximum value

- If the polarity of the anode voltage is reversed, there is a particular value for each metal which
stops the photoelectric current, the stopping voltage. E = q Vstopping

- If the frequency of the incident light on the photocathode drops below a threshold frequency (f 0),
no photoelectrons are emitted, no matter how intense the light.

- There is a minimum energy needed to emit photoelectrons related to the frequency of the incident
light through Planck’s equation (E=hf). This minimum energy is called the work function (𝟇) or the
threshold energy of the metal.

HOW DID THESE OBSERVATIONS CONTRADICTED THE ACCEPTED WAVE MODEL OF LIGHT
- According to wave theory the greater the intensity (amplitude) of a wave, the more energy/current
it transmitted. This happened to a point, but after this point, increasing intensity did not increase
photocurrent. This contradicted classical theory.
- In addition, according to classical theory, where energy carried by a wave is in continuous supply to
the surface it is incident on, photoelectrons would eventually be emitted at any frequency.
- Classical theory could not explain why a minimum frequency (the threshold frequency) was
required before photoelectrons would be emitted.
- It was these two main inabilities of classical theory that Einstein’s particle theory for light solved.

Einstein’s Explanation for the photoelectric effect.

He applied Planck’s idea of quanta to explain the photoelectric effect.

- He extended Planck’s quanta idea to light and generalised Planck’s ideas to apply to all
electromagnetic radiation.
- Assumed that light existed as quantised photons which carried specific quantities of energy.
- Proposed that intensity was due to the number of photons incident on a surface.
Einstein’s Explanation
- The energy of a single photon is E=hf, and this energy is partly used to break the electron away from
its atom (the work function) while excess energy gives the photoelectron its kinetic energy
(KE = hf - 𝟇 or hf = 𝟇 + 1/2mev2)
- Intense light was not light with more energy, it was more photons, each with the same energy.
- A minimum amount of energy, the threshold energy was needed to break an electron away from
the atoms on the surface of the emitter. This is better known as the work function of the emitter.
- As intensity of light equal to or above an appropriate frequency, the threshold frequency (f 0)
increased, and photoemission increased as more photoelectrons could be emitted.
- The photoemission reached a maximum at a particular intensity dependent on the size of the
emitter because at that point all surface atoms are being hit by incident photons-- the surface is
saturated with photons.
What Evidence For Origins of the elements: What led to the transformation of the big bang?

The Big Bang theory proposes that the Universe began with an ‘event’ that produced an enormous amount
of energy that produced an enormous amount of energy in a single position, known as the singularity and
that all matter has condensed from this energy as it expanded outwards and cooled.

Development of the Universe from the Big Bang

Started as a singularity point, no volume, no matter just energy.
- The Big Bang produced an enormous amount of energy/radiation/heat (rapid inflation)
- The universe started at intense heat and is cooling
- The Universe was initially compressed into zero volume and has been expanding since the Big Bang
- The universe started as energy, condensing to simple particles first, then to more complex particles
as its temperature fell.
- Gravity collected the newly forming particles together to form the Universe as we know it.
Separation of the fundamental forces.
- The temperature of the Big Bang is estimated at 1032K. Matter as we know cannot exist at this
temperature. Only pure energy existed. As the Universe cooled, the energy started changing into
matter, subatomic particles, leptons(electrons), gluons and quarks. This is the reverse of processes
occurring in particle accelerators.
Fundamental forces
Gravity first then to other three forces, when it cools down it accrete the matter together. Separation of the
four forces comes along with the formation of subatomic particles.

EVIDENCE FOR THE BIG BANG

- Red shift
shows that the galaxies are moving away from us and the universe is still expanding, it had to have
started at one point (singularity) and then expanded.
- Hydrogen, helium ratio
75 percent hydrogen, 25 percent helium in the universe, that has stayed steady, hydrogen
becomes helium through fusion, if the universe began with a big bang, then hydrogen and helium
would have formed in these proportions through calculations.
- Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
The left-over radiation left from the Big Bang that has not been converted into matter is in the
microwave region. Hence, TVs and radios will detect this microwave radiation. Microwave radiation
is residue radiation from the high energy radiation that has been transformed to matter.
- Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered CMBR.
- If the universe started with a highly energetic explosion, then the remnants of the energy
associated with that explosion should be able to be detected as a ‘background radiation’ of
wavelength about 1mm throughout all of space. He estimated that the expansion of the universe
would have resulted in its cooling down to about 3 kelvin.
- Not enough hot stars
Hot stars fuse hydrogen to helium and continue to form other elements. We know hotter larger
stars in fusion reactions that occur in their cores, and that all stars (except dwarfs) fuse hydrogen to
form helium. If the 25% helium had been formed this way, then most stars would be much hotter
than they are because of the amount of nuclear fusion of hydrogen required. We would also expect
older stars to have less helium than younger stars (due to conversion to heavier elements).
However they don’t. Which shows that these stars are formed in an instant and not evolved.
- The presence of radio galaxies and blue stars in deep space.
If the universe started with a big bang, then it is getting older every year. We should be able to see
signs of this. Light from galaxies far away from us has taken billions of years to reach us. What we
are seeing are those galaxies as they were billions of years ago. This light should provide evidence
to show these galaxies are different from ours and from other, closer galaxies. This evidence is
found. At large distances many galaxies are radio galaxies-they emit radiation in the radio
frequency and contain many more blue stars. Blue stars are very hot, and have a much shorter
lifespan than stars like the sun. These distant stars are very young as we see them now. These two
observations give evidence of younger galaxies, supporting the ageing concept. It shows that the
stars experience an aging effect and they started as radiation.
(Distant galaxies are much more radio galaxies, and light takes billions of years to reach us and
hence we can observe the youthful state of old stars).
Hubble
Quantified the expansion of the universe. The further away from the observer the faster the universe is
expanding/accelerating. The hubble constant is derived from the stra

Hubble’s Law
The further away a galaxy is from us the faster it is moving. This idea is defined mathematically by the
equation known as Hubble’s Law.
v= H0D
where v=velocity of galaxy, H0=Hubble constant (70 kms-1Mpc-1), D= the distance the particular galaxy is
from us (Mpc = 3.26 x106 light years)
Note: Mpc = megaparsec : 3.2 x 106 light years

Steady State model vs Big Bang model

- Testing the ages of galaxies. In a steady state, with continuous creation of matter there would be a
mixture of young and old galaxies throughout the Universe. In a big bang, with only an initial
creation, galaxies would age with time.

Fusion and Einstein

- E=mc2
- A small amount of mass can be turned to a large amount of energy
- Mass defect (m) = sum of masses of reactants - sum of masses of products, we lost mass when we
have a nuclear reaction- the binding energy of the nucleus.
- During nuclear reactions some of the mass of the reacting nuclides is converted into pure energy.
That is the source of our nuclear energy. The energy released results from the conversion of the
 strong nuclear force (often referred to as binding energy), which appears as mass in an intact
nucleus, into energy as some of the nucleons are separated from others.

Einstein’s equivalence of mass and energy

With fusion and fission nuclear reactions, a mass defect occurs.
Using E =mc2 , and the mass defect (m) to find the energy equivalent.

If we have very small amounts we use AMU (atomic mass unit), 1 AMU = 1.66 x10-27 kg
Energy given is in mega electron volts (MeV). 1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-19 x 106 J = 1.6x10-13J
E= Mass defect x 931.5 if all unit is in AMU

Atomic Spectra
Emission Spectra
A hot gas emits the spectra as bright lines when it is passed through a prism. Exciting molecules release
energy in bright bands.
Absorption spectrum
Electrons move up shells, but it cannot remain at the high energy level and the energy released when it
moves to a lower energy level is a bright light. It moves from higher energy levels to lower energy levels,
when they move they release a colour band that is equivalent to the energy difference between the higher
energy level and lower energy level. Blue-Purple big difference in energy, red- small difference in energy.

Pass it through a gas before observing it, it absorbs the wavelengths that are equivalent to the gas’s
emission spectra.

Continuous spectrum: incandescent, white light.

Hydrogen spectrum
Balmer series
Bohr Model of Atom
Electrons exist in stable orbits, they don’t emit radiation in stable orbits. They are excited by absorbing
energy, or when they emit energy they are moving from different electron shells.

Millikan’s oil drop Experiment

Millikan's experiment fires oil droplets into parallel electric plates.

The experiment finds the charge of an electron, this is done by finding the lowest common denominator or
smallest factor of the data found in his experiment.

The oil drop fired into parallel electric plates will experience a force upwards (due to the electrons gained
by the oil droplet when fired through the air) and a force downwards due to gravity given by mg. Hence by
equating qE=F and mg=F,
qE = mg
q = mg/E = mgd/V (E=V/d) -> Fluid dynamics gives this for falling drops

This experiment, done after Thomson’s experiment, allows us to find the mass of an electron.

Thomson’s Experiment

Thomson’s Experiment investigates the charge to mass ratio.

The slit in the anode is so that the cathode ray (stream of electrons, also called an electron beam) is
uniform/straight.
For the Force due to electric field
Fe = qE = qV/d
For the force due to magnetic field
FB = Bqv

If the ray defects/curves when it reaches the parallel plates

mv2/r = Bqv
Hence charge to mass ratio is given by
q/m =v/Br

However, to get v, we need to straighten the beam, so it does not defect.

This is when FE = FB
qV/d = Bqv
v = V/Bd

Substitute v=V/Bd into q/m=v/Br

Hence it gives q/m = Vr/d

Geiger and Marsden Experiment

Alpha particles are launched at a gold foil, previously, using the Thomson’s plum and pudding model, it is
just expected for the particles of the alpha particle beam to penetrate the foil. However, few particles are
deflected and can be deflected at sharp angles too. This suggests that instead of protons and electrons
being mixed evenly within an atom, an atom is mostly made up of empty space, with a small nucleus in the
centre that is small and dense (and is able to be deflected).
Chadwick Experiment

An alpha particle is launched into Beryllium and some unknown matter is launched into paraffin (made up
of hydrogen and carbon) which launches protons. Initially thought of as gamma rays, they were actually
neutrons as they carried more energy than gamma rays and must have a mass equal to a proton as to be
able to knock a proton out of the atoms of the hydrocarbon material. The nuetron is a particle that easily
penetrates materials as it has no charge, hence it is not affected by the polarity of electrons and protons.