Republic of the Philippines

SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY

Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400,
“For
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Topic: Stress

Sub-Topic: Normal Stress

Introduction
Stress is a measure of the internal forces acting within a deformable body. In engineering and
physics, understanding stress is crucial for analyzing how materials deform and fail under
various loads. This module focuses on normal stress, a specific type of stress that occurs
perpendicular to the surface of an object.

Objectives
By the end of this module, learners should be able to:
1. Define normal stress and distinguish it from other types of stress.
2. Understand the mathematical formulation of normal stress.
3. Apply the concept of normal stress to solve problems in mechanics.
4. Analyze and interpret stress distribution in different materials.

Normal stress will occur to members that are axially loaded. Axial force can be tension or
compression and applied at the centroid of cross-section of the member.

𝑃
σ= 𝐴

where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in mm2. The maximum stress
in tension or compression occurs over a section normal to the load.

Normal stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. Members subject to pure tension
(or tensile force) is under tensile stress, while compression members (members subject to
compressive force) are under compressive stress.
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Pre-Test
Before starting the module, complete the following questions to assess your current
understanding of normal stress:
1. What is stress in the context of materials science?
2. Differentiate between normal stress and shear stress.
3. Calculate the normal stress on a rod with a cross-sectional area of 5 cm² subjected to a
force of 100 N.

Learning Activities
1. Reading Assignment: Read the chapter on stress in your textbook, focusing on the section
about normal stress.
2. Video Lecture: Watch a video lecture on normal stress and its applications.
3. Interactive Simulation: Use an online simulation tool to visualize normal stress on different
materials under various loads.
4. Problem-Solving Session: Work through a set of practice problems on normal stress with
your classmates or study group.

Self-Evaluation
After completing the learning activities, answer the following questions to evaluate your
understanding:

1. Explain normal stress in your own words.

2. Given a rectangular beam with a width of 10 cm and height of 20 cm, calculate the normal
stress when a load of 500 N is applied along its length.
3. How does normal stress affect materials differently compared to shear stress?

Review of Concepts

Normal stress (σ) is defined as the force (F) applied perpendicular to the surface area (A) of a
material. It is given by the formula:

𝐹
σ= 𝐴

Where:
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 σ = normal stress
 F = force
 A = cross-sectional area
Normal stress can be tensile (pulling apart) or compressive (pushing together) depending on
the direction of the force applied.

Post-Test
1. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400 kN.
Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2.

2. The homogeneous bar shown in Fig. P-106 is supported by a smooth pin at C and a cable
that runs from A to B around the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the cable if its diameter is
0.6 inch and the bar weighs 6000 lb.

3. A 12-inches square steel bearing plate lies between an 8-inches diameter wooden post and
a concrete footing as shown in Fig. P-110. Determine the maximum value of the load P if the
stress in wood is limited to 1800 psi and that in concrete to 650 psi.
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SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
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Sub-Topic: Shearing Stress
Introduction
Shearing stress is a fundamental concept in the study of mechanics of materials and structural
engineering. It occurs when a force is applied parallel or tangential to the surface of a
material, causing layers to slide against each other. Understanding shearing stress is crucial
for analyzing and designing various structural elements like beams, shafts, and connections.

Objectives
By the end of this module, learners will be able to:
1. Define shearing stress and understand its physical implications.
2. Identify the conditions under which shearing stress occurs.
3. Calculate shearing stress in different materials and structures.
4. Analyze the effects of shearing stress on structural integrity and safety.
5. Apply knowledge of shearing stress in practical engineering problems.

Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and
compressive stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act.
Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.

𝑉
τ= 𝐴𝑣

where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area Av being
sheared.

Pre-Test
1. What is shearing stress?
2. Describe a scenario where shearing stress might occur.
3. Write the formula for calculating shearing stress.
4. How does shearing stress differ from normal stress?
5. Why is it important to consider shearing stress in engineering design?
 Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400,
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Learning Activities
1. Lecture and Reading:
 Read the chapter on shearing stress in your textbook.
 Watch a lecture video on the basics of shearing stress and its applications in
engineering.
2. Interactive Simulations:
 Use online simulations to visualize how shearing stress affects different materials.
3. Problem-Solving Sessions:
 Work on problem sets that involve calculating shearing stress in various structures.
4. Case Studies:
 Analyze real-world engineering failures attributed to shearing stress and discuss
preventive measures.
5. Group Discussions:
 Participate in group discussions to explore different viewpoints and solutions to
shearing stress problems.

Self-Evaluation
1. Define shearing stress in your own words.
2. Explain how shearing stress can affect the integrity of a material.
3. Solve a problem where you calculate the shearing stress on a given beam with specified
forces.
4. Identify at least two real-world applications where shearing stress analysis is crucial.

Review of Concepts
 Shearing Stress Definition: The force per unit area exerted parallel to the surface of a
material.
 Formula: Shearing stress (τ) = Force (F) / Area (A).
 Factors Influencing Shearing Stress: Material properties, cross-sectional area, and
applied force.
 Applications: Structural beams, riveted or welded joints, shafts in machinery.
 Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
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Post-Test
1. What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick?
The shear strength is 350 MN/m2.

2. As in Fig. 1-11c, a hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing strength of 40 ksi.
The compressive stress in the punch is limited to 50 ksi. (a) Compute the maximum thickness
of plate in which a hole 2.5 inches in diameter can be punched. (b) If the plate is 0.25 inch
thick, determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be punched.

3. Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b if P = 400
kN. The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa.
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TOPIC: BEARING STRESS

I. INTRODUCTION TO BEARING STRESS

When two elastic bodies are pushed together, the pressure on their surface is called
Bearing Stress. This stress can be really high because it's focused on small contact areas.
This section talks about how to design for this stress, assuming the load is either not
moving or moving slowly. It doesn't cover how this applies to ball and roller bearings.

It briefly discusses how bearing stress works in riveted joints and provides equations to
calculate it for different shapes in contact. There's also a method to figure out how much
load is safe to apply based on experience rather than just theory.

Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs from
compressive stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.

II. FORMULA:

σb=Pb /Ab
Where:

Pb - COMPRESSIVE LOAD

Ab - CHARACTERISCTEC AREA PERPENDICULAR TO Pb

σb – BEARING STRESS

III. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NORMAL, SHEAR, AND BEARING STRESS.

Bearing stress, normal stress, and shearing stress are all types of mechanical stresses, but
they act in different ways:

Bearing Stress: This is the pressure or force exerted on the surface of a material when two
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bodies are forced together, typically at a contact point or along a surface. It's called
"bearing" stress because it's the stress experienced by the material where it bears the load.

Normal Stress: Normal stress acts perpendicular (at right angles) to the surface of a
material. It's caused by forces that try to push or pull the material in the direction of its
surface. For example, if you pull on a rope, the rope experiences normal stress perpendicular
to its length.

Shearing Stress: Shearing stress occurs parallel to the surface of a material and is caused by
forces acting in opposite directions along that surface. It's like when you try to slide one
object past another—the force that opposes this sliding is the shearing stress.

IV. SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. In Fig. 1-12, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110
mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and
60 MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and
(b) the largest average tensile stress in the plates.
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SOLUTION:

Part (a): Part (b): Largest average tensile stress in the

From shearing of rivet: plate:
P=τArivets𝑃=𝜏𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑠 P=σA𝑃=𝜎𝐴
P=60[14π(202)]𝑃=60[14𝜋(202)] 6000π=σ[7.85(110−20)]6000𝜋=𝜎[7.85(110−20
P=6000πN𝑃=6000𝜋N )]
σ=26.67MPa𝜎=26.67MPa answer
From bearing of plate material:
P=σbAb𝑃=𝜎𝑏𝐴𝑏
6000π=120(20t)6000𝜋=120(20𝑡)

t=7.85mm𝑡=7.85mm answer

2.The lap joint shown in Fig. P-126 is fastened by four ¾-in.-diameter rivets. Calculate the
maximum safe load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is limited to 14 ksi
and the bearing stress in the plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume the applied load is uniformly
distributed among the four rivets.

SOLUTION:

Based on shearing of rivets: Based on bearing of Safe load P,

plates:
P=τA𝑃=𝜏𝐴
P=14[4(14π)(34)2]𝑃=14[4(14 P=σbAb𝑃=𝜎𝑏𝐴𝑏 P=24.74kips𝑃=24.74kips
answer
𝜋)(34)2] P=18[4(34)(78)]𝑃=18[4(3
P=24.74kips𝑃=24.74kips 4)(78)]
P=47.25kips
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2. A W18 × 86 beam is riveted to a W24 × 117 girder by a connection similar to that in
Fig. 1-13. The diameter of the rivets is 7/8 in., and the angles are each L4 × 3-1/2 ×
3/8 in.. For each rivet, assume that the allowable stresses are τ = 15 ksi and σb = 32
ksi. Find the allowable load on the connection.

Given:
Shape of beam = W18 × 86
Shape of girder = W24 × 117
Shape of angles = L4 × 3-1/2 × 3/8
Diameter of rivets = 7/8 inch
Allowable shear stress = 15 ksi
Allowable bearing stress = 32 ksi

Required:
Allowable load on the connection

Relevant data from the table (Appendix B of textbook): Properties of Wide-Flange Sections (W
shapes): U.S. Customary Units
Designation Web thickness
W18 × 86 0.480 in
W24 × 117 0.550 in

Shearing strength of rivets:

There are 8 single-shear rivets in the girder and 4 double-shear (equivalent to 8 single-shear)
in the beam, thus, the shear strength of rivets in girder and beam are equal.
V=τA=15[14π(78)2(8)]𝑉=𝜏𝐴=15[14𝜋(78)2(8)]
V=72.16 kips𝑉=72.16 kips

Bearing strength on the girder:

The thickness of girder W24 × 117 is 0.550 inch while that of the angle clip L4 × 3-1/2 × 3/8 is
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3/8 or 0.375 inch, thus, the critical in bearing is the clip.
P=σbAb=32[78(0.375)(8)]𝑃=𝜎𝑏𝐴𝑏=32[78(0.375)(8)]
P=84 kips𝑃=84 kips

Bearing strength on the beam:

The thickness of beam W18 × 86 is 0.480 inch while that of the clip angle is 2 × 0.375 = 0.75
inch (clip angles are on both sides of the beam), thus, the critical in bearing is the beam.
P=σbAb=32[78(0.480)(4)]𝑃=𝜎𝑏𝐴𝑏=32[78(0.480)(4)]
P=53.76 kips𝑃=53.76 kips

The allowable load on the connection is

P=53.76kips𝑃=53.76kips answer

4. In the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b, find the minimum bolt diameter and the minimum
thickness of each yoke that will support a load P = 14 kips without exceeding a
shearing stress of 12 ksi and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.

SOLUTION:
For shearing of rivets (double shear)
P=τA
14=12[2(14πd2)]
d=0.8618in
→ diameter of bolt answer

For bearing of yoke:

P=σbAb
14=20[2(0.8618t)]
t=0.4061in
→ thickness of yoke answer
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5. A 7/8-in.-diameter bolt, having a diameter at the root of the threads of 0.731 in., is used to
fasten two timbers together as shown in Fig. P-129. The nut is tightened to cause a tensile
stress of 18 ksi in the bolt. Compute the shearing stress in the head of the bolt and in the
threads. Also, determine the outside diameter of the washers if their inside diameter is 9/8 in.
and the bearing stress is limited to 800 psi.

Given:
Diameter of bolt = 7/8 inch
Diameter at the root of the thread (bolt) =
0.731 inch
Inside diameter of washer = 9/8 inch
Tensile stress in the nut = 18 ksi
Bearing stress = 800 psi

Required:
Shearing stress in the head of the bolt
Shearing stress in threads of the bolt
Outside diameter of the washer

SOLUTION:

Tensile force on the bolt:

P=σA=18[14π(78)2]
P=10.82kips

Shearing stress in the head of the bolt:

τ=PA=10.82π(78)(12)
τ=7.872 ksi. answer
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Shearing stress in the threads:

τ=PA=10.82π(0.731)(58)
τ=7.538 ksi. answer

Outside diameter of washer:

P=σbAb
10.82(1000)=800{14π[d2−(98)2]}
d=4.3inch. answer

SELF-EVALUATION:

1. Figure P-130 shows a roof truss and the detail of the riveted connection at joint B. Using
allowable stresses of τ = 70 MPa and σb= 140 MPa, how many 19-mm-diameter rivets are
required to fasten member BC to the gusset plate? Member BE? What is the largest average
tensile or compressive stress in BC and BE?

2. Repeat Problem 1 if the rivet diameter is 22 mm and all other data remain unchanged.

3. Given: The riveted plate in Figure 11-2

Find: The bearing stress between the rivets and the plate
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TOPIC: THIN-WALLED - PRESSURED VESSEL

I. INTRODUCTION:

A pressure vessel is thin-walled if the inner radius is at least ten times the wall thickness. The
normal stress in the wall does vary with radius but, when the radius is ten times the thickness,
the maximum stress on the inner surface is less than 5% greater than the average stress
across the thickness.

For cylindrical vessels, the hoop (tangential) stress is twice the longitudinal stress. For
spherical vessels, the stresses are equal in all directions. Stress is calculated using the
pressure, radius, thickness, and material properties.

● Cylindrical or spherical vessels are commonly used in industry to serve as boilers or

tanks.
● When under pressure, the material of which they are made is subjected to a loading
from all directions.
● “Thin wall” refers to a vessel having an inner-radius to- wall-thickness ratio of 10 or
more.
rt ≥ 10
● the pressure in the vessel is understood to be the gauge pressure (measures the
pressure above atmospheric pressure)

A CYLINDRICAL VESSEL

● In cylindrical vessel with an inner radius “r”, wall thickness “t” and containing fluid
pressure there will be stress in parallel and perpendicular axis of the cylinder which
called s1and s2 respectively. They are called principal axes.
● s1 is called the hoop stress or tangential stress
● s2 is called longitudinal stress
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TANGENTIAL STRESS, σt (Circumferential Stress)

Tangential stress, also known as shear stress, is a measure of the internal forces acting
parallel to a material's surface. Unlike normal stress, which acts perpendicular to the surface,
tangential stress arises from forces that attempt to cause one layer of the material to slide
over another. Understanding tangential stress is crucial in fields like mechanical engineering,
civil engineering, and materials science because it affects how materials deform and fail under
load.

Objectives

By the end of this module, learners should be able to:

1. Define tangential (shear) stress and differentiate it from normal stress.

2. Understand the mathematical formulation of tangential stress.
3. Identify real-world applications and implications of tangential stress in various
engineering fields.
4. Analyze the effects of tangential stress on material deformation and failure.
5. Perform calculations to determine tangential stress in different scenarios.

Learning Activities

1. Lecture and Discussion: Introduction to the concepts of stress, focusing on tangential

stress. Use diagrams and real-world examples to illustrate the differences between
normal and tangential stress.
2. Mathematical Formulation: Detailed explanation and derivation of the formula for
𝐹
tangential stress (τ = ), where F is the force applied parallel to the surface, and A is
𝐴
the area over which the force is distributed.
3. Case Studies: Analysis of engineering failures attributed to tangential stress, such as
the collapse of bridges or the deformation of machine components.
4. Practical Exercises: Calculation problems to reinforce the understanding of tangential
stress. Include varying scenarios such as different force directions, magnitudes, and
material properties.
5. Group Work: Collaborative projects where students analyze a structure or component
subject to tangential stress and propose design improvements to mitigate stress-
related issues.
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- Consider the free-body diagram,
Taking the summation of force at z-axis

SFz = 0
2T - F = 0

2σ 2dA − pdA =0
s1(2t)(Dx) – (p)( 2r)(Dx) = 0
s1= (p)(2r)(Δx)/(2t )(Δx)
s1= (p)(r)/(t) = pD/2t

where;
s1 = tangential stress
p = gauge pressure (internal pressure)
r = radius of vessel
D = diameter of vessel
t = thickness

- Consider the tank shown being subjected to an internal pressure p. The length of the tank is
L and the wall thickness is t. Isolating the right half of the tank:

The forces acting are the total pressures caused by the internal pressure p and the total
tension in the walls T.
F=pA=pDL ΣFH=0
T=σtAwall=σttL F=2T
pDL=2(σttL)

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be
expressed as:

σL=pD/4t
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Review of Concepts

 Definition of Tangential Stress: Review the basic definition and the distinction from
normal stress.
 Mathematical Formulation: Revisit the formula and its derivation, ensuring
comprehension of each component.
 Real-World Applications: Discuss the implications of tangential stress in various
engineering disciplines.
 Calculations: Go through several example problems, emphasizing different aspects of
the calculations and potential pitfalls.
 Mitigation Strategies: Summarize methods to reduce tangential stress, including
material selection and structural design considerations.

Post-test

1. Two blocks of wood, width w and thickness t, are glued together along the joint inclined at
the angle θ as shown in Fig. P-122. Using the free-body diagram concept in Fig. 1-4a, show
that the shearing stress on the glued joint is τ = P sin 2θ / 2A, where A is the cross-sectional
area.
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LONGITUDINAL STRESS, Σl

Longitudinal stress is the stress experienced by a material when it is subjected to a force along
its length. It is calculated as the force applied divided by the cross-sectional area of the
material.

2. Objectives

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. Define longitudinal stress and understand its significance.

2. Calculate longitudinal stress given force and cross-sectional area.
3. Analyze the effects of longitudinal stress on different materials.
4. Apply the concept of longitudinal stress in real-world engineering problems.

3. Pre-Test

Before starting the lesson, assess students' prior knowledge with a pre-test. Sample questions
might include:

1. What is stress in the context of materials science?

2. How do you calculate stress?
3. What are some examples of materials that experience longitudinal stress?

Consider the free body diagram in the transverse section of the tank:

The total force acting at the rear of the tank F must equal to the total longitudinal stress on
the wall PT = σLAwall. Since t is so small compared to D, the area of the wall is close to πDt

σt=pD/2t
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F=pA=pπ/4D²
PT=σLπDt

ΣFH=0
PT=F
σLπDt=pπ/4D²

σt=(pi−po)D/2t
If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may be
expressed as:

σL=(pi−po)D/4t

It can be observed that the tangential stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress.

σt=2σL

SPHERICAL SHELL

If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t contains gas under a pressure of p = pi - po,
the stress at the wall can be expressed as:

II. SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. The cylindrical tank with a spherical end-cap has an outer radius of 2 m and a wall thickness
of 25 mm. If the tank is pressurized to 1.5 MPa, determine the longitudinal and
circumferential stresses in the cylinder, and the stress in the end-cap.
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σt=(pi−po)D/4t

Given: Radius = 2 m
Thickness = 25mm = 0.025m
P = 1.5 MPa

Since the given radius is not the inner radius, subtract the wall thickness of the tank to the
radius of the tank.
rinner = 2m − 0.025m = 1.975

Check if it is qualified for Thin wall analysis:

r/t = 1.975m/0.025m =79

Since 79>10, hence the problem can be solve through thin-wall analysis

4. Learning Activities

Activity 1: Explanation and Examples

 Provide a detailed explanation of longitudinal stress.

 Show real-life examples where longitudinal stress is relevant (e.g., bridges, buildings,
cables).

Activity 2: Calculation Practice

 Walk through example problems involving the calculation of longitudinal stress.

 Provide practice problems for students to solve.

Activity 3: Lab Experiment

 Conduct a lab experiment where students apply force to a material and measure the
resulting stress.
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Activity 4: Group Discussion

 Facilitate a group discussion on how different materials respond to longitudinal stress.

 Discuss safety factors and how engineers use them to ensure structures are safe.

5. Self-Evaluation

After completing the learning activities, provide students with a self-evaluation checklist to
assess their understanding:

 Can I define longitudinal stress?

 Can I calculate longitudinal stress in different scenarios?
 Do I understand how longitudinal stress affects materials?

6. Review of Concepts

Recap Key Points:

 Definition and significance of longitudinal stress.

 How to calculate longitudinal stress.
 Examples and applications in real-world scenarios.
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LONGITUDINAL STRESS:

σ2= pr/2t = (1.5MPa)(1.975m)/2(0.025m) = 59.25MPa

● Circumferrencial / Tangential Stress

σ 1= pr/t = (1.5MPa)(1.975m)/(0.025m) = 118.5MPa

SPHERICAL CAP

● Determine the radius of spherical cap. From the figure,

sin(45)=rsphere/2rcylinder
rsphere =2(sin45)(1.975m)=√2(1.975)=2.793m

σsphere = pr/2t =(1.5MPa)(1.975m)(√2)/2(0.025m) = 83.792153757 MPa

2. Calculate the minimum wall thickness for a cylindrical vessel that is to carry a gas at a
pressure of 1400 psi. The diameter of the vessel is 2 ft, and the stress is limited to 12 ksi.

The critical stress is the tangential stress

σt=pD2t
12000=1400(2×12)2t
t=1.4 in answer

3. The strength of longitudinal joint in Fig. 1-17 is 33 kips/ft, whereas for the girth is 16 kips/ft.
Calculate the maximum diameter of the cylinder tank if the internal pressure is 150 psi.

150 psi=150 lbin2⋅ (12 in1 ft)2

150 psi=21,600 lb/ft2

For longitudinal joint (tangential stress):

Consider 1 ft length
F=2T F=P
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SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400,
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pD=2σtt p(14πD2)=σl(πDt)
σt=pD2t σl=pD4t
33000t=21600D2t 16000t=21600D4t
D=3.06ft=36.67in. D=2.96ft=35.56in.

For girth joint (longitudinal stress):

Centrifugal Force, CF:
Use the smaller diameter,
CF=Mω2x¯
D=35.56in. answer

where:
M=Wg γVg=γπRAq
ω=v/R
x¯=2R/π

4. Find the limiting peripheral velocity of a rotating steel ring if the allowable stress is 20 ksi
and steel weighs 490 lb/ft3. At what revolutions per minute (rpm) will the stress reach 30 ksi if
the mean radius is 10 in.? When σ=30ksi, and R=10in

σ=γv²/g
30000(12²)=490v²/32.2
v=532.81ft/sec

ω=v/R=532.81/10/12
ω=639.37rad/sec
ω=639.37rad/sec×1rev/2πrad×60sec/1min
ω=6,105.54rpm answer

Thus,
CF=γπRA/q(v/R)²(2R/π)
CF=2γAv²x/g

2T=CF
2γA=2γAv²/g
σ=γv²/g

From the given data:

σ=20ksi=(20000lb/in2)(12in/ft)a2
σ=2880000lb/ft2
γ=490lb/ft3

2880000=490v²/32.2
v=435.04ft/sec answer
 Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400,
“For
Nation’s
Philippines
Greater
Heights”

SELF-EVALUTION:

1. A pipe carrying steam at 3.5 MPa has an outside diameter of 450 mm and a wall thickness
of 10 mm. A gasket is inserted between the flange at one end of the pipe and a flat plate used
to cap the end. How many 40-mm-diameter bolts must be used to hold the cap on if the
allowable stress in the bolts is 80 MPa, of which 55 MPa is the initial stress? What
circumferential stress is developed in the pipe? Why is it necessary to tighten the bolt initially,
and what will happen if the steam pressure should cause the stress in the bolts to be twice the
value of the initial stress?

2. The wall thickness of a 4-ft-diameter spherical tank is 5/16 inch. Calculate the
allowable internal pressure if the stress is limited to 8000 psi.

Review of Concepts

 Stress: Force applied per unit area within materials that causes deformation.
 Longitudinal Stress: Stress applied along the length of an object, resulting in tensile or
compressive stress.
 Tensile Stress: Stress that stretches an object.
 Compressive Stress: Stress that compresses an object.

𝐹
Formula: σ= 𝐴, where σ is the stress, F is the force, and A is the cross-sectional area.

Post-Test
1. Define longitudinal stress and provide an example.
2. Differentiate between tensile and compressive stress with illustrations.
3. Given a cylindrical rod with a diameter of 3 cm and a force of 150 N applied along its length,
calculate the longitudinal stress.
4. Explain why understanding longitudinal stress is important in engineering.
5. Describe a real-life application where miscalculation of longitudinal stress could lead to
failure.