DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY

Cartographic databases
Sources of digital mapping data

i. Existing analogue maps

Topographical maps (contain contours), terrain features and thematic maps are the major sources of data
for mapping. These maps are digitized manually (using a digitizer) or semi-auto (using a scanner)

ii. Aerial photographs

These are acquired by using analytical or digital photogrammetric techniques to produce photogrammetric
images (digital)

iii. Ground survey methods

This is based on the principle that the 3D location of a point can be determined by measuring angles and
distances from other known points. Traditional equipment like theodolites, total stations etc. are used

iv. Remote sensing/ Satellite imagery

It is the art and science of making measurements of the earth using census on airplanes or satellites.
Such collected data is in form of digital images and it provides specialized capabilities for
manipulating, analyzing and visualizing those image

v. Reports, publications, journals and statistics

They offer attributes or social-economic data usually as reports or statistics and census with respect
to administrative boundaries

vi. Research

Data are collected firsthand by the researcher for a specific research purpose or project. Data can be
collected in a number of ways. However, the most common techniques are self-administered
surveys, interviews, field observation, and experiments.

vii. Handheld GPS

Data Quality

With the advent of satellite remote sensing, GPS and GIS technology, and the increasing availability of
digital spatial data, resource managers and others who formerly relied on the surveying and mapping
profession to supply high quality map products are now in a position to produce maps themselves. At the
same time, GISs are being increasingly used for decision support applications, with in-creasing reliance on
secondary data sourced through data providers or via the internet, through geo-web services. The
implications of using low-quality data in important decisions are potentially severe. There is also a danger
that uninformed GIS users introduce errors by incorrectly applying geometric and other transformations to
the spatial data held in their database.

Below we look at the main issues related to data quality in spatial data. We will discuss positional,
temporal and attribute accuracy, lineage, completeness, and logical consistency. We will begin with a brief
discussion of the terms accuracy and precision, as these are often taken to mean the same thing.

 Accuracy and precision

So far we have used the terms error, accuracy and precision without appropriately defining them. Accuracy
should not be confused with precision, which is a statement of the smallest unit of measurement to which
data can be recorded. In conventional surveying and mapping practice, accuracy and precision are closely
related. Instruments with an appropriate precision are employed and surveying methods chosen, to meet
specified accuracy tolerances.

Accuracy - the degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification conforms to the
correct value or a standard
Precision - is the degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions show the same
results

In GIS, however, the numerical precision of computer processing and storage usually exceeds the accuracy
of the data. This can give rise to so-called spurious accuracy, for example calculating area sizes to the
nearest m2 from coordinates obtained by digitizing a 1: 50,000 map. An accurate measurement has a
mean close to the true value; a precise measurement has a sufficiently small variance.

 Positional accuracy
The surveying and mapping profession has a long tradition of determining and minimizing errors. This
applies particularly to land surveying and photogrammetry, both of which tend to regard positional and
height errors as undesirable. Cartographers also strive to reduce geometric and attribute errors in their
products, and, in addition, define quality in specifically cartographic terms, for example quality of line
work, layout, and clarity of text. It must be stressed that all measurements made with surveying and
photogrammetric instruments are subject to error. These include:

- Human errors in measurement (e.g. reading errors) generally referred to as gross errors or
blunders. These are usually large errors resulting from carelessness which could be avoided
through careful observation, although it is never absolutely certain that all blunders have been
avoided or eliminated.

- Instrumental or systematic errors (e.g. due to mis-adjustment of instruments). This leads to errors
that vary systematically in sign and/or magnitude, but can go undetected by repeating the
measurement with the same instrument. Systematic errors are particularly dangerous because
they tend to accumulate
 - So–called random errors caused by natural variations in the quantity being measured. These are
effectively the errors that remain after blunders and systematic errors have been removed. They
are usually small, and dealt with in least–squares adjustment.

 Attribute accuracy
We can identify two types of attribute accuracies. These relate to the type of data we are dealing with:
- For nominal or categorical data, the accuracy of labeling (for example the type of land cover, road
surface, etc).
- For numerical data, numerical accuracy (such as the concentration of pollutants in the soil, height
of trees in forests, etc).
It follows that depending on the data type, assessment of attribute accuracy may range from a simple
check on the labeling of features—for example, is a road classified as tarmac road actually tarmac or
not?—to complex statistical procedures for assessing the accuracy of numerical data, such as the
percentage of pollutants present in the soil. When spatial data are collected in the field, it is relatively easy
to check on the appropriate feature labels. In the case of remotely sensed data, however, considerable
effort may be required to assess the accuracy of the classification procedures. This is usually done by
means of checks at a number of sample points. The field data are then used to construct an error matrix
(also known as a confusion or misclassification matrix) that can be used to evaluate the accuracy of the
classification.

 Temporal accuracy
As noted, the amount of spatial data sets and archived remotely sensed data has increased enormously
over the last decade. These data can provide useful temporal information such as changes in land
ownership and the monitoring of environmental processes such as deforestation. Analogous to its
positional and attribute components, the quality of spatial data may also be assessed in terms of its
temporal accuracy. For a static feature this refers to the difference in the values of its coordinates at two
different times. This includes not only the accuracy and precision of time measurements (for example, the
date of a survey), but also the temporal consistency of different data sets. Because the positional and
attribute components of spatial data may change together or independently, it is also necessary to
consider their temporal validity. For example, the boundaries of a land parcel may remain fixed over a
period of many years whereas the ownership attribute may change more frequently.

 Lineage
Lineage describes the history of a data set. In the case of published maps, some lineage information may
be provided as part of the metadata, in the form of a note on the data sources and procedures used in the
compilation of the data. Examples include the date and scale of aerial photography, and the date of field
verification. Especially for digital data sets, however, lineage may be defined more formally as:

“that part of the data quality statement that contains information that describes the source of
observations or materials, data acquisition and compilation methods, conversions,
transformations, analyses and derivations that the data has been subjected to, and the
assumptions and criteria applied at any stage of its life.”

All of these aspects affect other aspects of quality, such as positional accuracy. Clearly, if no lineage
information is available, it is not possible to adequately evaluate the quality of a data set in terms of
‘fitness for use’.

 Completeness
Completeness refers to whether there are data lacking in the database compared to what exists in the real
world. Essentially, it is important to be able to assess what does and what does not belong to a complete
dataset as intended by its producer. It might be incomplete (i.e. it is ‘missing’ features which exist in the
real world), or over complete (i.e. it contains ‘extra’ features which do not belong within the scope of the
data set as it is defined). Completeness can relate to spatial, temporal, or thematic aspects of a data set.
For example, a data set of property boundaries might be spatially incomplete because it contains only 10
out of 12 suburbs; it might be temporally incomplete because it does not include recently
subdividedproperties; and it might be thematically over complete because it also includes
building footprints.

 Logical consistency
For any particular application, (predefined) logical rules concern:
- The compatibility of data with other data in a data set (e.g. in terms of data format),
- The absence of any contradictions within a data set,
- The topological consistency of the data set, and
- The allowed attribute value ranges, as well as combinations of attributes.

For example, attribute values for population, area, and population density must agree for all entities in the
database. The absence of any inconsistencies does not necessarily imply that the data are accurate.

Seven Characteristics That Define Quality Data

Judging the quality of data requires an examination of its characteristics and then weighing those
characteristics according to what is most important to the organization and the application(s) for which
they are being used.

Listed below are the seven characteristics that define data quality
i. Accuracy and Precision
ii. Legitimacy and Validity
iii. Reliability and Consistency
iv. Timeliness and Relevance
v. Completeness and Comprehensiveness
vi. Availability and Accessibility
vii. Granularity and Uniqueness
Data presentation in CAM

It includes:
- Geometry data: Points, Lines, polygons (areas) and raster cell.
- Attributive data: information about the geometry data
- Multimedia data: some GIS support other formats of data such as audio, video, sequences of
picture, time

CAM databases range from a few megabytes to as large as a terabyteor more in storage space

Overview on types of data in CAM/GIS

i. Geometry data:
The geometry data forms the base of a GIS. It relates all data to a coordinate system. It is defined by the
geometric primitives: point, line, area or raster cell.
ii. Graphical description
The graphical description defines the representation of the geometry dataon an output device:
- Point: symbol, size, direction, colour
- Line:weight, colour, pattern
- Polygon: colour, fill pattern (with direction and interval)
- Raster:gray value, colour
Graphic data in CAM/GIS = Geometry data + graphical description
iii. Attribute data
All descriptive data without a geometrical representation, like text,measuring values, statistic data
associated to a spatial entity.This data is normally stored in a relational database.
iv. Other data types
Some GIS supports multi-media data like audio, video, sequences ofpictures, or time
Map construction and production processes

Basic Steps of CAM

Maps express environmental situation in a graphical language. In general, the process of map
making requires the following operations. Data capture and digitizing, processing the data to the
desired format and content, displaying the data graphically and archiving the data.

There are five basic steps of any CAM system namely;

- Data capture
- Data pre-processing
- Data processing
- Data presentation
- Data storage

Data capture
It involves digitizing and scanning of printed maps resulting in vector or raster data as a base for
further analysis. This methodology of data capturing may have the problem of how difficult is to
get an up to date final product. Using printed maps that are old, the data may be not current, and
therefore, we are adding the error of out of data information to the whole analysis, affecting the
result of the project. Also we have to consider the possible processing errors that digitizing can
cause due to the mistakes made by the operator. Data capture may be taken by using survey
methodologies. One of the advantages of this methodology is the possibility of enter the data
directly in a digital format, with the consequent elimination of possibilities of error, and getting a
more accurate product.

Another methodology for data capture would be remotely sensed data. The different type of sensors
attached to satellites, have made possible the affordability of imagery with an accuracy and
resolution that was unthinkable only a couple of decades ago.

Data pre-processing
There are different methodologies to capture data, but we could make a first big division,
depending on the fact that we use pre-existing data as the origin of our own data, or if we are going
to create data basically from scratch. It is very important that the cartographer has a clear idea of
what the project intends to analyze, because depending on the purpose of the study, one system or
another could be the most appropriate at that moment. The pre-processing will give us the right
vision of what the analysis that we want to perform will require from the data that we need.

Data processing
After capturing the data, but previous to its use in analysis, all data should be subject to a post
processing phase that may or may not include editing and removal of capture errors. The final part
of data capturing, will consist on providing the data with the right coordinate system and
projection, possible format changes (vector or raster) and any other process that our data requires in
order to be effectively used for the type of analysis that we want to perform.

Data presentation
After the careful preparation on several mapping tools which are integrated with GIS, the maps are
presented to users. The final maps are of high cartographic quality and are brought out using a wide
range of devices. They include,

- Visual Display Unit

The results of mapping and GIS analysis may be presented on the computers over the internet for
people who work online. The difference in output resulting from these devices depends on the
hardware and GIS display software used by the computers.

- Plotters

Plotters are output devices for making copies of geographical data on paper or film. Plotters hold
paper either through a roller or a flatbed surface. The drawing arm has colored pens. The two-
dimensional line images are created as per the commands given by the software.

- Printers

A printer is an output device that prints an electronically stored document on print media such as
paper or transparencies.

Data storage
Digital data is stored on a variety of physical media, depending on how quickly the data needs to be
accessed, how much data needs to be stored, and whether the data needs to continue to exist when
the digital device is turned off or rebooted. Geospatial data can be stored in a number of different
types of digital files on the physical media. They include; magnetic disks, flash memory, optical
disks, floppy disks and magnetic tapes.
Production and Planning Basics

Planning activities

i) Create a flow diagram to explain the sequence of the production operations

ii) Make a time table to schedule all the production operations in time
iii) Make a cost calculation

Definition of a Flow diagram:

A flow diagram is a graphical representation of a process (production). It describes each part of a

production process in correct sequence.

A flow diagram shows all the possible actions and possible results involved in a procedure or
process

It is a drawing that uses symbols interconnected with lines to represent the process or production
flow

Functions of a Flow diagram

i) A flow diagram is used to check if production sequence is logic.
ii) It can quickly help identify bottlenecks or inefficiencies where the process can be
streamlined or improved.
iii) Flow diagrams serve as a basis of determining the availability of all the materials
and equipment required for the production of a specific map.

In the process of making the flow diagram, alternative ways of production can be outlined;

Example:
Cartographic Map Map features Map
Production Shp.
Process
Proof
Editing Print Map

Specify Edited Map Proof printed

symbols features map
Shp.

No Check
Symbol Symbol map
specifications ization Yes

Printing
Maps
Design Symbolized
Layout
Map features
Shp.
The procedure of creating a flow diagram

i) Analyse the production process and divide the process into separate small processes; e.g.
Example of production steps;

Map production
 Data collection
 Data editing
 Data symbolisation
 Map layout
 Printed map

ii) Analyse the smaller production processes. Each small step has its own input, activity and
output process; e.g.

Editing step

Digitized Editing Edited

data data

Input Activity Output

iii) Put all small processes (steps) in the correct order to create a complete, detailed production
sequence.

 Data collection
 Scan source image
 Geo-reference source image
 Digitize roads: file
 Digitize rivers
 Etc…..

 Data editing: etc..

iv) Make a systematic diagram of the production sequence where the processes, products and
relations are visible

Shape files

Reference:
Symbol Symbol
specifications -ization

Symbolized
features

Check
map

Layout Create
specifications Map

Map
Document

Check No
map

Ok
Print
Maps

Printed map

Symbols to be used in a flow diagram

Product symbos
i) Analogue sheet of materials. These include sheet of paper, printed sheets, aerial photographs on
paper, sheets of film, sheet of scribe coat, printed maps, etc.

ii) Set of analogue products which belong together. Sets of analogue products are: colour
composites films, set of scribe coats, etc.
iii) Digital file: Digital files include feature classes in a geo-database, shape files, word file, and all
other files.

iv) Set of digital files which belong together: These are feature data sets, or a set of shape files
which belong together, an Arc-info coverage, a DXF set, etc.

Activity symbols
i) Action: Examples of actions are scanning, digitizing, editing, generalization, analyses, printing,
conversions, etc.

ii) Judgement
Examples of judgement are:
 check if the digitizing is complete; yes or no
 check if the colour proof is ok; yes or no

If no

If yes
Connectors;
i) Flow connectors; used to connect the products and actions
ii) Relation connectors; used to connect the activities which are related to certain specification
files

Text used in flow diagram symbols

i) Analogue products; explain the analogue product

Compilation
manuscript

ii) Digital files; explain the content of digital files

Highways

.shp V
File Vector or
extension raster

iii) Action; explain the activities to be undertaken in a key

Key
S…. scanning
D….digitizing
P…. printing on DeskJet
iv) Judgement; explain the condition of the product, whether correct or wrong. If correct continue,
if wrong go back to the previous action

Layout Create
specifications Map

Not ok, go back to

previous action
Map
Document

Check
map
If ok, continue

v) Software environment: explain the software being used and the purpose for which it is used

Aerial Key
photo
S……scanning
G…..geo-referencing
D…..digitizing
S

Aerial
Paint shop photo
pro .tif R

Geo-
referenced
.tif photo

Data
D collection
model

Digitized
shape files
ArcMap .shp
The Cartographic Process

Cartographic process is a series of steps followed in conveying geospatial data by means of maps.
Although there really is no set process for creating cartographic products, there are some best
practices and a recommended series of steps one can follow especially if unfamiliar with designing
maps. Clear understanding of the basics of the mapping process is necessary for one to create maps
that are of high integrity scientifically and visually. Below is a graphic conceptualization of the
process.

Step 1:
The starting point of the cartographic communication process is data or information, usually
collected by third parties (geodesists, photogrammetrists, geographers, staticians). Data collection
is done based on the purpose of map that is informed by user‟s requirements. Depending on the
information required and resource availability, data can be collected in a range of ways including
remote sensing, terrestrial surveys, GPS. Secondary data may be captured from existing maps
through heads up or tablet digitizing etc.

Step 2:
When producing a map, one has to study collected data keenly to determine how best to
communicate the idea(s). Getting acquainted with data at hand enables a map maker identify
characteristics, patterns as well as purpose of the informationtransfer in order to be able to
represent information correctly in a map format. Based on the purpose of the map, one chooses the
most appropriate scale and maps the data (encoding), applying abstraction & generalization,
symbolization, and production methods that fit the map‟s intended purpose.

Scale: This is the ratio of the map distance to the earth distance. Scale selection is a very important
step in mapping. It determines amount of detail that can be shown on the map i.e. mapping at a
large scale entails showing less features at a detailed level causing the map to be large that one may
need to split it up onto multiple maps. On the other hand, many features can be mapped but with
limited details. Small scale maps tend to be mostly overview maps.

Abstraction & generalization: Often, the resulting map will not contain every particle of
information supplied to the map maker. Generalization and / or classification may have to be
applied in order to present a clearer picture of the phenomenon. There are several different methods
of data abstraction and generalization; Selection, classification, simplification, and symbolization.

Step 3:
Geospatial data is visualized based on its attributes to produce a map. Through their provision of a
viewpoint on the world, maps influence our spatial behavior, spatial preferences and shape how we
view the environment.

Step 4:
The map user reads, analyses, and interprets the map by decoding the symbols and recognizing
patterns. He derives information from the map, which never completely overlap or coincide with
the original information. Reason being, at the mapping stage data may have been left out on
purpose or by mistake. Other mistakes may have been committed – for example interpreting
original data wrongly, wrong identification of features etc. Hence, feedback from the map user to
the map maker on errors of omission, commission and misrepresentation is necessary for the latter
to make adjustments accordingly. Finally, users make decisions and take action based on what they
find in the map (Kraak & Ormeling, 2010).

DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR CARTOGRAPHY

Cartographers apply many design principles when compiling maps and constructing page layouts.
Five of the main design principles are:

− Legibility
− Visual contrast
− Figure ground
− Hierarchical organization
− Balance.

Together, the principles form a system for seeing and understanding the relative importance of the
content in the map and on the page. Without these, a map will not effectively convey the intended
message.

Note: These are principles and not hard fast rules. They are meant to guide map makers in
producing maps that are not only visually attractive but also usable.

Visual Contrast

Relates to how the map features and page elements can be differentiated from each other and from
their background. A well designed map with a high degree of contrast is a crisp, sharp-looking and
“clean” map. The higher the contrast between features, the more the features stand out. Lack of
contrast may result in a feeling of features belonging to the same group

When there is no visual

contrast (A), the map user has
a hard time distinguishing
features from the background.
For quantitative distribution
maps, there must be enough
Legibility

This is the ability of the map elements to be seen and understood. Legibility depends on symbol
selection and there sizes. It‟s important to choose familiar symbols if possible and draw them at a
sizes that can be easily seen according to mapping scale. Geometric symbols can easily be seen at
small sizes while complex symbols need to be made much larger to be seen

Visual contrast and legibility are the basis of seeing and distinguishing features from one another
and from the background. The two, when well applied promote the other three design principles

Figure Ground

Figure ground organization is the spontaneous separation of the figure in the foreground from an
“amorphous” background. The principle helps map users find the focus of the map easily. There
are many ways of achieving this i.e. adding drop shadow or feathering

Using closed forms (A), white

wash (B), drop shadow (C) or
Feathering (D) promotes
ground figure organization on
the map

Hierarchical Organization

It is the concept of separating meaningful characteristics and to portray similarities, differences and
interrelationships. This results into layering information on the map such that some features appear
more important than others. The visual layering helps map readers focus on what is important and
identify patterns

Balance
It involves organization of a map and other elements on the page. A well balance map gives an
impression of equilibrium and harmony. Balance is obtained through visual weight and visual
direction. Factors that affect map balance include the relative position, shape, size and subject
matter of the elements on the page

Map registration is the process used to align two or more image or data by using the same
reference system.

Georeferencing is therefore, a process of assigning some known map coordinates to selected

points, in order to position the image in the map coordinate system.
Cartographic communication process

All maps have the following things in common;

a. Maps contain information
b. The information is presented in a graphical form(symbols)
c. The common purpose of all maps is to give represented information to map user
(map maker and Map user must overlap)

The primary function of a map in the widest sense is communication. Cartography supplies
information on the spatial distribution of features so that an optimal communication via a map is
created.

Maps as means of communication

Communication in general is transfer of knowledge/information from one person to another.

Sender Signal Receiver

Communication system

A communication process can only be successful accomplished if the sender produces a signal that
is understood by the receiver. The receiver is capable to translate the signal into the meaning and
the information should be perceivable.

In cartography, communication takes place between the cartographer and the and the map user.

In cases where the user is in need of particular information in spatial distribution, it is the duty of a
cartographer to answer to these needs by producing a map.

Real World Cartographer Recipients

Map Conception
s Conception

Cartographic Communication system

The cartographer is concerned on how best to answer the needs of the map user is well expressed in
the following sentence“How does a cartographer say what to Whom”

Where „What‟ is the information to be transformed the map user, „Whom‟ is the specific types of
users the cartographer applies to i.e. the methods that the cartographers use to pass information to
map user using graphic symbols methods, and „How‟ is by using grammatical rules of cartographic
language (graphic symbols)
Map communication model

Design and communication objective:

Match between geographic reality as observed by the mapmaker

And geographic reality as perceived by the map user!

Communication by means of spoken or written language is familiar to all. All languages are made
up of words arranged in a particular order to make sense eg. a good looking lady or a lady looking
good are both accepted and meaningful in English language though one might be neater and more
preferred than the other.

A primary condition in language communication is that a language must be understood. It is said

that a picture is worth a thousand words. An example is if you want to describe your boy/girlfriend
to somebody how has not seen him/her before. The communication could be made much easier if a
photograph of the person is shown instead of describing the person. Such a picture also overcomes
great deal of language problems if the receiver doesn‟t understand the spoken language. Likewise
with the map, the same is applicable.

A topomap will give description of a place much easier than when explanation by words is to be
done. This is only true if the map user can interpret the map.
Geo-Data

Geo-Data characteristics
When designing map symbols, the concerned cartographer should understand the characteristics of
the information to be represented on map e.g. rivers, mountains, valleys etc

Dimensional properties
Geographical data may have four types of dimensional extents on the surface of the earth. These
are points, linear and area symbols.

Data scaling into two measurement level

There are two basic data measurement levels namely;

- Qualitative nature
- Quantitative nature

Qualitative measurement level

i. Qualitative or Nominal measurement scaling

This is qualitative data measured on a nominal measurement scale. The information is based on
different nature or identity of things e.g. the difference between arable land and pasture land, built-
up area a forest which are all different land uses of equal importance.

ii. Ordinal measurement scaling

This is qualitative information with a clear element of order, though not quantitatively determined.
Features are not only identified but also ranked according to some quantitative. This ranking
involves only a certain order e.g. one is bigger than the other, higher, warmer, the difference
between highway, primary road, secondary road, tracks etc this kind of ranking is subjective. The
ranking order between small, medium and large towns is universal meaning that everyone will
accept the same order.

Quantitative measurement level

Features are identified, ranked and further distinguished by real amounts/size. Quantitative
information is further subdivided according to two measurement levels

i. Interval measurement scaling

Ranging of data and the interval between the data is quantitatively determined but the zero point is
arbitrary (random) e.g. temperature, year of establishment

ii. Ratio measurement scaling

Data ranked on a quantitative scale using an absolute zero point e.g. number of persons, industrial
production.
Next to a division of quantitative information into information measured on a ratio scale, it is also
possible to make a distinction between absolute and relative quantities
- Absolute quantities– are observed, measured or counted quantities e.g. number of persons,
vehicles
- Relative quantities–are calculated derived quantities such as densities, ratios, percentages
and averages
Map compilation

Map compilation is a selection, gathering and graphic representation of all relevant information for
preparation of a map. The action of compilation will result in a compilation manuscript, which is
the original drawing of the map as compiled or constructed from various data e.g. Ground and Air
Surveys.

The task of compilation requires experience and is to be entrusted to map editor or senior
cartographers when analysing the definition of map compilation as soon as the compilation starts,
generalization is involved in the form of selecting the relevant information, the classification and
for assembly of details and their graphic representation which suggests the use of graphic symbols.

For any production of a new map, the following must be fulfilled;

- An overall planning
- Map specifications and layout
- Content to be mapped
- Symbolization
- Text and colour
- How to carry out the final work
- The use of flow diagrams

All these information which must be compiled together can be considered in terms of;
− Theme of the map:- what is to be mapped
− Time:- when collection was made
− Where:- location of the information

The compilation of data requires the use of many maps and other sources from which to get
required information. The maps may differ in many aspects but it is the duty of the cartographer to
choose and modify this data and to the place it at the appropriate place in the new map.

The rule of compilation is to work from large to small scale so as to minimise the amount of errors.

Types of compilation
There are two types of compilation that are undertaken are for;
i. Basic maps- maps that are produced directly from an original survey. They are likely
to be at large or medium scales, and produced in uniform systems.

Compilation of basic maps

For a new map to be compiled there must be a clear understanding of relationship between the
collection of the information and their presentation in the final map. This is controlled by:
− The scale of the map
− Characteristics of the area to be mapped (i.e. geographical)
− The accuracy standards that are required
 − Cartographic design and presentation

In large scale compilation, the material supplied to the cartographer is;

‒ Controlled data - coordinates
‒ Survey plots - ground survey
‒ Aerial Survey or both
‒ Details from existing maps
‒ Names
Information that is not obtained directly from survey operations
‒ Boundaries

The material is usually at different scales. All these basic materials/information must be collected
at and assembled together and then names and symbols added to the compilation (collections)

The marginal information will always be included in the manuscript. e.g. history, legend,
publications, titles, publishers etc
Colour guide for aerial features e.g. screens, patterns, or other area colours may also be indicated.
The task of compilation is to locate and assemble all the basic information that has been collected
into one sheet.

The complete compilation should be checked for any errors or omissions from;
− Original survey
− Compilation stages
− Wrong collection of data – statistical
Since all details are usually collected at different scales, they must be brought to a common scale
when preparing the manuscript. this can be done
− Manually
− Mechanically
− By use of a photographic camera
In case of when most information is produced from one source (eg from machine plots) and the
graphic information is simple, it may be possible to work directly from the source. Even though the
source must be checked, and name symbols, and in case of any errors, corrections must be done.
Names, symbols and marginal information will be added on a separate overlay, and they will be
checked for completeness and accuracy before the start of fair drawing. Direct working is
practicable in some situations only depending on the scale of the final production and the
experience of the draughtsman. Positives of contours should be combined with those of drainage
for proper and accurate compilation.

ii. Derived maps are produced mainly from existing maps by generalising and reducing
information from large scale basic maps. In some cases, the information in the basic
map is not up-to date and therefore data will have to be collected from field
compilation and/or other sources.

Compilation of derived maps

Source material for derived maps varies from existing maps to a collection of data from field. Most
derived maps are at small scales therefore a great problem of generalization is being introduced in
such compilation.

Types of derived maps

‒ Homogeneous derived maps
‒ Heterogeneous derived maps

i. Homogeneous derived maps

These are maps that are derived from almost entirely large scale consistent material containing the
whole basic material (information). The main problem with such maps is to obtain up-to-date
information for the features selected, in case the basic map is not up to date e.g. new roads,
changed boundaries, new structures etc

Generalization is likely to be the most difficult problem to resolve satisfaction when selection is
being undertaken

ii. Heterogeneous derived maps

There are some areas where no complete or consistent large scale material exists. In such cases, the
source material will vary in quality and quantity. These materials (information) will be located and
evaluated before compilation is started. Source materials for such maps are;
− Existing maps at various scales
− Special purpose maps eg. Road maps, town maps e.t.c
− Charts
− Guide books
− Geographical references

Most major map – production agencies keep collections of such material for their own purposes to
be used in the production of new maps

The task to discover, select, and evaluate the information available for a new area to be mapped is
complicated and therefore, left for the management levels and specialist cartographers. The
material is then provided to the draughtsman with guides and specifications on how to to present
the information on a new map.

Before collection of data is started, defined aims and objectives are essential. Two types of data can
be distinguished;
− Inventory/census the purpose of which is essential to find out “where and how
much?”
− Specific scientific investigation, which seek to ask the question “why?” for what
purpose is the data being collected.
Well defined aims and objectives will suggest which data is required and how much, in order to
fulfil the purpose of the investigation eg. for a tourist map, hotel, roads, embassies etc may be
required.
Collection of data is time consuming and expensive therefore, a pilot study may be necessary
before the final collection eg for the collection of census data.

It is cheaper to send people out to the ground/field from a central point or from different stations.
This will help to estimate the cost and time involved for the complete investigations.

Phases in map compilation

Data collection
Data interpretation
Evaluation
Data selection
Data presentation

Data collection
During the process of data collection, one has a choice of;
− Investigating all the feature that is required
− Investigating a sample of feature to be collected
− Investigating some general aspects of every feature followed by detailed
examination on samples e.g. field completion from aerial photographs or satellite
imagery.

There are two different ways of collecting data;

1. Primary data – these are data which have been collected specifically for the purpose
of the map to be published
2. Secondary data – These are data derived from other existing sources which are
collected for other purposes but can be used in new maps as well.

In general, collection of data should be the responsibility of the person requesting for the
production of the map. But in some cases, e.g. the Atlas map production or topographical map, the
cartographer may have to collect data by himself or herself. In such cases, the data will almost
always be secondary data

Data interpretation
Interpretation from aerial photographs/satellite imagery must be done carefully and correctly.
There must be proper recognition of various types of features that appear in the images eg various
types of land uses, forests, crops etc

Data evaluation
All data must be checked and cleared to remove erroneous items eg river has been recorded as a
track. Data should be tested for its reliability and evaluation to be carried out immediately after
collecting the data.

Data selection
Selection of data reduces the mass of facts in a form suitable for cartographic representation e.g. a
number of spot-heights are used to interpolate a contour line. Uniformity of secondary data that has
been collected from various sources is essential. Grouping of data into classes with view to
cartographic presentation (in the map legend)

Data presentation
The results of all collected information will be presented in form of maps. Symbolization of
different data, design and production techniques are all important at this stage.

The cartographer and the map user should be able to appreciate each others requirements and
problems. The cartographer should be able to have some ideas of the mapped information and the
way of collecting and analysing such information

The purpose of the map, together with specifications, scale and accuracy required should help the
cartographer to produce a map which can portray the information in a special way.

Sources of information
‒ Existing maps and plans
‒ Ground survey
‒ Aerial survey
‒ Satellite imagery
‒ Digital (computer data bank)
Information for social-economic data is usually statistical. If investigation is not official, the response will
depend on the type of information required, and the nature of the interviewer (whether good/bad)

In general, data concerning a financial or personal nature is hard to find. If available, may not be wholly
reliable.

Private individuals and commercial undertakings are required by law to provide information via census, tax
returns etc. Since much of this data is confidential, it will usually be refined and generalized before the
release to the others. Data from official sources e.g. public offices is always available for collection.

Sources of social-economic data

‒ Official applications from the government and international agencies eg UN
‒ Publications from commercial organizations e.g. banks, annual reports of companies etc
‒ Newspapers and magazines (esp. financial page)
‒ It‟s also possible to derive information from railway stations and air table, classified telephones
directions and such like information.

Sources resource data

There are two main categories of natural resource sources.
− Survey carried out is part systemic inventory of a particular resource.
− Multi-disciplinary surveys carried out to the formation of development for a particular
region

Every field of science has a range of techniques for collecting data in the terrain. Filed maps are made for
the use of collecting information from the field, as a base map on to which information interpreted from
aerial photographs can be plotted, and for locational purposes including laying out a network of sample
points in the terrain. Information gathered from the field will be recorded on field maps. Field maps are
usually prepared from available topographic maps. Whenever data has to be presented cartographically,
information about their location must be available.

In natural resources, aerial photographs/satellite imagery usually provide the best means of obtaining this
locational information, social economic data. However, these are collected on basis of administrative
districts. Their location is sufficiently precise to permit good cartographic presentation.

Boundaries may change from time to time making it difficult to compare details of different times

Aerial photos
Topo maps

Modify for use as a Photo interpretation

base map

Field completion
Transfer of details
compilation

Cartographic fair
drawing

Compilation Procedure

Data collection is supposed to be the responsibility of field or social scientists. The scientists sometimes
assist in drawing the specifications for the final map. The only problem that may occur is unawareness of
the financial and technical consequences of adopting certain specifications in such instances. A discussion
with the cartographer at the beginning of the project is very essential in order to clarify:-
1. The purpose of the map – basic and product
2. The type of map user – scientists, general purpose, students
3. The type of conventions to be used concerning scale, sheet size, layout and design
(national/internationally accepted)
4. Financial/time limitations, and their influence on the technical aspects of map production.
5. Background information on the map e.g. important relationship between the map and the
base

Cartographer will construct the required projection on grid system to scale for correct measurements and
plotting.
At compilation stage, all the details will be brought to a common scale by graphical, mechanical, optical or
computerised methods.

Compilation for monochrome maps is undertaken on one sheet, consisting of all the line work, names,
figures and area colours or tints marked in by coloured pencils. Sometimes the details are too many that a
place for names is prepared on a separate overlay.

On multi-coloured maps, details are too many that compilation is separated in three parts;
‒ The line work
‒ Names overlay
‒ Colour guides for aerial features

The line images are to be produced first because they contain locational information, including the
framework. In some cases, boundaries may or may not be part of final map details are included e.g. forest,
vegetation etc.

The advantage of having separate line compilation is that, it may be reproduced in monochrome without
losing its legibility which is not the case of area colours. It is included in the same compilation.

Names overlay
Positioning of names should be avoided not to interfere with line. Images where colour is to be used on area,
the name arrangements should be checked for the legibility of names reduces when placed on a strong
colour background. Marginal information is added onto the names overlay as this is a suitable place for such
information.

It is very important to check a finished compilation for completion and for agreement between related
information eg rivers and contours.

For special-subject maps, the reference bas is complied first and then the special subject material is plotted
on top of them