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Engineering Mathematics Volume III

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Engineering Mathematics Volume III

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Chhem Mao

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Engineering

Mathematics-III
This page is intentionally left blank.
Engineering
Mathematics-III

E. Rukmangadachari
Professor of Mathematics,
Department of Humanities and Sciences,
Malla Reddy Engineering College,
Secunderabad

Chennai • Delhi • Chandigarh

No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s prior
written consent.

This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the
right to remove any material present in this eBook at any time.

ISBN 9788131725375
eISBN 9789332510333

Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
To
Prof. P. V. Arunachalam,
Former Vice-Chancellor,
Dravidian University,
Kuppam,
Chittoor District (A. P.)
About the Author
E. Rukmangadachari is former head of Computer Science and Engineering
as well as Humanities and Sciences at Malla Reddy Engineering College,
Secunderabad. Earlier, he was a reader in Mathmatics (PG Course) at
Government College, Rajahmundry. He is an M.A from Osmania University,
Hyderabad, and an M.Phil. and Ph.D. degree holder from Sri Venkateswara
University, Tirupathi.
A recipient of the Andhra Pradesh State Meritorious Teachers’ Award
in 1981, Professor Rukmangadachari has published over 40 research
papers in national and international journals. With a rich repertoire of
over 45 years’ experience in teaching mathematics to undergraduate,
postgraduate and engineering students, he is currently the vice-president of
the Andhra Pradesh Society for Mathematical Sciences. An ace planner with fine managerial skills, he
was the organising secretary for the conduct of the 17th Congress of the Andhra Pradesh Society for
Mathematical Sciences, Hyderabad.

vi
Contents
About the Author vi Exercise 2.1 2-3
Preface ix Exercise 2.2 2-18
2.3 Laplace’s Equation:
1. Special Functions Harmonic and Conjugate
Harmonic Functions 2-19
1.1 Introduction 1-1
Exercise 2.3 2-26
1.2 Gamma Function 1-1
1.3 Recurrence Relation or
Reduction Formula 1-1
1.4 Various Integral Forms of
3. Elementary Functions
Gamma Function 1-3 3.1 Introduction 3-1
Exercise 1.1 1-6 3.2 Elementary Functions of a
1.5 Beta Function 1-6 Complex Variable 3-1
1.6 Various Integral Forms of Exercise 3.1 3-16
Beta Function 1-7
1.7 Relation Between Beta and
Gamma Functions 1-9 4. Complex Integration
1.8 Multiplication Formula 1-10 4.1 Introduction 4-1
1.9 Legendre’s Duplication 4.2 Basic Concepts 4-1
Formula 1-10
4.3 Complex Line Integral 4-2
Exercise 1.2 1-15
4.4 Cauchy–Goursat Theorem 4-13
1.10 Legendre Functions 1-15
4.5 Cauchy’s Theorem for
Exercise 1.3 1-28
Multiply-Connected
1.11 Bessel Functions 1-29 Domain Theorem 4-14
Exercise 1.4 1-40 4.6 Cauchy’s Integral Formula
(C.I.F.) or Cauchy’s
Formula Theorem 4-22
2. Functions of a Complex 4.7 Morera’s Theorem
Variable (Converse of Cauchy’s
2.1 Introduction 2-1 Theorem) 4-23
2.2 Complex Numbers— 4.8 Cauchy’s Inequality 4-23
Complex Plane 2-1 Exercise 4.1 4-31

vii
viii Contents

5. Complex Power Series 7.5 Rouche’s Theorem 7-3

7.6 Liouville Theorem 7-4
5.1 Introduction 5-1
7.7 Fundamental Theorem of
5.2 Sequences and Series 5-1
Algebra 7-4
5.3 Power Series 5-2
7.8 Maximum Modulus Theorem
5.4 Series of Complex for Analytic Functions 7-4
Functions 5-2
Exercise 7.1 7-9
5.5 Uniform Convergence of a
Series of Functions 5-2
5.6 Weierstrass’s M-Test 5-3 8. Conformal Mapping
5.7 Taylor’s Theorem 8.1 Introduction 8-1
(Taylor Series) 5-3
8.2 Conformal Mapping:
5.8 Laurent Series 5-9 Conditions for Conformality 8-2
5.9 Higher Derivatives of 8.3 Conformal Mapping by
Analytic Functions 5-18 Elementary Functions 8-3
Exercise 5.1 5-19 8.4 Some Special
Transformations 8-6
8.5 Bilinear or Mobius or Linear
6. Calculus of Residues Fractional Transformations 8-17
6.1 Evaluation of Real Integrals 6-1 8.6 Fixed Points of the
Exercise 6.1 6-7 Transformation
Exercise 6.2 6-14 w = (az+b)/(cz+d) 8-18
Exercise 6.3 6-34 Exercise 8.1 8-26

Question Bank A-1

7. Argument Principle and Multiple Choice Questions A-1
Rouche’s Theorem Fill in the Blanks A-17
7.1 Introduction 7-1 Match the Following A-23
7.2 Meromorphic Function 7-1 True or False Statements A-27
7.3 Argument Principle
(Repeated Single Pole/Zero) 7-1 Question Papers A-29
7.4 Generalised Argument Bibliography B-1
Theorem 7-2 Index I-1
Preface
I am pleased to present this book, Engineering Mathematics – III to the second year B. Tech. students
of Jawaharlal Nehru Technical Universities (JNTU). The book has been written in accordance with
the latest syllabi of JNTU, effective from September 2009. The topics have been dealt with in a style
that is lucid and easy to understand, supported by illustrations that enable the student to assimilate the
concepts effortlessly.
Each chapter is replete with exercises to help the student gain a deep insight into the subject. The
nuances of the subject have been brought out through more than 300 well-chosen worked-out examples
interspersed across the book at the end of each discussion. These examples enable the student to under-
stand the fundamentals and principles governing each topic.
The book has a question bank, with over 250 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs). The question
bank also includes Fill in the Blanks, Match the Following and True or False statements, the study of
which shall boost the confidence of the student to face the term-end examinations with ease. Further, a
collection of fully solved question papers has been included at the end of the book to serve as a store-
house of exam-specific problems.
Suggestions for the improvement of the book are welcome and will be gratefully acknowledged.

Acknowledgement
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Sri Ch. Malla Reddy, Chairman, Malla Reddy Group of
Institutions (MRGI), whose patronage has given me the opportunity to write this book.
I am thankful to Prof. R. Madan Mohan, Director (Academics) and Col. G. Ram Reddy, Director,
(Administration), MRGI; and Dr M. R. K. Murthy, Principal, Malla Reddy Engineering College,
Secunderabad, for their kindness, guidance, and encouragement.

E. Rukmangadachari

ix
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Special Functions
1
∞ ∞
e−t
Z
1.1 Introduction
=t p
+p t p−1 e−t dt
In the study of Mathematics, we have so far dealt −1
P with 0 0

algebraic and transcendental functions xn , an xn , = pŴ(p), [JNTU 2003S] (1.2)

ex , log x, sin x, cos x, sinh x, cosh x and so on, which
are called elementary functions.
tp

p −t t
In solving higher engineering problems, there ∵ lim t e = lim t = 0; lim t = 0
t→∞ t→∞ e t→0 e
arises a need to use higher transcendental functions
which are of two types: which is the functional relation of the gamma func-
1. Functions defined by improper integrals and tion.
2. Functions defined by convergent infinite series,
which are solutions of linear differential
equations. 1.3 Recurrence Relation or
A study of these functions comprises the theory of Reduction Formula
special functions and we undertake here a brief study For p = 1, we get from Eq. (1.1)
of some of the important properties of the following
special functions: Z ∞
e−t ∞
The gamma and the beta functions; and the Ŵ(1) = e−t t 0 dt = = 0 − (−1) = 1
0 −1 0
Legendre’s and the Bessel’s functions.
If p is a positive integer and p = 2, 3, 4, . . . , n, we
1.2 Gamma Function have from Eq. (1.2)

The gamma function, denoted by Ŵ(p), is defined by Ŵ(2) = 1Ŵ(1) = 1 = 1! ∵ Ŵ(1) = 1

the integral
Z ∞ Ŵ(3) = 2Ŵ(2) = 2.1! = 2!
Ŵ(p) = e−t t p−1 dt (p > 0) (1.1) Ŵ(4) = 3Ŵ(3) = 3.2! = 3!
0 ··· ···
for all positive real values of p since the improper Ŵ(n) = (n − 1)Ŵ(n − 1) = (n − 1)(n − 2)!
integral in Eq. (1.1) is convergent for p > 0 = (n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 2.1 = (n − 1)! (1.3)
(Re p > 0 if p is complex).
The gamma function is known as Euler’s integral This is a recurrence relation or reduction formula
of the second kind. Replacing p by (p+1) in Eq. (1.1) for the gamma function.
and integrating by parts we obtain from Eq. (1.1) This further shows that the gamma function is
Z ∞ a generalisation of the elementary factorial func-
Ŵ(p + 1) = e−t t p dt tion and so we can call it “the generalised factorial
0 function”.

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1-2 Engineering Mathematics III

1.3.1 Gamma Function for Negative The gamma function Ŵ(p) is defined and con-
Non-Integer Values tinuous for any p > 0, and it is undefined and is
Rewrite Eq. (1.2) as follows: discontinuous for p = 0, −1, −2, −3, . . .
We may use the relation
Ŵ(p + 1) Ŵ(p + k + 1)
Ŵ(p) = (1.4) Ŵ(p) = (p 6= 0, −1, −2, . . .)
p p(p + 1) · · · (p + k)
(1.6)
Letting p → 0+ and 0− , we get
for defining the gamma function for negative p
+ Ŵ(1) 1 (6= −1, −2, . . .) choosing for k the smallest integer
Ŵ(0 ) = lim = lim = +∞
p→0+ p p→0+ p such that p + k + 1 > 0. Then Eq. (1.6) together
with Eq. (1.1) gives a definition of Ŵ(p) for all p not
Ŵ(1) 1 equal to zero or a negative integer (Fig. 1.1).
Ŵ(0− ) = lim = lim = −∞
p→0− p p→0− p
Example 1.1
respectively.
This shows that Ŵ(0) is undefined. It follows Ŵ(2.5) = (1.5)Ŵ(1.5) = (1.5)(0.5)Ŵ(0.5)
from Eq. (1.4) that Ŵ(−1), Ŵ(−2), Ŵ(−3), . . . are all
3 1 √ 3
undefined. By repeated application of Eq. (1.4), we = × × π = × 1.772
get 2 2 4
= 3 × 0.443 = 1.329.
Ŵ(p + 1) Ŵ(p + 2)
Ŵ(p) = = = ··· Example 1.2
p p(p + 1) Evaluate Ŵ(−1.5).
Ŵ(p + k + 1)
= (1.5)
p(p + 1) · · · (p + k) Solution We have p + k + 1 = −1.5 + k + 1 > 0
or k > 0.5. Then the least integer value of k = 1
We can determine the values of the gamma
Ŵ(−1.5 + 1 + 1) 4
function for any real p < 0 (except for p = Ŵ(−1.5) = = Ŵ(0.5)
0, −1, −2, . . .). (−1.5)(−0.5) 3
4√ 4
= π = × 1.772
3 3
Γ(p) 7.088
= = 2.363.
3
5 √
(We will show below Ŵ(0.5) = Ŵ(1/2) = π =
1.772 approx.).

1.3.2 Some Standard Results

√
1. Show that Ŵ(1/2) = π = 1.772. [JNTU 2002]
–4 –2 2 4 p Solution By definition
Z ∞
–2
Ŵ(p) = e−t t p−1 dt (p > 0)
0
–4
1
Take p =
2
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1 1
Figure 1.1 Gamma Function
Ŵ = e−t t 2 −1 dt = e−t t − 2 dt
2 0 0

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Z 1
Solution Form I representation of beta function
= (1 − t)p−1 [1 − (1 − t)]q−1 dt
0 Z ∞
Z 1 xp−1
B(p, q) = dx
= t q−1 (1 − t)p−1 dt = B(q, p). 0 (1 + x)p+q
0
Splitting the interval of integration 0 to ∞ into 0
to 1 and 1 to ∞, we have
1.6 Various Integral Forms of Z 1 Z ∞
Beta Function xp−1 xp−1
B(p, q) = p+q
dx + dx
1.6.1 Form I: Beta Function as an 0 (1 + x) 1 (1 + x)p+q
Infinite Integral = I1 + I2 (say)
∞ Consider the second integral
xp−1
Z
Show that B(p, q) = dx
0 (1 + x)p+q Z ∞
xp−1
Z ∞ I2 = dx
xq−1 1 (1 + x)p+q
= dx.
0 (1 + x)p+q 1 1
[JNTU 2002S, 2004(4)] Put x = ⇒ dx = − 2 dt
t t
The limits are when x = 1, t = 1 and
Solution We know that when x = ∞, t = 0.
Z 1 Z ∞
xp−1
B(p, q) = t p−1 (1 − t)q−1 dt ∴ I2 = dx
0 1 (1 + x)p+q
Z 0 p+q
1 t 1
x = p−1
− 2 dt
Put t = 1 t 1+t t
1+x Z 1
t q−1
x 1 = p+q
dt
⇒1−t =1− = 0 (1 + t)
1+x 1+x Z 1
1 t xq−1
⇒ x= −1= = p+q
dx, replacing t by x
1−t 1−t 0 (1 + x)

(1 + x)dx − xdx dx
⇒ dt = 2
= ∴ B(p, q) = I1 + I2
(1 + x) (1 + x)2 Z 1 Z 1
xp−1 xq−1
Limits for x are t = 0 ⇒ x = 0; = p+q
dx + p+q
dx
0 (1 + x) 0 (1 + x)
t = 1 ⇒ x = ∞. Z 1 p−1
x + xq−1
Z ∞ p−1 = dx
x 1 dx 0 (1 + x)p+q
B(p, q) =
0 1+x (1 + x) (1 + x)2
q−1
Z ∞
x p−1 1.6.3 Form III: Improper Integral
= dx Form
0 (1 + x)p+q ∞
xp−1
Z
Z ∞
xq−1 Show that B(p, q) = a bp q
dx.
= p+q
dx ∵ B(p, q) = B(q, p). 0 (ax + b)p+q
0 (1 + x)
Solution Consider
1.6.2 Form II: Beta Function in
Z ∞
xp−1
Symmetric Integral Form I= dx
0 (ax + b)p+q
Z ∞
Show that Z
1
1 xp−1 dx
xp−1 + xq−1 = p+q ax
p+q
B(p, q) = dx. [JNTU 2000] b 0
b
+1
0 (1 + x)p+q

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1-8 Engineering Mathematics III

ax b b x−a dx
Put = t or x = t; dx = dt Put t = ⇒ dt =
b a a b−a (b − a)
The limits are t = 0, x = a and t = 1, x = b.
Z ∞ b p−1
1 a
t b Z b
∴ I = p+q p+q a
dt (x − a)p−1 (b − x)q−1 dx
b 0 (t + 1) ∴ B(p, q) = p−1 (b − a)q−1 (b − a)
Z ∞ a (b − a)
1 t p−1 Z b
= p q dt 1
a b 0 (1 + t)p+q = (x − a)p−1 (b − x)q−1 dx.
1 (b − a)p+q−1 a
= p q B(p, q), by Form I
ab Corollary
Put a = −1, b = 1; and a = 0 we get respectively,
Z 1
1.6.4 Form IV: Integral from 0 to 1 1. (x + 1)p−1 (1 − x)q−1 dx = 2p+q−1 B(p, q).
Form −1
[JNTU 2004(3)]
Show that Z b
Z 1 p−1 q−1
x (1 − x) 2. xp−1 (b − x)q−1 dx = bp+q−1 B(p, q).
B = (p, q) = (1 + a)p aq dx.
0 (x + a)p+q 0

Solution Beta function is defined by 1.6.6 Form VI: Integral of Circular

Z 1 Functions
B(p, q) = t p−1 (1 − t)q−1 dt, (p > 0, q > 0) Z π
2
0 Show that B(p, q) = 2 sin2p−1 θ cos2q−1 θdθ
0
(1 + a)x 1 1 1 p > 0, q > 0. [JNTU 2003(2)]
Put t = ⇒ dx = − dx
(x + a) t x x+a
a Solution We know that
= dx, by log differentiation
x(x + a) Z 1
The limits are t = 0, x = 0; t = 1, x = 1. B(p, q) = t p−1 (1 − t)q−1 dt
0
Z ∞
(1 + a)p−1 xp−1 2
∴ B(p, q) = Put t = sin θ; dt = 2 sin θ cos θdθ; 1 − t =
(x + a)p−1 π
0
cos2 θ. The limits are t = 0, θ = 0; t = 1, θ = .

(1 + a)x q−1 (1 + a)adx
2
· 1− · Z π
x+a (x + a)2 2
Z 1 p−1 B(p, q) = (sin2 θ)p−1 (cos2 θ)q−1 (2 sin θ cos θdθ)
x (1 − x)q−1 0
= (1 + a)p aq dx. π
0 (x + a)p+q Z
2
=2 sin2p−1 θ cos2q−1 θdθ = 2I2p−1,2q−1
0
1.6.5 Form V: Integral from a to b Corollary
Form
Z π
Show that 2 1 p+1 q+1
Ip,q = sinp θ cosq θdθ = B ,
Z b 0 2 2 2
(x − a)p−1 (b − x)q−1 dx = (b − a)p+q−1 B(p, q)
a
1.6.7 Form VII: Relation of
[JNTU 2003(4), 2004(1)] proportionality
Solution In the beta function integral B(p, q + 1)
If p > 0, q > 0, then prove that =
Z 1 q
B(p + 1, q) B(p, q)
B(p, q) = t p−1 (1 − t)q−1 dt = .
0 p p+q

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Special Functions 1-9

Solution 1.6.8 Form VIII: Beta Function in

B(p, q + 1) 1 Explicit Form
= B(p, q + 1) Show that
q q
(q−1)!
1 1 p−1
Z B(p, q) =
= t (1 − t)q+1−1 dt p(p+1)(p+2)· · ·(p+q−2)(p+q−1)
q 0
1 1
Z Solution
= (1 − t)q t p−1 dt
q 0 Z 1
p−1 q−1
Z 1
B(p, q) = x (1−x) dx = (1−x)q−1 xp−1 dx
Evaluating the last integral by parts 0 0
1
xp q−1 1
Z
tp 1 1 1 tp
Z
1 = (1 − x)q−1 + (1−x)q−2 xp dx
= (1 − t)q − q(1 − t)q−1 (−1) dt p 0 p 0
q p 0 q 0 p
Z 1 q−1
1 1 =0+ B(p + 1, q − 1)
=0+ t (p+1)−1 (1 − t)q−1 dt = B(p + 1, q) p
p 0 p
q−1 q−2 q−3 1
B(p, q+1) B(p + 1, q) sum of numerators = · · ···
∴ = = p p+1 p+2 p+q−2
q p sum of denominators · B(p + q − 1, 1)
B(p, q + 1) + B(p + 1, q) (q−1)(q−2)(q−3) · · · 2 · 1
= =
q+p p(p+1)(p+2) · · · (p+q−2)(p+q−1)
Z 1 Z 1
1 p−1 q p q−1
= t (1 − t) dt + t (1 − t) dt If p, q are positive integers
p+q 0 0
Z 1
1 (p − 1)!(q − 1)!
= t p−1 (1 − t)q−1 [(1 − t) + t]dt B(p, q) = .
p+q 0 (p + q − 1)!
1
= B(p, q)
p+q 1.7 Relation Between Beta and
p Gamma Functions
We also have B(p + 1, q) = B(p, q) and Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q)
p+q Show that B(p, q) = p > 0, q > 0
q Ŵ(p + q)
B(p, q + 1) = B(p, q). [JNTU 2002, 2003S]
p+q
Z ∞
Corollary Ŵ(p)
Solution We know that p = e−zx xp−1 dx
1 1 z 0
Show that (i) B(p, 1) = (ii) B(1, q) = . Multiplying both sides by z p+q−1 e−z and integrat-
p q
ing w.r.t. z from 0 to ∞
Solution Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1
Ŵ(p) z q−1 e−z dz = e−z(1+x) z p+q−1 dz xp−1 dx
Z
(i) B(p, 1) = xp−1 (1 − x)1−1 dx 0 0 0
0 Z ∞
1
Ŵ(p + q) p−1
Z 1
xp 1 Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q) = x dx
= xp−1 dx = = 0 (1 + x)p+q
0 p 0 p Z ∞
xp−1
Z 1 = Ŵ(p + q) dx
(ii) B(1, q) = x1−1 (x)q−1 dx 0 (1 + x)p+q
0 = Ŵ(p + q) B(p, q)
1 1
xq
Z
q−1 1 Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q)
= x dx = = or B(p, q) =
0 q 0 q Ŵ(p + q)

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1-10 Engineering Mathematics III

Z ∞
Aliter We know that Ŵ(p) = t p−1 e−t dt 1.8 Multiplication Formula
0 Prove that Ŵ(p)Ŵ(1 − p) = π cosec pπ (p ∈
/ Z).
Put t = x2 , dt = 2xdx
The limits are t = 0, x = 0; t = ∞, x = ∞. Solution We have the following results:
Z ∞
Beta–Gamma relation:
2
Ŵ(p) = 2 x2p−1 e−x dx
0 Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q) = Ŵ(p + q)B(p, q) (1.8)
Z ∞
2 Infinite integral form of beta function (B Form I):
Similarly Ŵ(q) = 2 y2q−1 e−y dy
0 Z ∞
xp−1
B(p, q) = dx (1.9)
Z ∞
2

0 (1 + x)p+q
∴ Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q) = 2 x2p−1 e−x dx
0
Z ∞ By contour integration1 , the value of
2
× 2 y2q−1 e−y dy Z ∞ p−1
x
0 dx = π cosec pπ (1.10)
Z ∞Z ∞
2 2 0 1+x
=4 e−(x +y ) x2p−1 y2q−1 dxdy
0 0 From Eqs. (1.8) – (1.10) by taking q = 1 − p, we
have
Put x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ dxdy = rdθdr Z ∞ p−1
x
Ŵ(p)Ŵ(1 − p) = B(p, 1 − p) = dx
∂(x, y) cos θ −r sin θ 0 1 +x
∵ J = = = r;
∂(r, θ) sin θ r cos θ = π cosec pπ (0 < p < 1)
π By analytic continuation1 , we get the result
Limits for r : 0 to ∞; θ : 0 to .
2
Z π Ŵ(p)Ŵ(1 − p) = π cosec pπ
2
Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q) = 4 sin2q−1 θ cos2p−1 θdθ
0 for all non-integral values of p
Z ∞
2
e−r × r 2p+2q−1 dr
0 Corollary
Z ∞ 2
√

2 1 1 1
= 2B(p, q) e−r r 2p+2q−1 dr p= , Ŵ =π ⇒ Ŵ = π
0 2 2 2
2
Put r = u; 2rdr = du
Z ∞
= B(p, q) e−u up+q−1 du 1.9 Legendre’s Duplication
0 Formula
= B(p, q)Ŵ(p + q) Prove that
√

Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q) 2p−1 1
⇒ B(p, q) = . πŴ(2p) = 2 Ŵ(p)Ŵ p + .
Ŵ(p + q) 2
[JNTU 2003S]
Corollary
Solution We know beta function as integral of
Z π
2 1 p+1 q+1
circular functions (B Form VI)
Ip,q = sinp θ cosq θdθ = B , Z π
0 2 2 2 2
B(p, q) = 2 sin2p−1 θ cos2p−1 θ dθ
Ŵ p+1 q+1

2
, 2 0
= .
2Ŵ p+q+22 1 These are taken for granted and not discussed here.

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Special Functions 1-11

Put q = p, we get pŴ(p)Ŵ(q) + qŴ(p)Ŵ(q)

=
Z π (p + q)Ŵ(p + q)
2
B(p, p) = 2 sin2p−1 θ cos2p−1 θ dθ Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q)
0
= (p + q) p, q ∈ N,
Z π 2p−1 Ŵ(p + q + 1)
2 sin 2θ (p − 1)!(q − 1)!
=2 dθ B(p, q) =
0 2 (p + q − 1)!
Z π
2 2
= (sin 2θ)2p−1 dθ
22p−1 0 Example 1.13
Z 1
Put 2θ = φ, 2dθ = dφ p r q 1 p+1
Show that x (1 − x ) dx = B ,q + 1 .
The limits for φ are 0, π. 0 r r
Z π
1 Z 1
= 2p−1 (sin φ)2p−1 dφ Solution To evaluate the integral xp (1−xr )q dx,
2 0
Z π 0
1 2 1 1 1 −1
= p−1 2 sin2p−1 φdφ put xr = y ⇒ x = y r , dx = y r dy
2 0
r
The limits are x = 0 ⇒ y = 0; x = 1 ⇒ y = 1.
1 1
= 2p−1 B p, Z 1 Z 1
2 2 p 1 1
xp (1 − xr )q dx = y r (1 − y)q y r −1 dy
1 r

1 Ŵ(p)Ŵ 2
0 0
= 2p−1 1
Z 1
Ŵ p + 12

2 =
p+1
y r −1 (1 − y)q dy
√ r 0
π Ŵ(p)
= 2p−1 , 1

p+1

2 Ŵ p + 12 = B ,q + 1 .
r r
by Beta–Gamma relation.
Z 2θ Z a Corollary
Formula: f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx Z 1
xdx 1

2 1

0 0 π 1. √ = B , [JNTU 2001]
if f (2a − x) = f (x). Here a = 0 1 − x5 5 5 2
2
and f (π − φ) = f (φ). 1
p = 1, q = − , r = 5
2
Example 1.12 Z 1
Prove that B(p, q) = B(p + 1, q) + B(p, q + 1). 1 1 1 1
2. (1 − xn ) n dx = B , + 1
0 n n n
Solution 2
1 Ŵ 1n , 1n Ŵ 1n 1 Ŵ 1n

= =
RHS = B(p + 1, q) + B(p, q + 1) 2
Ŵ 2n 2n Ŵ 2n

n n
Z 1 Z 1 1
= xp (1 − x)q−1 dx + xp−1 (1 − x)q dx p = 0, r = n, q =
0 0
n
Z 1 Z 1 m
= xp−1 (1 − x)q−1 [x + (1 − x)] dx x dx 1 m+1 1
3. √ = B ,
0 0 1 − xn n n 2
= B(p, q). 1
p = m, r = n, q = −
Corollary 2

B(p, q) = B(p + 1, q) + B(p, q + 1) Example 1.14

Prove that if m, n are non-negative integers
Ŵ(p + 1)Ŵ(q) Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q + 1) Z 1
= + 1 m!n!
Ŵ(p + q + 1) Ŵ(p + q + 1) (1 − x n )m dx = .
0 (m + n)!

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-12 — #12

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1-12 Engineering Mathematics III

Solution
Z 1 m
ExampleZ 1.17
1
I= 1 − xn dx ∞
x dx
0 Evaluate .
1 1 + x6
Put x = y ⇒ x = yn , dx = nyn−1 dy
n 0

The limits are x = 0 ⇒ y = 0; 1 −5 1

Solution Put x6 = y ⇒ x = y 6 ; dx =
y 6 dy
x = 1 ⇒ y = 1. 6
The limits are: when x = 0, y = 0; x = ∞, y = ∞.
Z 1
= (1 − y)m nyn−1 dy = n B(n, m + 1) Z ∞
x dx
1 5
1 ∞ y 6 y− 6 dy
Z
0 I= =
Ŵ(n)Ŵ(m + 1) n!m! 0 1 + x6 6 0 1+y
=n = . Z ∞ −2
Ŵ(m + n + 1) (m + n)! 1 y 3 dy 1 1 2
= = B ,
6 0 1+y 6 3 3
Example 1.15
1 Ŵ 13 Ŵ 23

π 1 π 1 π
cos2m−1 θ sin2n−1 θdθ
Z
2 B(m, n) = = π =
√
Prove that = . 1
6 Ŵ 3+3 2
6 sin 3 6 3
0 (a cos2 θ + b sin2 θ)m+n 2am bn 2
π
Solution Denote the integral by I and put = √ (Ŵ(1) = 1).
tan θ = t ⇒ sec2 θdθ = dt. 3 3
π
The limits are when θ = 0, t = 0; θ = , t = ∞.
2 Example 1.18
Z π 2n−1 π
2 cos2m−1 θ sin θ dθ
Z
2 √
I= Express in terms of gamma function tan θ dθ.
0 (a cos2 θ + b sin2 θ)m+n 0
Z π 2n−1
2 cos2m+1 θ · sin θ · sec2 θdθ
= Solution
π π
cos2m+2n θ(a + b tan2 θ)m+n √
Z Z
0 2 2 1 1
Z ∞ tan θdθ = sin 2 θ cos− 2 θ dθ
t 2n−1 dt 0 0
= 1 +1

(a + bt 2 )m+n 2 − 21 +1
0 Ŵ 2 Ŵ 3 1

r 2 Ŵ Ŵ
2 a√ = = 4 4
.
Put bt = ay or t = y
1 − 1 +2

2
r b 2Ŵ 2 22
a 1
dt = √ dy
b2 y Example 1.19
π √
n− 1 1 1
Z
2 √
1 ∞ ba y 2 ab 2 , y− 2 dy
Z
Evaluate tan θ + sec θ dθ.
= 0
2 0 am+n (1 + y)m+n
Z ∞
1 yn−1 B(m, n) Solution
π
= m n dy = . Z
2 √ √
2a b 0 (1 + y)m+n 2am bn tan θ +sec θ dθ
0
Z π√ Z π√
Example Z1.16 2 2
∞
x2 (1 − x2 ) dx = tan θdθ + sec θdθ
Prove that = 0. Z0 π 0
Z π
0 (1 + x)8 2 1 − 21
2 1
= sin θ cos θdθ +
2 cos− 2 θdθ
Solution 0 ! 0 !
∞ 2 Z ∞ 3−1 Z ∞ 5−1
x (1−x2 )dx 1 1 1
Z
x dx x dx 1 + 1 − + 1 1 1 − + 1
8
= 5+3
− 5+3 = B 2 , 2 + B , 2
0 (1+x) 0 (1+x) 0 (1+x) 2 2 2 2 2 2
= B(3, 5) − B(5, 3) = 0 1

3 1

1

1 1

= B , + B ,
∵ B(p, q) = B(q, p). 2 4 4 2 2 4

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-13 — #13

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Special Functions 1-13

1 Ŵ 34 Ŵ 14 1 Ŵ 12 Ŵ 14
! !
1
1 1 +1 1 2 1 − 21 + 1 1
= + = , B , · B ,
2 Ŵ 34 + 14 2 Ŵ 21 + 14

4 2 2 2 2 2 2
√
π Ŵ 14

1 3 1 1 Ŵ 34 Ŵ 12 Ŵ 14 Ŵ 12

= Ŵ Ŵ + . = .
2 4 4 2 Ŵ 43 16 Ŵ 54 Ŵ 34

π Ŵ 14

Example 1.20 π
2
= · 1 1 = .
16 4 Ŵ 4 4
Z
1
Evaluate x4 (8 − x3 )− 3 dx.
0
Z 2 Example 1.22
1 π
x4 (8 − x3 )− 3 dx
Z
Solution I= 2 π
0
Prove that sin2 θcos4 θdθ = . [JNTU 2003(3)]
32
Put x3 = 8 sin2 θ ⇒ 3x2 dx = 16 sin θ cos θ dθ.π 0

When x → 0, θ → 0 and when x → 2, θ → . Solution We know that

Z π 2
2
2 2 2 − 13 16 Z π
∴I = (8 sin θ) (8 − 8 sin θ) ·
3 2
p 1
q p+1 q+1
0 3 sin θ cos θdθ = B ,
0 2 2 2
· sin θ cos θdθ p+1
q+1

Z π Ŵ 2 Ŵ 2
32 2 7 1 =
2Ŵ p+q+2

= sin 3 θ cos 3 θdθ 2
3 0
7 1
! p = 2, q = 4
32 1 + 1 + 1
· ·B 3 , 3 π 2+1 4+1

= Z
2 Ŵ Ŵ
3 2 2 2 ∴ 2
sin θ cos θdθ = 4 2 2
2Ŵ 2+4+2

0 2
16 5 2
= B , . 3
5
Ŵ Ŵ 2
3 3 3 = 2
2Ŵ(4)
1 1 31
Ŵ 12

Example 1.21 2
Ŵ 2 22 π
Z 1
x2 dx
Z 1
dx π = = .
Show that √ · =
. 2·6 32
√ 4
1 − x4 4 √

0 0 1−x 1
[JNTU 2003S] Ŵ(4) = 3! = 6; Ŵ = π
2
Solution In the LHS integrals, Example 1.23 √
1 ∞
√ −x3
Z
put x2 = sin θ ⇒ x = sin 2 θ, π
1
Show that x e dx = . [JNTU 2003(3)]
dx = 12 sin− 2 θ cos θdθ. 0 3
π
The limits are x = 0 ⇒ θ = 0; x = 1 ⇒ θ = . Solution Put x3 = t ⇒ x = t 3 , dx = 13 t − 3 dt.
1 2
2
1 Z 1 The given integral
x2 dx
Z
dx
∴ √ · √ Z ∞
1 ∞ − 1 −t
Z
0 1 − x 4
0 1 − x4 1 1 2
= t 6 e−t t − 3 dt = t 2 e dt
Z π 1 − 12 3 3 0
2 sin θ · sin θ cos θdθ 0
= p2 √
1 ∞ −t 1 −1
Z
1 1 π
0 (1 − sin2 θ) = e t 2 dt = Ŵ = .
Z π 1 − 12 3 0 3 2 3
2
2
sin θ cos θdθ
· p
0 (1 − sin2 θ) Example Z1.24
Z
π Z π Ŵ(m)Ŵ(n) m+n
Show that xm−1 yn−1 dx dy =
a
Z
1 2 1 1 2 1
= sin 2 θdθ · sin− 2 θdθ D Ŵ(m + n + 1)
2 0 2 0 where D is the domain x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 and x + y ≤ a.

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-14 — #14

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Special Functions 1-17

which can be put in the standard form by dividing it by the coefficient (1 − x2 ) of y′′ in
2x ′ n(n + 1) Eq. (1.17). Now, the coefficients of y′ and y in
y′′ − y + y = 0 (|x| 6 = 1) the func-
1 − x2 1 − x2 Eq. (1.18) are
tions
2x n(n + 1) 2x n(n + 1)
p(x) = − and q(x) = are express- − and
1 − x2 1 − x2 1 − x2 1 − x2
ible as a power series about x = 0 and so they are
respectively, and these functions are analytic at x = 0
analytic at x = 0. Hence the equation can be solved
(i.e., derivable any number of times). Hence we may
by the power series method.
apply the power series method for its solution.
If x0 is not regular, it is called a singular point. In
Let us assume a power series solution of Eq. (1.17)
respect of Bessel’s Eq. (1.14) the point x = 0 is not
in the form
regular and is therefore a singular point of Eq. (1.14). X∞

But xp(x) = 1 and x2 q(x) = x2 − p2 are analytic at y(x) = ar xr (1.19)

x = 0 and hence we can apply Frobenius method for r=0

the solution of Eq. (1.14). Differentiating Eq. (1.18) w.r.t. ‘x’ twice, we have
The series solution of p(x)y′′ + q(x)y′ + r(x)y = 0 ∞
by Frobenius method consists of the following steps:
X
′
y (x) = rar xr−1 ,
1. Assume that y given by eq. (1.16) is a solution r=1
∞
of the equation. X
2. Compute y′ and y′′ and substitute for y, y′ and y′′ (x) = r(r − 1)ar xr−2 (1.20)
r=2
y′′ in the equation.
3. Equate to zero the coefficient of the lowest Substituting the expressions for y, y′ and y′′ from
power of x; it gives a quadratic in m, which Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20) in Eq. (1.17)
is known as the indicial equation, giving two ∞
X ∞
X
values for m. (1 − x2 ) r(r − 1)ar xr−2 − 2x rar xr−1
4. Equate to zero the coefficients of the other r=2 r=1
powers of x and find the values of a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · ∞
X
in terms of a0 . + n(n + 1) ar xr = 0
r=0
1.10.4 Legendre Functions ∞
X ∞
X
The power series method of solution can be applied ⇒ r(r − 1)ar xr−2 − r(r − 1)ar xr
r=2 r=2
to find the solution of the Legendre’s3 differential
∞ ∞
equation X X
−2 rar xr + n(n + 1) ar xr = 0 (1.21)
(1 − x2 )y′′ − 2xy′ + n(n + 1)y = 0 r=1 r=0

or [(1 − x2 )y′ ]′ + n(n + 1)y = 0 (1.17) By writing each series in the expanded form and
arranging each power of x in a column, we have
which arises in boundary value problems having
2 · 1 a2 + 3 · 2 a3 x + 4 · 3 a4 x 2 + · · · +
spherical symmetry. Here n is a real constant. We
can put Eq. (1.17) in the standard form (r + 2)(r + 1) ar+2 xr + · · · − 2 · 1a2 x2 − · · · −

2x ′ n(n + 1) r(r − 1)ar · xr − · · · − 2 · 1a1 x − 2 · 2a2 x2 − · · ·

′′
y − y + y=0 (1.18) − 2r · ar · xr − · · · n(n + 1)a0 + n(n + 1)a1 x
1 − x2 1 − x2
3 Adrien Marie Legendre (1752–1833), French mathematician, + n(n + 1)a2 x2 + · · · + n(n + 1)ar · xr + · · · = 0
who became a professor in Paris in 1775 made important contri-
butions to special functions, elliptic integrals, number theory and
Since Eq. (1.19) is a solution of Eq. (1.17), this must
the calculus of variations. His book Elements de Geometrie (1794) be an identity in x. So, the sum of the coefficients of
became very famous and had 12 editions in less than 30 years. each power of x must be zero. This implies that

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-18 — #18

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1-18 Engineering Mathematics III

2a2 + n(n + 1)a0 = 0 for coefficients of x0 The two series converge for |x| < 1, if they are
(1.22) non-terminating. Since y1 contains only the even
6a3 + [−2 + n(n + 1)]a1 = 0 for coefficients of x1 powers of x and y2 contains only the odd powers of x,
(1.23) the ratio y1 /y2 is not a constant so that y1 and y2 are
linearly independent. Hence Eq. (1.27) is a general
In general, when r = 2, 3, · · · solution of Eq. (1.17) in the interval −1 < x < 1.

(r + 2)(r + 1)ar+2 + [−r(r − 1) − 2r 1.10.5 Legendre Polynomials Pn (x)

+ n(n + 1)]ar = 0 (1.24) If the parameter n in Legendre’s Eq. (1.17) is a
non-negative integer n, then the right-hand side of
Simplifying the expression in square brackets, we Eq. (1.25) is zero when r = n. This implies that
obtain (n − r)(n − r + 1) so that an+2 = an+4 = · · · = 0. Hence, if n is even, y1 (x)
(n−r)(n+r+1) reduces to a polynomial of degree n, while y2 (x)
ar+2 = − ar r = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1.25) remains an infinite series.
(r+2)(r+1)
Similarly, if n is odd, y2 (x) reduces to a polynomial
This is called a recurrence relation or recursion of degree n, while y1 (x) remains an infinite series.
formula. It gives all the coefficients starting from a2 In either case, the terminating series solution (i.e.,
onwards in terms of a0 and a1 , which are considered the polynomial solution) of the Legendre’s equation,
as arbitrary constants. Thus we have multiplied by some constants are called Legendre
n(n + 1) polynomials or zonal harmonics of order n and
a2 = − a0 , are denoted by Pn (x). The series which is non-
2!
(n − 1)(n + 2) terminating is known as Legendre’s function of the
a3 = − a1 , second kind and is denoted by Qn (x). Thus, for a non-
3!
(n − 2)(n + 3) negative integer n the general solution of Legendre’s
a4 = − a2 Eq. (1.17) is
4·3
(n − 2)n(n + 1)(n + 3) y(x) = APn (x) + BQn (x) (1.30)
= a0 ,
4!
(n − 3)(n + 4) where Pn (x) is a polynomial of degree n and Qn (x)
a5 = − a3 is a non-terminating series, which is unbounded at
5·4
(n − 3)(n − 1)(n + 2)(n + 4) x = ±1.
= a1 , etc. (1.26) From Eq. (1.25), we have
5!
Substituting these coefficients in Eq. (1.19), we −(r+2)(r+1)
ar = ar+2 for r 6 (n − 2) (1.31)
obtain (n−r)(n+r+1)
y(x) = a0 y1 (x) + a1 y2 (x) (1.27) Now, all the non-vanishing coefficients may be
expressed in terms of the coefficient an of the high-
where est power of x of the polynomial. The coefficient an
n(n + 1) 2 which is still arbitrary may be chosen as an = 1 when
y1 (x) = 1 − x
2! n = 0 and
(n − 2)n(n + 1)(n + 3) 4
+ x − · · · (1.28) (2n)! 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1)
4! an = n 2
= (1.32)
2 (n!) n!
(n − 1)(n + 2) 3
and y2 (x) = x − x for n = 1, 2, . . .
3!
(n−3)(n−1)(n+2)(n+4) 5 For this choice of an , all these polynomials will
+ x −· · ·
5! have the value 1 when x = 1, i.e., Pn (1) = 1. We
(1.29) obtain from Eq. (1.31) and Eq. (1.32),

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-19 — #19

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Special Functions 1-19

n(n − 1) n(n − 1) (2n)! ∞

X
an−2 = − an = − . ⇒ ar [(m − r)(m − r − 1)xm−r−2 + {n(n + 1)
2(2n − 1) 2(2n − 1) 2n (n!)2
r=0
n(n−1)2n(2n−1)(2n−2)! − (m − r)(m − r + 1)}xm−r ] = 0
=−
2(2n−1)2n n(n−1)!n(n−1)(n−2)! ∞
X
(2n − 2)! ⇒ ar [(m−r)(m−r−1)xm−r−2 +{n2 −(m−r)2
i.e., an−2 =− n r=0
2 (n − 1)!(n − 2)!
+ n − (m − r)}xm−r ] = 0
∞
(n − 2)(n − 3) X
Similarly, an−4 = − an−2 ⇒ ar [(m−r)(m−r−1)xm−r−2 +(n−m+r)
4(2n − 3)
r=0
(2n − 4)! (n + m − r + 1)xm−r ] = 0
= n
2 2!(n−2)!(n−4)!
Equating to zero the coefficient of the highest
and, in general, when (n − 2r) ≥ 0 power of x, i.e., xm , we get a0 (n − m)(n + m + 1) = 0
(2n − 2r)! which is obtained by putting r = 0 in the coefficient
an−2r = (−1)r n (1.33)
2 r!(n − r)!(n − 2r)! of xm−r in (1.19). This implies that m = n or m =
The resulting solution of Legendre’s differential −n − 1 (∵ a0 6= 0)
equation Eq. (1.17) is called the Legendre polyno- Equating now to zero the coefficient of the next
mial of degree n, denoted by Pn (x) and is given power of x, i.e., xm−1 , we get a1 (n−m+1)(n+m) = 0
by which is obtained by putting r = 1 in the coef-
M ficient of xm−r−1 in Eq. (1.35). This implies that
X (−1)r (2n − 2r)!
Pn (x) = x2n−2r (1.34) a1 = 0 ∵ m 6= −n and m 6= n + 1
r=0
2n r!(n − r)!(n − 2r)! To obtain the recurrence relation, we equate the
coefficient of xm−r to zero:
where M = n/2 or (n − 1)/2 according as n is even (m − r + 2)(m − r + 1)ar−2 − (m − r − n)
or odd so that M is an integer.
Legendre’s equation Eq. (1.17) can also be solved (m − r + n + 1)ar = 0
as a series of descending powers of x, assuming a (m − r + 2)(m − r + 1)
∞ ⇒ ar = − ar−2
X (m − r + n)(m − r + n + 1)
solution of Eq. (1.17) in the form y = ar xm−r
r=0
r = 2, 3, 4, . . .
Differentiating w.r.t. x twice, we obtain From this relation, we see that a1 = a3 = a5 =
∞
X · · · = a2r−1 = 0.
y′ = (m − r)ar xm−r−1 ,
Case (i) m = n, We have
r=0
∞ (n − r + 2)(n − r + 1)
y′′ =
X
(m − r)(m − r − 1)ar xm−r−2 ar = ar−2
r(2n − r + 1)
r=0
Putting r = 2, 4, 6, . . . , we have
Substituting these expressions in Eq. (1.17)
n(n − 1)
∞ a2 = − a0
X 2(2n − 1)
(1 − x2 ) ar (m − r)(m − r − 1)xm−r−2 (n − 2)(n − 3)
r=0 a4 = − a2
∞ ∞ 4(2n − 3)
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)
X X
m−r−1
−2x (m−r)x + n(n + 1) ar xm−r = 0 = a0
r=0 r=0 2 · 4 · (2n − 1)(2n − 3)
∞ (n − 4)(n − 5)
a6 = − a4
X
⇒ ar [(m − r)(m − r − 1)xm−r−2 + {n(n + 1) 6(2n − 5)
r=0
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)(n − 4)(n − 5)
−(m−r)(m−r−1)−2(m−r)}xm−r ] = 0 =− a0 ,etc.
2 · 4 · 6 · (2n − 1)(2n − 3)(2n − 5)

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-20 — #20

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1-20 Engineering Mathematics III

We obtain a solution of Eq. (1.17) as 1

P4 (x) = (35x4 − 30x2 + 3)
8
n(n − 1) n−2 (n = 4, M = 2, r = 0 to 2)
y1 = a0 xn − x
2(2n − 1) 1
P5 (x) = (63x5 − 70x3 + 15x)
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) n−4 8
+ x − ··· (n = 5, M = 2, r = 0 to 2)
2 · 4 · (2n − 1)(2n − 3)
1
1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1) P6 (x) = [231x6 − 315x4 + 105x2 − 5]
If we choose a0 as a0 = the 16
n! (n = 6, M = 3, r = 0 to 3) (1.35)
first solution y1 is obtained and is called Legendre’s
polynomial and is denoted by Pn (x). This is called
the Legendre’s function of the first kind of degree n. Pn(x) P0
1
Case (ii) m = −n − 1, In this case,
P1
(n + r − 1)(n + r)
ar = ar−2
r(2n + r + 1)
Putting r = 2, 4, 6 · · · P4

(n + 1)(n + 2) –1 P3 1 x
a2 = a0
2(2n + 3)
(n + 3)(n + 4) P2
a4 = a2
4(2n + 5)
–1
(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)(n + 4)
= a0 , · · ·
2 · 4 · (2n + 3)(2n + 5)
∞
Figure 1.3 Legendre Polynomials
X
∴ y2 = ar x−n−1−r Rodrigues’ 4 Formula for Legendre
r=0
Polynomials Pn (x)
(n + 1)(n + 2) −n−3
= a0 x−n−1 + x Example 1.27
2(2n + 3)
1 dn
(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)(n+4) −n−5 Show that Pn (x) = [(x2 −1)n ] (n ∈ N) (1)
+ x + ··· n!2n dxn
2 · 4 · (2n+3)(2n+5)
Solution Let y = (x2 − 1)n . Then
n!
Choosing a0 = the second dy
1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n + 1) y1 = = n(x2 − 1)n−1 2x
solution y2 of Legendre’s Eq. (1.17) is obtained and dx
it is called Legendre’s function of the second kind dy
⇒ −(1 − x2 ) = 2nx(x2 − 1)n = 2nxy
of degree n and is denoted by Qn (x). The general dx
solution of Legendre’s Eq. (1.17) is y = APn (x) + 2 dy
⇒ (1 − x ) + 2nxy = 0 (2)
BQn (x), where A and B are arbitrary constants. dx
The first few Legendre polynomials are shown in Differentiating Eq. (2) (n + 1) times using Leib-
Fig. 1.3 nitz’s theorem, we have
P0 (x) = 1 (n = 0, M = 0) (1 − x2 )yn+2 + (n + 1)(−2x)yn+1 − (n + 1)nyn
P1 (x) = x (n = 1, M = 0) + 2n[xyn+1 + (n + 1) · 1 · yn ] = 0
1 2 d 2v dv
P2 (x) = (3x − 1) (n = 2, M = 1, r = 0 to 1) or (1−x2 ) 2
−2x +n(n+1)v = 0 (where v = yn )
2 dx dx
1 3 4 Olinde Rodrigues (1794–1851) was a French mathematician
P3 (x) = (5x − 3x) (n = 3, M = 1, r = 0 to 1)
2 and economist

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Special Functions 1-21

which is Legendre’s differential equation having where u = 2xt − t 2 .

Pn (x) and Qn (x) as solutions. ∞
dn
X 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2m − 1)
Since v = yn = n [(x2 − 1)n ] contains positive =1+ (2xt − t 2 )m . (1)
dx m=1
2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2m)
powers of x only, v must be a constant multiple of
Pn (x). Now, um = t m (2x−t)m
dn
Let Pn (x) = Cv = Cyn = C n (x2 − 1)n m(m−1)
dx = t m [(2x)m − m(2x)m−1 +
= CDn [(x − 1)n (x + 1)n ] 2!
· (2x)m−2 · t 2 + · · · + (−1)m t m ]
= C[Dn (x − 1)n · (x + 1)n
+ n C1 · Dn−1 (x − 1)n · (x + 1)n−1 Substituting in Eq. (1), we get
+ · · · + (x − 1)n · Dn (x + 1)n ] X∞
1·3·5· · ·(2m−1)
2 −1/2
(1−2xt +t ) = 1+ [(2x)m t m
= C[n!(x + 1)n + terms containing 2·4·6· · ·(2m)
m=1
(x − 1) as a factor] m(m−1)
−m(2x)m−1 ·t m+1 +
Putting x = 1, we get 2!
1 ·(2x)m−2 t m+2 +· · ·+(−1)m t 2m . (2)
1 = Pn (1) = C(n!2n ) ⇒ C =
n!2n
1 dn Thus, the coefficient of t n in the expansion of
∴ Pn (x) = [(x2 − 1)n ] 1
(1 − 2xt + t 2 )− 2 is
n!2n dxn
Note 1·3·· · ·(2n−1) 1·3· · ·(2n−3)
1. The first few Legendre polynomials obtained (2x)n − (n−1)(2x)n−2
2·4· · ·(2n) 2·4· · ·(2n−2)
earlier can also be obtained using Rodrigues’ 1 · 3 · · · (2n − 5) (n − 2)(n − 3)
formula. + (2x)n−4 + · · ·
2 · 4 · · · (2n − 4) 2!
2. Any polynomial f (x) of degree n can be expressed
as a linear combination of Legendre polynomials 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1) n n(n − 1) n−2
n
= x − x
X n! 2 · (2n − 1)
Pn (x) as f (x) = Cm Pm (x) n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) n−4

m=0 + x − · · · = Pn (x)
2 · 4 · (2n − 1)(2n − 3)
1.10.6 Generating Function for X∞
2 −1/2
Legendre Polynomials Pn (x) ∴ (1 − 2xt + t ) = t n Pn (x). (3)
n=0
Generating function: Let < fn (x) > be a sequence
of functions. A function w(t, x) is called a gener-
ating function for the functions fn (x) if w(t, x) = 1.10.7 Recurrence Relations of
∞
X Legendre Functions
fn (x)t n .
Example 1.29
n=−∞
Show that the following recurrence relations are
Example 1.28 satisfied by the Legendre polynomials Pn (x):
P∞
Show that (1 − 2xt + t 2 )−1/2 = n=0 t n Pn (x).
RR1: (2n + 1)xPn (x) = (n + 1)Pn+1 (x) + nPn−1 (x)
Solution We have, by binomial theorem, RR2: nPn (x) = xPn′ (x) − Pn−1
′
(x)
−1/2 1
(1−2xt +t 2 ) = (1 − u)− 2 ′ ′
RR3: (2n + 1)Pn (x) = Pn+1 (x) − Pn−1 (x)
1 1·3 2 1·3·5 3 ′ ′
= 1+ u+ u + u +· · · RR4: Pn (x) = xPn−1 (x) + nPn−1 (x)
2 2·4 2·4·6
1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2m − 1) m RR5: (1 − x2 )Pn′ (x) = n[Pn−1 (x) − xPn (x)]
+ u +· · ·
2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2m) RR6: (1 − x2 )Pn′ (x) = (n + 1)[xPn (x) − Pn+1 (x)]

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1-22 Engineering Mathematics III

= 3 · [P3 (x)P2 (y) − P3 (y)P2 (x)] ⇒π n

t Pn (x) = (1 − tu)−1 dθ
n=0 0
− 2 · [P2 (x)P1 (y) − P2 (y)P1 (x)] (6) p
[where u = x ± x2 − 1 cos θ]
··· ··· Z πX∞
(2n − 1)(x − y)Pn−1 (x)Pn−1 (y) = (tu)n dθ
0
= n[Pn (x)Pn−1 (y)−Pn (y)Pn−1 (x)]− n=0
π Z π
(n−1)[Pn−1 (x)Pn−2 (y) − Pn−1 (y)Pn−2 (x)] (7) X p
= t n (x ± x2 − 1 cos θ)n dθ
(2n + 1)(x − y)Pn (x)Pn (y) n=0 0

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1-26 Engineering Mathematics III

√
Equating the coefficients of t n , where u = t[x ± x2 − 1 cos θ]
Z π
1 −1
n Z π Z π
p 1 1 1 1
πPn (x) = x ± x2 − 1 cos θ dθ = 1− dθ = 1+ + 2 +· · · dθ
0 0 u u 0 u u u
1 π
Z n !
p Z π X ∞
or Pn (x) = x ± x2 − 1 cos θ dθ. 1
π 0 = n+1
dθ
0 n=0
u
Example 1.37 ∞ Z π
X dθ
Show that = √
Z π n=0 0
t (x ± x2 − 1 cos θ)n+1
n+1
1
Pn (cos φ) = (cos φ + i sin φ cos θ)n dθ
π 0
1
Equating the coefficients of on both sides
t n+1
Solution Laplace’s first integral for Pn (x) is Z π
dθ
1 π
Z p n πPn (x) = √
Pn (x) = x ± x2 − 1 cos θ dθ 0 (x ± x − 1 cos θ)n+1
2
π 0 1
Z π
dθ
√ or Pn (x) = √
π 0 (x ± x − 1 cos θ)n+1
p 2
Putpx = cos φ then x2 − 1 = cos2 φ − 1 =
√
−1 1 − cos2 φ = i sin φ ∵ P−(n+1) = Pn (x)

1 π
Z
∴ Pn (cos φ) = (cos φ + i sin φ cos θ)dθ. 1.10.15 Expansion of f (x) ina Series
π 0
of Legendre Polynomials
Example 1.39
1.10.14 Laplace’s Second Integral Let f (x) be expressible in a series of Legendre
for Pn (x) polynomials. Thus
Example 1.38
∞
Prove that X
Z π f (x) = Cn Pn (x)
1 p −n−1 n=0
Pn (x) = x± x2 −1 cos θ dθ (n ∈ N)
π 0 = C0 P0 (x)+C1 P1 (x)+· · ·+Cn Pn (x)+· · · (1)
Solution We know that where Cn are constants to be determined.
Z π
dθ π Then multiplying both sides by Pn (x) and integrat-
=√ (a2 > b2 ) ing w.r.t. x from −1 to 1, we get
0 a ± b cos θ a − b2
2
Z 1 Z 1
√ f (x)Pn (x)dx = [C0 P0 (x) + C1 P1 (x)
Let a = tx − 1 and b = t x2 − 1. Then −1 −1

1 1
+ · · · + Cn Pn (x) + · · · ]Pn (x)dx
2 2 2 2
a − b = 1 − 2xt + t = t − 2x + 1 Z 1
t2 t 2
= Cn Pn2 (x)dx = Cn ·
−1 2n + 1
1 −1/2

π 1 2n + 1 1
Z
∴ 1 − 2x + 2 ⇒ Cn = f (x)Pn (x)dx
t t t 2 −1
Z π p
= (−1 + tx ± t x2 − 1 cos θ)−1 dθ Z 1
0 ∵ Pm (x)Pn (x)dx = 0 if m 6= n
−1
∞ n Z π
π X 1 Z 1
2
⇒ Pn (x) = (u − 1)−1 dθ, Pn2 (x)dx = if m = n.
t n=0
t 0 2n + 1
−1

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Special Functions 1-27

Example 1.40 Example 1.42

Show that P0 (x) = 1, P1 (x) = x, P2 (x) = 21 (3x2 − 1) Using Rodrigues’ formula prove that
Z 1
and hence express 2x2 − 4x + 2 in terms of Legendre
xm Pn (x)dx = 0 if m < n.
polynomials. [JNTU 2003S] −1

Solution From Rodrigues’ formula Solution Rodrigues’ formula for Pn (x) is

1 dn 2
1 dn 2 Pn (x) = n (x − 1)n
Pn (x) = n (x − 1)n 2 n! dxn
2 n! dxn Z 1 Z 1
1 dn
Taking n = 0, 1, 2 we have ⇒ xm Pn (x)dx = n xm n (x2 − 1)n dx
2 n! −1 dx
d0 −1
P0 (x) = 0 (x2 − 1)0 = 1, 1
Z 1
dx = n xm Dn (x2 − 1)n dx
1 d 2 2 n! −1
P1 (x) = 1 (x − 1) = x, dn
2 1! dx where Dn = n
1 d2 2 dx
P2 (x) = 2 (x − 1)2 Z 1
2 2! dx2 1
= n xm D[Dn−1 (x2 −1)n ]dx
1 d 2 n! −1
⇒ P2 (x) = [2(x2 − 1) · 2x]
8 dx 1
1 d 3 1 = n [xm Dn−1 (x2 −1)n ]1−1
= (x − x) = (3x2 − 1) 2 n!
Z 1
2 dx 2
1 − mxm−1 Dn−1 (x2 −1)n dx
⇒ x2 = [2P2 (x) + 1] −1
3
(by integration by parts).
1
= [2P2 (x) + P0 (x)] ∵ P0 (x) = 1 m
Z 1
3 = 0− n xm−1 Dn−1 (x2 −1)n dx
2 2 2 n! −1
∴ 2x −4x+2 = [2P2 (x)+P0 (x)]−4P1 (x)+2P0 (x)
3 (∵ Dn−1 (x2 − 1)n contains (x2 − 1) as a factor)
4
= [P2 (x) − 3P1 (x) + 2P0 (x)]. Proceeding similarly, integrating by parts (n − 1)
3 times,
Z 1 we get
(−1)n m 1 2
Z
m
Example 1.41 x Pn (x)dx = n (x −1)n Dn−1 (xm−1 )dx = 0
−1 2 n! −1
Express x3 + 2x2 − x − 3 in terms if Legendre poly-
nomials. [JNTU 2004S (Set 1)] [∵ Dm−1 (xm−1 ) = 0 if m < n]
Z 1
Solution We have P0 (x) = 1, P1 (x) = x, ⇒ xm Pn (x)dx = 0 if m < n.
1 2 1 −1
P2 (x) = (3x − 1), P3 (x) = (5x3 − 3x)
2 2 Example 1.43
2 3 2 3 Prove that (1 − 2xt + t 2)−1/2 is a solution of the
⇒ x3 = P3 (x) + x = P3 (x) + P1 (x) ∂2 (tu) ∂

5 5 5 5 2 ∂u
equation t + (1 − x ) = 0.
1 ∂t 2 ∂x ∂x
x2 = [2P2 (x) + P0 (x)] x = P1 (x)
3 Solution We know that ∞
X
3 2 2 3 4 (1 − 2xt + t 2 )−1/2 = t n Pn (x).
∴ x + 2x − x − 3 = P3 (x)+ P1 (x)+ P2 (x)
5 5 3 n=0
2
+ P0 (x)−P1 (x)−3P0 (x) Denoting each side by u, we have
3 X∞
2 4 2 7 tu = t n+1 Pn .
= P3 (x) + P2 (x) − P1 (x) − P0 (x).
5 3 5 3 n=0

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1-28 Engineering Mathematics III

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
∂2 (tu) X n ∂u X n ′ X X
⇒t = n(n+1)t Pn and = t P (1) = Pn+1 (x)t n + Pn (x)t n ,
∂t 2 n=0
∂x n=0 n n=0 n=0
" ∞
#
∂

2 ∂u

∂ 2
X
n ′
replacing n by (n + 1) in the first summation
∴ (1 − x ) = (1 − x ) t Pn ∞
∂x ∂x ∂x X
n=0
= [Pn (x) + Pn+1 (x)]t n .
∞ ∞
X X n=0
= (1 − x2 ) t n Pn′′ − 2x t n Pn′ (2)
n=0 n=0 Example 1.45
Expand f (x) in a series of Legendre polynomials if
From Eqs. (1) and (2) we have
∂2 (tu)
(
∂ 2 ∂u x, 0<x<1
t + (1 − x ) f (x) =
∂t 2 ∂x ∂x 0, −1 < x < 0
X∞
= n(n + 1)t n Pn + (1 − x2 ) Solution Let f (x) = C0 P0 (x) + C1 P1 (x) + · · · +
n=0 Cn Pn (x) + · · · . Then
∞ ∞
X X Z 1
· t n Pn′′ − 2x t n Pn′ 2n + 1
Cn = f (x)Pn (x)dx
n=0 n=0 2 −1
∞ Z 0 Z 1
X 2n + 1
= t n [n(n+1)Pn −2xPn′ +(1−x2 )Pn′′ ] = 0, = 0·Pn (x)dx+ xPn (x)dx
n=0
2 −1 0
Z 1
2n + 1
since Pn satisfies Legendre’s equation: = xPn (x)dx
(1 − x2 )y′′ − 2xy′ + n(n + 1)y = 0. 2 0

1 1
Z
1
Example 1.44 n = 0, C0 = xdx =
∞ 2 0 4
1+t 1 X
Prove that √ − = [Pn (x)+Pn+1 (x)]t n 3 1 2
Z
1
t 1−2xt +t 2 t n=0 n = 1, C1 = x dx =
2 0 2
[JNTU 2005S (Set 4)]
5 1x
Z
5
n = 2, C2 = (3x2 − 1)dx = and so on.
Solution Since ∞
2 0 2 16
1 X
(1 − 2xt + t 2 )− 2 = Pn (x)t n (1) EXERCISE 1.3
n=0
1+t 1 1
∴ √ − 1. Show that (a) Pn′ (1) = n(n + 1);
t 1 − 2xt + t 2 t 2
n
1 1 1 1 (b) Pn′ (−1) = (−1)n−1 (n + 1).
= (1 − 2xt + t 2 )− 2 + (1 − 2xt + t 2 )− 2 − 2
t t [Hint: Use generating functions or (1−x2 )Pn′′ −
∞ ∞
1 X X 1 2xPn′ + n(n + 1)Pn = 0]
= Pn (x)t n + Pn (x)t n − by Eq. (1)
t n=0 t Z 1 (
n=0 0 n 6= 0
∞
! ∞ 2. Show that Pn (x)dx = .
1 X
n
X 1 −1 2 n=0
= P0 (x) + Pn t + Pn (x)t n −
t t [Hint: Use orthogonal property. ]
n=1 n=0
∞ ∞ 1
1 1X X 1 3. Show that x5 = [8P5 (x)+28P3 (x)+27P1 (x)].
= + Pn (x)t n + Pn (x)t n − ∵ P0 (x) = 1 63
t t n=1 n=0
t
∞ ∞ (−1)n (2n)!
X X 4. Show that (a) P2n (0) = ;
= Pn (x)t n−1 + Pn (x)t n 22n (n!)2
n=1 n=0 (b) P2n+1 (0) = 0. [JNTU 2006 (Set 2)]

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Special Functions 1-29

1
2t n
Z
a real (or complex) constant. Here we assume p to be
5. Show that (1−2xt+t 2 )−1/2 Pn (x)dx = .
−1 2t +1 real non-negative number.
As mentioned earlier, Eq. (1.40) can be solved by
6. Z
Show that
π
1·3·5· · ·(2n−1) the method of Frobenius. Writing Eq. (1.40) in the
Pn (cos φ)cos nφdφ = . standard form we have
0 2·4·6· · ·2n
p2

Z
′′ 1 ′
7. Show that (Pn+1 − Pn−1 )/(2n+1) = Pn dx + c. y + y + 1− 2 y =0 (1.41)
x x
Z 1
2n We assume a solution of Eq. (2) in the form
8. Show that xPn (x)Pn−1 (x)dx = .
−1 −1 4n2 ∞
X
[Hint: Use recurrence relation RR1 and y(x) = ar xm+r
orthogonal property.] r=0
Z 1 = xm (a0 + a1 x + · · · + ar xr + · · · ) (1.42)
9. Show that x2 Pn+1 (x)Pn−1 (x)dx =
−1 Differentiating Eq. (1.42) w.r.t. x twice, we get
2n(n+1)
. [JNTU 2003S (Set 4)] ∞
(2n−1)(2n+1)(2n+3) X
[Hint: Use RR1] y′ (x) = (m + r)ar xm+r−1 (1.43)
r=0
10. Show that 2P3 (x)+3P1 (x) = 5x3 . X∞

[JNTU 2006 (Set 3)] y′′ (x) = (m + r)(m + r − 1)ar xm+r−2 (1.44)
r=0

1.11 Bessel Functions Substituting Eqs. (1.42)–(1.44) into Eq. (1.40) we

1.11.1 Introduction obtain
X
Bessel functions are solutions of Bessel’s differential [(m + r)(m + r − 1) + (m + r) − p2 ]ar xm+r
equation which arises in the solution of Laplace’s X
equation in cylindrical coordinates. It occurs in many + ar xm+r+2 = 0. (1.45)
boundary value problems arising in electrical fields,
mechanical vibrations and heat conduction. Equation (1.45) must be identically satisfied. This
implies that the coefficient of each power of x must
be zero.
1.11.2 Bessel Functions The lowest power of x is xm obtained for r = 0.
The second order linear differential equation Equating to zero the coefficient of xm , we get the
indicial equation
x2 y′′ + xy′ + (x2 − p2 )y = 0
1 d

dy

p2
m2 − p2 = 0 ⇒ m = p or − p ∵ a0 6= 0 (1.46)
or x + 1− 2 y =0 (1.40)
x dx dx x Equating to zero the coefficient of xm+1 , we obtain
is called Bessel’s5 equation of order p. Its particular [(m + 1)2 − p2 ]a1 = 0 ⇒ a1 = 0 ∵ (m + 1)2 6= p2
solutions are called Bessel functions of order p. p is
5 Named after the German mathematician and astronomer Generally equating to zero the coefficient of
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784-1846) whose paper on Bessel xm+r+2 , we get the coefficient recurrence relation
functions dated 1824 appeared in 1826. He started out as an
apprentice of a trade company studying astronomy on his own [(m + r + 2)2 − p2 ]ar+2 + ar = 0
in his spare time, later became an assistant at a small pri- ar
vate observatory and finally became director of new Konigsberg ⇒ar+2 = − (1.47)
observatory. (m−p+r+2)(m+p+r+2)

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Special Functions 1-33

X (−1)r x n+2r ∞
(−1)r x2r
= (−1)n
X
r!(n + r)! 2 ⇒ x−n Jn (x) =
r=0
2n+2r r!Ŵ(n
+ r + 1)
n
= (−1) Jn (x) = J−n (x) (4) ∞
d −n X (−1)r−1 x2r−1
The result follows from Eqs. (2), (3) and (4). ⇒ [x · Jn (x)] = −
dx r=1
2n+2r−1 (r − 1)!
Ŵ(n + 1 + r)
1.11.9 Recurrence Relations of ∞
Bessel Functions
X (−1)s
= −x−n
Example 1.47 s=0
s!Ŵ(n + 1 + s + 1)
The following recurrence relations connect Bessel x n+1+2s
×
functions of different orders and are very useful in 2
solving problems involving Bessel functions. These = −x−n Jn+1 (x),
relations are true for general p but we prove them
replacing r − 1 by s.
taking p = n.
d To prove RR3
RR1: (xn Jn (x)) = xn Jn−1 (x)
dx n
d Jn′ (x) + Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x)
RR2: (x−n Jn (x)) = −x−n Jn+1 (x) x
dx d n
n RR1 ⇒ (x Jn (x)) = xn Jn−1 (x)
RR3: Jn′ (x) + Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x) dx
x ⇒ xn Jn′ (x) + nxn−1 Jn (x) = xn Jn−1 (x)
′ n n
RR4: Jn (x) − Jn (x) = Jn+1 (x) ⇒ Jn′ (x) + Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x),
x x
′
RR5: 2Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x) − Jn+1 (x) on dividing by xn .
2n
RR6: Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x) + Jn+1 (x) To prove RR4
x
n
Solution Jn′ (x) − Jn (x) = −Jn+1 (x)
To prove RR1 x
d −n
d n RR2 ⇒ (x Jn (x)) = −x−n Jn+1 (x)
(x Jn (x)) = xn Jn−1 (x) dx
dx ⇒ x−n Jn′ (x) − nx−n−1 Jn (x) = −x−n Jn+1 (x)
∞
X (−1)r x n+2r
n
We know that Jn (x) = ⇒ Jn′ (x) − Jn (x) = −Jn+1 (x),
r=0
r!Ŵ(n + r + 1) 2 x
∞
X (−1)r x2n+2r on dividing by x−n .
⇒ xn Jn (x) =
r=0
2n+2r r!(n
+ r)Ŵ(n + r) To prove RR5
∞ r 2n+2r−1
d n X (−1) x 2Jn′ (x) = Jn−1 (x) − Jn+1 (x)
⇒ [x Jn (x)] = n+2r−1
dx 2 r!Ŵ(n + r) n
r=0 Adding RR3 ⇒ Jn′ (x) + Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x)
= xn Jn−1 (x). x
′ n
and RR4 ⇒ Jn (x) − Jn (x) = −Jn+1 (x)
To prove RR2 x
d −n We get 2Jn′ (x) = Jn−1 (x) − Jn+1 (x).
(x Jn (x)) = −x−n Jn+1 (x)
dx To prove RR6
∞
X (−1)r x n+2r
We know that Jn (x) = n
r!Ŵ(n + r + 1) 2 2 Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x) + Jn+1 (x)
r=0 x

In this case, the RHS of Eq. (5) assumes the indeter-
Z
minate form 00 . Hence we apply L’ Hospital’s Rule by xJ0 (x)dx = xJ1 (x) + c

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Special Functions 1-37

Recurrence relation RR2 is Put t = eiθ

d −p iθ −e−iθ )/2
(x Jp (x)) = −x−p Jp+1 (x) ex(e = J0 +(eiθ −e−iθ )J1 +(e2iθ +e−2iθ )J2 +· · ·
dx
⇒ eix sin θ = J0 + (2i sin θ)J1 + (2 cos 2θ)J2 + · · ·
Integrating both sides, we have
Z Separating the real and imaginary parts we have
x−p Jp+1 (x)dx = −x−p Jp (x) + c
cos(x sin θ) = J0 + 2 cos 2θJ2 + 2 cos 4θJ4 + · · ·
For p = 0 we get sin (x sin θ) = 2 sin θJ1 +2 sin 3θJ3 +2 sin 5θJ5 +· · ·
Z
J1 (x)dx = −J0 (x) + c. Putting θ = π/2, we get

cos x =J0 − 2J2 + 2J4 + · · ·

R
In general, xm Jn (x)dx for m and n integer with
m + n ≥ 0 can be integrated by parts completely if sin x =2(J1 − J3 + J5 − · · · ).
m + n is odd.
But when m+n Example 1.54
R is even the integral depends on the
residual integral J0 (x)dx which has been tabulated. Find series expansions for J0 (x) and J1 (x).
Integrating,
1 Solution We know that
Jp′ (x) = [Jp−1 (x) − Jp+1 (x)]
Z2 Z ∞
X (−1)r x n+2r
Jn (x) =
We get 2Jp (x) = Jp−1 (x)dx − Jp+1 (x)dx r!(n + r)! 2
r=0
Z Z
or Jp+1 (x)dx = Jp−1 (x)dx − 2Jp (x). Putting n = 0 we get
∞
X (−1)r x
J0 (x) = 2r
1.11.14 Expansion of Sine and r=0
(r!)2 2
Cosine in Terms of Bessel 1 x2 1 x4 1 x6
Functions = 1− + − +· · ·
(1!)2 2 (2!)2 2 (3!)2 2
Example 1.53
Show that (i) cos x = J0 − 2J2 + 2J4 − · · · Putting n = 1 we get
(ii) sin x = 2(J1 − J3 + J5 − · · · ). ∞
X (−1)r x 2r+1
J1 (x) =
Solution We know that r=0
r!(r + 1)! 2
∞
x 1 x 2 1 x 4 1

x 1 X
e 2 t− t = t n Jn (x) = 1− + −
n=−∞
2 1!2! 2 2!3! 2 3!4!
x 6
−1 ∞
X X + ··· .
= t n Jn (x) + J0 (x) + t n Jn (x) 2
−∞ 1
∞ Example 1.55
Express J5 (x) in terms of J0 (x) and J1 (x).
X
= J0 (x) + [t −n J−n (x) + t n Jn (x)]
n=1
Solution
1 1
= J0 (x)+ t − J1 (x)+ t 2 + 2 J2 (x)+· · · 2n
t t RR6: Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x) + Jn+1 (x)
X∞ x
= J0 (x) + (t n + (−1)n t −n )Jn (x) 2n
⇒ Jn+1 (x) = Jn (x) − Jn−1 (x) (1)
n=1 x

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1-38 Engineering Mathematics III

Putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4 we get Example 1.57

2 Prove that
J2 = J1 − J0 (2)
x (i) J−n (x) = (−1)n Jn (x)
4 (ii) Jn (−x) = (−1)n Jn (x)
J3 = J2 − J1 (3)
x (iii) Jn (x) is an even or odd function of x according
6 as n is even or odd.
J4 = J3 − J2 (4)
x
8 Solution
J5 = J4 − J3 (5) (i) We know that for any non-negative real p,
x
∞
where the argument x has been omitted for conve- X (−1)r x p+2r
Jp (x) = (1)
nience. Substituting from Eq. (2), Eq. (3) becomes r!Ŵ(p + r + 1) 2
r=0
4 2 8 4
J3 = J1 −J0 −J1 = 2 −1 J1 − J0 (6) Let p = −n where n is a positive integer. Then
x x x x
∞
Substituting Eqs. (6) and (2) into Eq. (4)
X (−1)r x −n+2r
J−n (x) = (2)
r!Ŵ(−n + r + 1) 2

6 8 4 2 r=0
J4 = − 1 J 1 − J 0 − J1 − J0
x x2 x x Since lim Ŵ(t) = ∞, as t → 0 or a negative integer,

48 8 24 each term in the above summation is zero as long as
= − J1 + 1 − 2 J0 (7)
x3 x x
−n + r + 1 ≤ 0 (3)
Substituting Eqs. (7) and (6) into Eq. (5),
8

48 8

24
i.e., as long as r ≤ (n − 1). So, the summation
J5 = − J1 + 1 − 2 J0 starts with r = n,
x x3 x x
∞
(−1)r x −n+2r

8 4 X
− − 1 J1 − J0 J−n (x) =
x2 x r=n
r!Ŵ(−n + r + 1) 2

384 72 12 192 ∞
(−1)s x n+2s
⇒ J5 = − 2 − 1 J1 + − 3 J0 . = (−1)n
X
x4 x x x (n + s)!s! 2
s=0
Example 1.56
where s = r − n or r = n + s
Express J5/2 (x) in terms of sine and cosine functions.
= (−1)n Jn (x). (4)
2n
Solution RR6: Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x)+Jn+1 (x) (ii) Let n be a non-negative integer.
x Replacing x by −x, we have
3 3
Put n = we get J3/2 (x) = J 1 (x) + J5/2 (x) ∞
2 x 2 X (−1)r
n+2r
−x
3 Jn (−x) =
⇒ J5/2 (x) = J3/2 (x) − J1/2 (x) r!Ŵ(n + r + 1) 2
x r=0
∞
r r
3 2 sin x 2 X (−1)r x n+2r
= · − cos x − sin x = (−1)n ,
x πx x πx r!Ŵ(n + r + 1) 2
r r=0
3 − x2

2 3 ∵ (−1)n+2r = (−1)n (−1)2r = (−1)n
= sin x − cos x
πx x2 x ⇒ Jn (−x) = (−1)n Jn (x). (5)
r r
2 2
J 1 (x) = sin x; J− 1 (x) = cos x Let n be a negative integer and n = −m where m
2 πx 2 πx is a positive integer. Then
r
2 sin x
J3/2 (x) = − cos x . Jn (x) = J−m (x) = (−1)m Jm (x) (6)
πx x

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Functions of a Complex
Variable 2
2.1 Introduction z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 )
Many engineering problems can be solved using = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) (2.2)
Complex Variable Theory. Some of the elementary Multiplication is defined by
problems dealing with applications to electric
circuits or mechanical vibrating systems need z1 · z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 )
only elementary knowledge of complex analysis. = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) (2.3)
Advanced problems in heat conduction, fluid flow
In particular, these two definitions imply that
and electrostatics require knowledge of complex
analysis. (x1 , 0) + (x2 , 0) = (x1 + x2 , 0) and
Equations such as x2 = −1 have
√ no solutions in (x1 , 0) (x2 , 0) = (x1 x2 , 0)
real variables. By defining i = −1 as a complex
as for real numbers x1 and x2 . Hence the complex
unit, the system of real numbers can be extended to
numbers extend the reals. We can write
the complex number system.
(x, 0) = x, (0, y) = iy, (x, y ∈ R) (2.4)
2.2 Complex Numbers–Complex ∵ iy = (0, 1)(y, 0)
Plane = (0 · y − 1 · 0, 0 · 0 + 1 · y)
A complex number z is an ordered pair of real num- = (0, y).
bers x and y written as z = (x, y). Here x is called the
Since (x, y) = (x, 0) + (0, y) = x + iy it has great
real part and y the imaginary part of z. We write
practical advantage to write z = x + iy. If x = 0 then
x = Re z, y = Im z
z = iy and is called a pure imaginary number. Also
Equality of two complex numbers Eqs. (2.1) and (2.3) give
Two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) i2 = i · i = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1 (2.5)
are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and By the standard notation, addition may be done as
their imaginary parts are equal, i.e., follows:
x1 = x2 , y1 = y2
(x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )
Imaginary unit
Multiplication can be done in the usual way noting
(0, 1) is called the imaginary unit and is denoted that i2 = −1
by i.
(x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
i = (0, 1) (2.1)
Real and imaginary parts
Addition and multiplication Let z1 = 3 − 4i; z2 = −5 + i.
Addition of two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 )and Then Re z1 = 3 Im z1 = −4
z2 = (x2 , y2 ) is defined by Re z2 = −5 Im z2 = 1

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2-2 Engineering Mathematics III

Sum and product Imaginary axis

z1 + z2 = (3 − 4i) + (−5 + i) = −2 − 3i
z = x + iy
z1 z2 = (3 − 4i)(−5 + i)
y
= (−15 + 4) + i(3 + 20) = −11 + 23i
O x
Real axis
Subtraction and division

Subtraction and division are inverse operations of y

addition and multiplication.
z1 + z2
Let z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ). The differ- z2
ence z1 − z2 is the complex number z = (x, y) such
that z1
O x
z + z2 = z1 ⇒ (x, y) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 , y1 )
Addition of complex
⇒ (x + x2 , y + y2 ) = (x1 , y1 ) numbers
⇒ x + x2 = x1 , y + y2 = y1 y
⇒ (x, y) = (x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 ). 3 + i 2.5

(x + iy) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + iy1 )

⇒ x + x2 = x1 , y + y2 = y1 O x
⇒ x = x1 − x2 , y = y1 − y2 The number 3 + i 2.5 in
the complex plane
⇒ z = z1 − z2
y
= (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 ).
z2
The quotient z1 /z2 (z2 6 = 0) is the complex number
z such that zz2 = z1 z1

O x
(x + iy)(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + iy1 )
z1 – z2
⇒ xx2 − yy2 = x1 , xy2 + yx2 = y1
–z2 Subtraction of complex
xx2 − yy2 = x1 |x2 |y2 numbers
xy2 + yx2 = y1 |y2 |x2
Figure 2.1
x(x22 + y22 ) = x1 x2 + y1 y2
y(x22 + y22 ) = x2 y1 − x1 y2 Difference and quotient

Let z1 = 3 − 2i and z2 = 4 + i
Solving z = (x, y)
z = z1 − z2 = (3 − 2i) − (4 + i) = −1 − 3i
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
= 2 2
+i 2 z1 3 − 2i 4 − i 12 + (−2)(−1)
x2 + y2 x2 + y22 = =
z2 4+i 4−i 42 + 12
In practice, we do as follows: −8 − 3 14 (−11)
+i· 2 = +i
z1 x1 + iy1 x2 − iy2 4 + 12 17 17
= ·
z2 x2 + iy2 x2 − iy2 Complex numbers satisfy
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2 1. closure
= 2 2
+i 2 2. commutative
x2 + y2 x2 + y22

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Functions of a Complex Variable 2-3

3. associative If z is real, z = x, then z̄ = z. Conversely if z̄ = z

4. existence of identity and then z is real and z = x.
5. existence of inverse
laws w.r.t the operations of addition and multiplica- 1. (z1 + z2 ) = z̄1 +z̄2
tion and also the distributive laws as real numbers
Conjugate of sum = Sum of conjugates
and form a field.
Q, R, C are fields; Q, R satisfy order relation‘<’; 2. (z1 − z2 ) = z̄1 −z̄2
R is complete ordered field. No such order relation
exists in C. Conjugate of difference = Difference of conjugates
There is one-one correspondence between the set
of reals R and points in a line, and the set of complex 3. (z1 z2 ) = z̄1 · z̄2
numbers C and the points in a plane.
Conjugate of product = Product of conjugates
Geometrical Representation of
4. (z1 /z2 ) = z̄1 /z̄2
Complex Numbers
Complex plane or Argand plane Conjugate of quotient = Quotient of conjugates
Choose two perpendicular lines, the horizon-
tal line called the real axis and the vertical Example 2.1
line called the imaginary axis. Thus we have a Let z1 = 2 − 3i, z2 = 4 + 5i
cartesian coordinate system. Plot a given complex
1 1
number z = (x, y) = x + iy as a point P with coor- Im z1 = (z1 − z̄1 ) = [(2 − 3i) − (2 + 3i)] = 3
dinates x and y. 2i 2i
Addition and subtraction can be visualized as (z1 z2 ) = (2 − 3i)(4 + 5i) = (23 − 2i) = 23 + 2i
shown above (Fig. 2.1) z̄1 · z̄2 = (2 + 3i)(4 − 5i) = 23 + 2i

Complex conjugate numbers EXERCISE 2.1

The complex conjugate z̄ of a complex number z = 1. Powers of the imaginary unit:
x + iy is defined by Show that i2 = −1, i3 = −i, i4 = 1, i5 = i, · · ·
1 1 1 1+i
z̄ = x − iy and = −i, 2 = −1, 3 = i, · · · ; = i.
Replace i by −i in the complex number to get its i i i 1−i
conjugate. It is obtained geometrically by reflecting 2. Multiplication by i is geometrically a counter-
the point z in the real axis. clockwise rotation through π/2 (90◦ ). Verify
this by plotting z and iz and the angle of rotation
y for z = 4 + 2i, z = −1 + i, z = 5 − 2i.

y
Z=x+iy=2+i
iz
z
O x

Z=x–iy=2–i x
O

Figure 2.2
We have zz̄ = x2 + y2 ; z + z̄ = 2x; z − z̄ = 2iy
1 1 Figure 2.3
∴ Re z = x = (z + z̄) Im z = (z − z̄)
2 2i

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2-4 Engineering Mathematics III

3. Let z1 = −2 + 3i, z2 = 1 + i. Find The inequality |z1 | > |z2 | means that the point z1
is farther away from the origin than the point z2 , and
(a) z1 z2 = (−2 + 3i)(1 + i)
|z1 − z2 | is the distance between the points z1 and z2 .
= (−2 − 3) + i(3 − 2) = −5 + i
θ is called the argument or amplitude of z denoted
1 1 1−i 1 1 by arg z or amp z.
(b) = = 2 2
= − i y
z1 1+i 1 +1 2 2 θ = arg z = tan−1
x
z2 1+i (1 + i)(−2 − 3i) Geometrically, θ is the directed angle from the
(c) = = positive x-axis to OP. For z = 0, this angle θ is
z1 −2 + 3i (−2)2 + 32
1 5 undefined. For z 6= 0 it is determined only up to an
= − i
13 13 integer multiple of 2π. The value of θ that lies in the
interval −π < θ ≤ π is called the principal value of
(d) Re(z1 )2 = Re(5 − 12i) = 5 (Re z1 )2 = (−2)2 = 4
the argument of z 6= 0 and is denoted by Arg z with
z = x + iy
capital A. Thus −π < Arg z ≤ π.

1 1 x−iy y
(e) Im = Im = Im 2 2 = − 2 2
z x+iy x +y x +y Example 2.2
√ π π
2 2
(f) (1+i) = 2i; Re(1+i) = 0; (1+i) = (2i) = −4 4 2 z = 1 + i = 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
√ 1
∴ |z| = 2 arg z = π ± 2nπ n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
p
z+i x+i(y+1) x2 +(y+1)2 4
(g) = =p =1 π
1−iz 1−i(x + iy) (1+4)2 +x2 Arg z = (principal value).
4
p for any complex number z = x + iy,
Since
Polar Form of Complex Numbers, |z| = x2 + y2 ≥ |x|
Powers and Roots
y
If we put z=1+i
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
z = x + iy takes the polar form
√2

y=1
‌=

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) or reiθ .

‌z

r is called the absolute value

p or modulus √ of z and is
denoted by |z|. |z| = r = x2 + y2 = zz̄ π/4
O x=1 x

y z2 y
z
1 –z
z1

2
z1 z1 + z2
z2
z2

O x
Distance between two points z1
in the complex plane
y O x
y z = x + iy
r
z= Figure 2.5
θ Real axis
O x x
Complex plane Similarly |z| ≥ |y|
∴ |Re z| ≤ |z|; |Im z| ≤ |z|.
Figure 2.4 Let z1 and z2 be complex numbers. Then the origin
Geometrically, |z| represents the distance of the and the points z1 and z1 + z2 are the vertices of a
point from the origin. triangle whose sides are |z1 |, |z2 | and |z1 + z2 |. We

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Functions of a Complex Variable 2-5

√ √
obtain triangle inequality |z1 z2 | = 6 2 = 3 1 = |z1 ||z2 |
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |. −3π
Also, we have Arg z1 z2 = = Arg z1 − Arg z2 − 2π
4
||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 − z2 | π
(The difference of two sides of a triangle cannot = − Arg z1 − Arg z2
4
exceed the third side – Fig. 2.6.) Division
The quotient z = z1 /z2 is the number z satisfying
y
zz2 = z1 .
Hence |zz2 | = |z||z2 | = |z1 |. arg zz2 = arg z +
arg z2 = arg z1 . This gives |z1 /z2 | = |z1 |/|z2 | (z2 6= 0)
–z
2
z1 and arg(z1 /z2 ) = arg z1 − arg z2 .
z1
z2
Integer Powers: DeMoivre’s
O x Formula
z n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ) n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Figure 2.6
DeMoivre’s formula
Multiplication and Division in Polar (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
Form Put n = 2
Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ), cos2 θ − sin2 θ + 2i sin θ cos θ = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ
z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
⇒ cos 2θ = cos2 θ−sin2 θ and sin 2θ = 2 sin θcos θ
z1 z2 = r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 )
+i(sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )] Roots
√
= r1 r2 cis (θ1 + θ2 ) z = wn (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) w = n
z nth root of z
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
Remark
arg (z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 , up to multiple of 2π This symbol is multi-valued (n-valued) in contrast to
z1 the usual convention in real calculus.
z= ⇔ zz2 = z1 ∴ |zz2 | = |z||z2 | = |z1 |
z2 z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) w = R(cos φ + i sin φ)
arg (zz2 ) = arg z + arg z2 = arg z1 wn = Rn (cos nφ sin nφ) = z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
z1 |z1 | √
∴ = (z2 6 = 0) By equating absolute values Rn = r ⇒ R = n r
z2 |z2 |
root is real positive and unique.
z1
arg = arg z1 − arg z2 , up to multiple of 2π By equating arguments nφ = θ + 2kπ
z2
z1 r1 θ 2kπ
= cis (θ1 − θ2 ) thus φ = + k = 0, 1, 2, . . . (n − 1).
z2 r2 n n
For these values of k, we get n distinct values of
Example 2.3 w; these values repeat themselves for higher values
z1 = −2 + 2i z2 = 3i of k. √
z1 2 2 Consequently, n z for z 6= 0 has the n district
z1 z2 = −6 − 6i; = + i values
z2 3 3
√ √

3π π n n θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
Arg z1 = Arg z2 = z = r cos + i sin (2.6)
4 2 n n

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2-6 Engineering Mathematics III

where k = 0, 1, · ·√ · (n − 1). These n values, lie on Set of points

a circle of radius n r with centre at the origin and By a set of points we mean a collection of points in
constitute the vertices
√ of a regular polygon of n sides. the complex plane C.
The value of n z obtained by taking the principal
value of Arg z and k = Example 2.4
√ 0 in Eq. (2.6) is called the
principal value of w = n z. In particular, taking z = 1 Circle : S1 = {z ∈ C | |iz − a| = ρ} is called a
we have |z| = r = 1 and Arg z = 0. Then Eq. (2.6) circle with centre ‘a’ and radius. ρ.
gives Right half -plane
√
n 2kπ 2kπ S2 = {z ∈ C|Re z > 0} is the right half-plane.
r = cos +i sin k = 0, 1, . . . (n−1) (2.7)
n n Neighbourhood of a point z0
These n values are called the nth roots of unity. The set of all points z for which |z − z0 | < δ where
They lie on the circle of radius 1 and centre 0, briefly δ is a positive constant, is called a neighbourhood of
called the unit circle (see Fig. 2.7). z0 and written nbd of z0 .
If w denotes the value√ corresponding to k = 1 in
Eq. (2.7) the n values of n 1 can be written as Deleted nbd of z0
1, w, w2 , · · · wn−1 The set of all points z for which 0 < |z − z0 | < δ is
Similarly if w1 is any nth root of an√arbitrary com- called a deleted nbd of z0 .
plex number z then the n values of n z in Eq. (2.6) Open circular disc
are The set of all z for which |z − z0 | < ρ is called an
w1 , w1 w, w1 w2 , · · · w1 wn−1 open circular disc.
because multiplying w1 by wk corresponds to increas-
ing the argument of w1 by 2kπ/n. Closed circular disc
The set of all z for which |z − z0 | 6 ρ is called a
y y closed circular disc.
Open annulus or circular ring
O O The set of all points z such that ρ1 < |z − z0 | < ρ2
x x (ρ1 < ρ2 ) is called an open annulus.
Closed annulus or circular ring
3
1 4
1
The set of all points z such that ρ1 6 |z − z0 | 6 ρ2
cube roots of 1 y 4th roots of 1 (ρ1 < ρ2 ) is called a closed annulus.
Interior point of a set S
A point z0 is called an interior point of a set S if there
O is a nbd of z0 containing only the points of S.
x
Open set
A set S is called open if every point of S has a nbd
5
1 every point of which belongs to S.
5th roots of 1
Example 2.5
Figure 2.7 1. The points inside a circle.
2. The points inside a square.
Definitions of Certain Terms 3. Right half-plane Re z = x > 0.
Distance between two points
Open half-plane
If ‘z’ and ‘a’ are points in the complex plane C the Open upper half-plane: The set of points z such
distance between them is d(z, a) = |z − a| that Im z = y > 0.

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Functions of a Complex Variable 2-7

Open lower half-plane: The set of points z such Im z 2 = xy > 0 : open, unbounded set.
that Im z = y < 0. ρ1 < |z − z0 < ρ2 : open, bounded, unconnected set.
Closed set Region
A set S is said to be closed if its complement S ′ is A set of points consisting of a domain and some or
open. all of its boundary points.
Example 2.6
2.2.1 Complex Function
The set of points on and inside the unit circle |z| = 1.
Let S be a set of complex numbers. A function f
Bounded set defined on S is a rule that assigns to every z in S a
A set S is called bounded if all its points lie within a complex number w, called the value of f at z. We
circle of sufficiently large radius. write
w = f (z)
Example 2.7 z varies in S and is called a complex variable and S
Points in a rectangle, ellipse or polygon. is called the domain of definition of f .
z = x + iy, w = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
Note
Points on a straight line or in an infinite strip do not Example 2.10
form a bounded set. w = f (z) = z 2 + 2z
Connected Set Let z = x + iy; z 2 = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy;
A set S in which any pair of points can be joined by a 2z = 2x + i2y
polygonal arc entirely lying in S, is called a connected
∴ w = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) = x2 −y2 +2x+i(2xy+2y)
set.
Re w = u(x, y) = x2 − y2 + 2x; Im w = 2xy + 2y
z1
z0 2.2.2 Limit of a Function
Let f (z) be a function defined in some deleted nbd of
z0 and l be a complex number. If for every ∈> 0 there
corresponds a δ > 0 such that
0 < |z − z0 | < δ ⇒ |f (z) − l| <∈
Figure 2.8 then we say that f (z) tends to l as z tends to z0 . We
write lim f (z) = l.
Domain z→z0

An open connected set is called a domain.

2.2.3 Continuity at z0
Example 2.8
Let f (z) be defined in a nbd of z0 . If lim f (z) = f (z0 )
Interior of a circle or a square or a closed polygon. z→z0
then we say that f is continuous at z0 .
Boundary point of a set S
A point every nbd of which contains both points in y v
S and points not in S.
f (z)
Example 2.9 z
z0 l
Points on the two circles C1 and C2 of an annulus. δ

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Functions of a Complex Variable 2-13

Example 2.21 Example 2.24

Show that f (z) = z̄ is continuous at all z. z
f (z) = (z 6= 0) and f (0) = 0. Is f (z) continuous
|z|
Solution We have |f (z) − f (z0 )| = |z̄ − z¯0 |. For at z = 0?
any given ∈ choose ∈= δ. We have |z − z0 | < δ
Solution
⇒ |f (z) − f (z0 )| <∈⇒ f (z) is continuous at z0 . x + iy
Since z0 is arbitrary f (z) is continuous for all z. lim f (z) = lim p ;
z→0 z→0 x2 + y2
Path I :
Example 2.22 x + iy
lim p =i
Show that f (z) = |z| is continuous at all z. x→0
y→0 x2 + y2
Solution We have |f (z) − f (z0 )| = |z| − |z0 | 6 Path II :
x + iy
|z − z0 |. For any ∈>0 choose ∈= δ then |z − z0 | < δ lim p =1
⇒ |f (z) − f (z0 )| <∈⇒ f is continuous at z0 .
y→0
x→0
x2 + y2
Since z0 is arbitrary f is continuous at all z. Since the limit does not exist f is discontinuous
at z = 0.
Example 2.23
x2 y Example 2.25
Show that lim does not exist though the func- Show that every differentiable function is
z→0 x 4 + y 2
tion approaches the same limit along every straight continuous.
line through the origin.
Solution Let f (z) be differentiable at ’a’. Then
Solution f (z) − f (a)
Path I : f ′ (a) = lim exists.
2
xy
z→a z−a
lim = lim 0 = 0 ∴ f (a) is well-defined. Consider
x→0 x 4 + y2 y→0
y→0
Path II : f (z) − f (a)
lim[f (z) − f (a)] = lim (z − a)
xy 2 z→a z→a (z − a)
lim = lim 0 = 0 f (z) − f (a)
y→0 x4 + y2 x→0
= lim lim(z − a)
x→0
Path III : z→a (z − a) z→a
= f ′ (a) lim(z − a) = 0
Along any straight line y = mx through (0,0), z→a

⇒ lim f (z) = lim f (a) = f (a)

z→a z→a
x2 y mx3
lim
y=mx x 4 + y 2
= lim Hence f is continuous at z = a.
x→0 x 4 + m2 x 2
x→0
mx Remark
= lim 2 =0 The converse of the above result is not true. That is,
x→0 x + m2
a function may be continuous but not differentiable.
Path IV :
Along the parabolic path y = mx2 Counter-examples:

The following functions are continuous at points

x2 y mx4 m
lim 4 2
= lim 4 2 4
= lim specified against them but they are not differentiable
y=mx2 x +y x→0 x + m x x→0 1 + m2
x→0
at those points.
m
= 6 = 0 if m 6 = 0 (i) f (z) = z̄ at any point
1 + m2
(ii) g(z) = |z|2 at zero
Along Path IV the limit is dependent on m. (iii) h(z) = Re z at any point.

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2-14 Engineering Mathematics III

Example 2.26 Example 2.28

Find the regions of analyticity of the functions Show that f (z) = z + 2z̄ is not analytic anywhere in
(i) f (z) = ez (ii) f (z) = (x − y)2 + 2i(x + y) the complex plane. [JNTU 2000, 2003(2)]
z − 2i
(iii) f (z) = 2 .
z +1 Solution Let z = x + iy and
f (z) = u + iv = z + 2z̄ = (x + iy) + 2(x − iy)
Solution
(i) f (z) = ez = ex+iy = ex (cos y+sin y) = u+iv (say) ⇒ u = 3x, v = −y
⇒ u = ex cos y, v = ex sin y ⇒ ux = 3, vx = 0, uy = 0, vy = 1
x
⇒ ux = e cos y, uy = −ex sin y, CREs ux 6= vy , uy = −vu are not satisfied.
vx = ex sin y, vy = ex cos y Hence f (z) is not analytic anywhere.
⇒ ux = vy ; uy = −vx
Example 2.29
ux , uy , vx , vy are continuous. CREs are satisfied for ∂2 ∂2

all x and y. Show that + log |f ′ (z)| = 0 where f (z)
∂x2 ∂y2
Hence ez is analytic throughout the complex plane is an analytic function. [JNTU 2002]
and it is an entire function.
1 1
(ii) u = (x − y)2 ; v = 2(x + y) Solution Since x = (z + z̄), y = (z − z̄) =
2 2i
ux = 2(x − y); uy = −2(x − y); i
− (z − z̄), we have
vx = 2, vy = 2 2
∂ ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y 1 ∂ ∂
ux = vy ⇒ x − y = 1 = + = −i ;
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y
also uy = −vx ⇒ x − y = 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
Similarly, = +i
CREs are satisfied only along the straight line ∂z̄ 2 ∂x ∂y
x − y = 1. ∂2 1 ∂2 ∂2
Now = +
f ′ (z) = ux + ivx = 2(x − y) + 2i = 2 + 2i exists ∂z∂z̄ 4 ∂x2 ∂y2
along x − y = 1 and not through any region (nbd) R. 2
∂2

Hence f (z) is nowhere analytic. ∂
∴ + (log |f ′ (z)|)
z − 2i ∂x2 ∂y2
(iii) f (z) = 2 is the quotient of polynomials
z +1 ∂2

1
2
z − 2i and z + 1 which are analytic throughout =4 log |f ′ (z)|2
∂z∂z̄ 2
C. So, f (z) is analytic everywhere except at points
where z 2 + 1 = 0, i.e., z = ±i. ∂2
=2 log[f ′ (z)f ′ (z̄)]
∂z∂z̄
Example 2.27 [∵ |z|2 = zz̄]
Show that z 2 is analytic for all z. ∂2
=2 (log f ′ (z) + log f ′ (z̄))
∂z∂z̄
Solution
∂ f ′′ (z) ∂ f ′′ (z̄)

f (z) = u + iv = z 2 = (x + iy)2 = (x2 − y2 ) + i(2xy) =2 +
∂z̄ f ′ (z) ∂z f ′ (z̄)
⇒ u = x2 − y2 , v = 2xy
= 2(0 + 0) = 0.
⇒ ux = 2x; vy = 2x; uy = −2y; vx = 2y
⇒ ux = vy , uy = −vx Since f (z) is analytic f ′ (z) is analytic. f ′ (z̄) is also
analytic
ux , uy , vx , vy are continuous and CREs are satisfied; ∂f ′ (z) ¯
∂f ′ (z)
f (z) is analytic in C. ∴ = 0; = 0.
∂z̄ ∂z

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Functions of a Complex Variable 2-15

Example 2.30 where w = f (z) is analytic.

If f (z) = u +iv is an analytic function of z prove that [JNTU 2004(4), 2004S, 2005]
∂2 ∂2

2
+ 2 |f (z)|p = p2 |f (z)|p−2 |f ′ (z)|2 . Solution
∂x ∂y
[JNTU 2003S(4)] Let f (z) = u + iv ⇒ Re f (z) = u.
q
Solution We know that Also f ′ (z) = ux + ivx so that |f ′ (z)| = ux2 + vx2
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
+ = 4 Squaring |f ′ (z)|2 = ux2 + vx2 (1)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z∂z̄ 2
∂ 2 ∂u ∂
and |f (z)| = u + v2 = f (z)f (z̄).
2 2
Now (u ) = 2u ⇒ 2 (u2 ) = 2[ux2 + uuxx ] (2)
2 ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂2 ∂2

∂ p ∂2
∴ + |f (z)| = 4 |f (z)|p Similarly 2 (u2 ) = 2[uy2 + uuyy ] (3)
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z∂z̄ ∂y
∂2
=4 [f (z)f (z̄)] Now Eqs. (2) + (3) gives
∂z∂z̄
∂2 2
∂ ∂2

=4 [(f (z))p/2 (f (z̄))p/2 ] 2 2
∇ (u ) = + 2 u2
∂z∂z̄ ∂x2 ∂y
Differentiate first w.r.t z̄ taking f (z) as constant
and then w.r.t z taking f (z̄) as constant; we have = 2[ux2 + uy2 + u(uxx + uyy )] (4)
2
∂2

∂ We know that Re f (z) = u satisfies the Laplace’s
+ 2 |f (z)|p
∂x2 ∂y equation so that
∂ p p
∂2 u ∂2 u
= 4 [(f (z))p/2 (f (z̄)) 2 −1 f ′ (z)] ∇ 2u = + 2 =0 (5)
∂z
hp 2 ∂x2 ∂y
p p p
i
= 4 (f (z)) 2 f ′ (z) · f (z̄) 2 −1 f ′ (z̄)
−1
2 2 From Eqs. (4) and (5)
p2 p−2
∇ 2 (u2 ) = 2(ux2 + uy2 )
= 4 · [f (z)f (z̄)] 2 (f ′ (z)f ′ (z̄))
4
p−2 = 2|f ′ (z)|2 by Eq. (1)
= p2 (|f (z)|2 ) 2 |f ′ (z)|2 2
∂2

∂
= p2 |f (z)|p−2 |f ′ (z)|2 . ⇒ + |Re f (z)|2 = 2|f ′ (z)|2
∂x2 ∂y2
Example 2.31 Example 2.33
Find all values of k such that f (z) = ex (cos ky + Determine whether the function 2xy + i(x2 − y2 )
i sin ky) is analytic. [JNTU 2003(4)] is analytic. [JNTU 2003(4)]

Solution Solution
Let f (z) = u + iv = ex (cos ky + i sin ky) Let f (z) = u + iv = 2xy + i(x2 − y2 )
⇒ u = ex cos ky, v = ex sin ky
u = 2xy; v = x2 − y2
⇒ ux = ex cos ky, uy = −kex sin ky
∂u ∂u
vx = ex sin ky, vy = kex cos ky = 2y; = 2x;
∂x ∂y
CREs. ux = vy ⇒ k = 1, uy = −vx ⇒ k = 1
∂v ∂v
f (z) is analytic ⇔ k = 1 = 2x; = −2y
∂x ∂y
Example 2.32
∂2 ∂2
CREs are ux = vy and uy = −vx which are clearly
Prove that + |Ref (z)|2 = 2|f ′ (z)|2 not satisfied. Hence the given function is not analytic.
∂x2 ∂y2

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2-16 Engineering Mathematics III

Example 2.34 The CREs are satisfied at the origin z = 0.

Show that f (z) = xy2 (x + iy)/(x2 + y4 ) (z 6 = 0) and Consequently, f (z) is not analytic at (0, 0) though
f (0) = 0 is not analytic at z = 0 although CREs are CREs are satisfied at z = 0.
satisfied at the origin.
Example 2.35
√
Solution Show that the function f (z) = |xy| is not analytic
f (z) − f (0) f (z) − 0 xy2 (x + iy) at the origin, although Cauchy–Riemann equations
= = are satisfied at the origin.
z−0 z (x + iy)(x2 + y4 )
xy2 √
= 2 Solution Let√f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = |xy|
x + y4 so that u(x, y) = |xy| and v(x, y) = 0. We compute
xy2 xy2 ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
Clearly, lim = lim =0 the partial derivatives , , , at the origin.
x→0 x 2 + y 4 y→0 x 2 + y 4 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
y→0 x→0
Along the path y = mx, ∂u u(x, 0) − u(0, 0) 0−0
= lim = lim =0
f (z) − f (0) x · m2 x2 ∂x x→0 x x→0 x
lim = lim 2 ∂u u(0, y) − u(0, 0) 0−0
z→0 z−0 x→0 x + m4 x 4 = lim = lim =0
∂y y→0 y y→0 y
m2 x
= lim =0 ∂v 0−0
x→0 1 + m4 = lim =0
∂x x→0 x
Also, along the path x = my2 , ∂v 0−0
= lim =0
f (z) − f (0) my2 · y2 ∂y y→0 y
lim = lim 2 4
z→0 z−0 y→0 m y + y 4
m ∂u ∂v
= lim 2 6= 0 Hence, Cauchy–Riemann equations = ,
y→0 m +1 ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
Since the limit value depends on m and is different = − are satisfied at the origin.
∂y ∂x
for different paths, the limit does not exist. Hence We now find the derivative at the origin.
f (z) is not differentiable at z = 0. So, f (z) is not
analytic at z = 0. f (z) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim
We now prove that CREs are not satisfied at z = 0. z→0 z
xy2 (x + iy) √
Let f (z) = u + iv = |xy| − 0
x2 + y4 = lim
z→0 x + iy
2 2
xy xy3
⇒u= 2 , v = for z 6= 0 The limit must exist along any path leading to the
x + y4 x2 + y4
origin. If we allow z = (x, y) → (0, 0) along the
Also u(0, 0) = 0 and v(0, 0) = 0 straight line y = mx, we obtain
∵ f (z) = 0 at z = 0 p √
′ |mx2 | |m|
∂u u(x, 0) − u(0, 0) 0−0 f (0) = lim = ,
= lim = lim =0 x→0 (1 + im)x 1 + im
∂x x→0 x x→0 x
∂u u(0, y) − u(0, 0) 0−0 which depends on m and hence not unique. Hence
= lim = lim =0
∂y y→0 y y→0 y f ′ (0) does not exist.
∂v v(x, 0) − v(0, 0) 0−0
= lim = lim =0 Note
∂x x→0 x x→0 x ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
∂v v(0, y) − v(0, 0) 0−0 In this problem, , , , all exist at
= lim = lim =0 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂y y→0 y y→0 y (x, y) = (0, 0) and also satisfy Cauchy–Riemann

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2-24 Engineering Mathematics III

Now f (z) = u(z, 0) + iv(z, 0) twice, we get

⇒ f ′ (z) = ux (z, 0) + ivx (z, 0)
vx = 4x3 − 12xy2 = −uy (1)
⇒ f ′ (z) = ux (z, 0) − ivy (z, 0) 2 3
vy = −12x y + 4y = ux (2)
1
= − (1+i)cosec2 z by Eqs. (6) and (7). 2
vxx = 12x − 12y ) 2
(3)
2
2 2
vyy = −12x + 12y (4)
Integrating w.r.t z, we obtain
1 ⇒ ∇ 2 v = 0 ⇒ v is harmonic
f (z) = (1 + i) cot z + c
2 Integrating Eq. (2) w.r.t x, we get

where c is an arbitrary complex constant. u = −4x3 y + 4xy3 + A(y) (5)

where A(y) is an arbitrary function of y. Differenti-

Example 2.51
2 2 ating w.r.t to y, we get
If u + v = (x − y)(x + 4xy + y ) find the analytic
function f (z) = u + iv. uy = −4x3 + 12xy2 + A′ (y) = −vx
Solution = −4x3 + 12xy2 ⇒ A′ (y) = 0
f (z) = u + iv A(y) = c = constant
⇒ (1 + i)f (z) = (u − v) + i(u + v) ∴ u(x, y) = −4x3 y + 4xy3 + c
= U + iV (say) Hence f (z) = (−4x3 y+4xy3 +c)+i(x4 −6x2 y2 +y4 )
Now V = u + v = (x − y)(x2 + 4xy + y2 ) = i[(x4 −6x2 y2 +y4 )+i(4x3 y−4xy3 )]+c
= i(x + iy)4 + c = iz 4 + c

⇒ Vx = (x − y)(2x + 4y) + x2 
 Milne–Thomson’s method:
+4xy + y2 = 92 (x, y)

(say)
Vy = (x − y)(4x + 2y) 
 Let 91 (x, y) = vy = −12x2 y + 4y3
−(x2 + 4xy + y2 ) = 91 (x, y)

and 92 x, y) = vx = 4x3 − 12xy2
91 (z, 0) = 0 and 92 (z, 0) = 4z 3
⇒ 91 (z, 0) = 3z 2 , 92 (z, 0) = 3z 2 Z
∴ f (z) = [91 (z, 0) + i92 (z, 0)]dz
By Milne–Thomson’s method,
Z
Z = i 4z 3 dz
(1 + i)f (z) = [91 (z, 0) + i92 (z, 0)]dz
Z f (z) = iz 4 + c
= (1 + i) 3z 2 dz = (1 + i)z 3 + c
where c is an arbitrary complex constant.
3
⇒ f (z) = z + c Example 2.53
Show that u = sin x cosh y + 2 cos x sinh y + x2 −
where c is an arbitrary complex constant. y2 + 4xy satisfies the Laplace equation. Find the cor-
responding analytic function. [JNTU 2008]
Example 2.52
If v(x, y) = x4 − 6x2 y2 + y4 find f (z) = u(x, y) + Solution It is given that
iv(x, y) such that f (z) is analytic.
u(x, y) = sin xcosh y+2 cos x sinh y+x2 −y2 +4xy
Solution Differentiating v partially w.r.t x and y (1)

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Functions of a Complex Variable 2-25

Differentiating Eq. (1) twice partially w.r.t x and Since f (z) = u + iv ∈ H (D),
y, respectively, we get ux = uy , uy = −vx (CREs)
Now vx = e−x (−x cos y − y sin y + cos y)
ux = cos x cosh y − 2 sin x sinh y + 2x + 4y (2)
= 82 (z) = e−z (−z + 1)
uxx = − sin x cosh y − 2 cos x sinh y + 2 (3)
vy = e−x (−x sin y + sin y + y cos y)
uy = sin x sinh y + 2 cos x cosh y − 2y + 4x (4)
= 81 (z) = e−z (0)
uyy = sin x cosh y + 2 cos x sinh y − 2 (5)
8(z) = 81 (z, 0) + i82 (z, 0) = i(1 − z)e−z
Adding Eqs. (3) and (5), we obtain Integrating w.r.t z, we get
Z
∇ 2 u = uxx + uyy = 0 (6) f (z) = 8(z)dz + c = ize−z + c.

Example 2.55
u satisfies Laplace’s equation and hence u is a Find the analytic function whose real part is
harmonic function. u = ex [(x2 − y2 ) cos y − 2xy sin y]. [JNTU 2008]
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u Solution
Also, f ′ (z) = +i = −i
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y
u = ex [(x2 − y2 ) cos y − 2xy sin y]
= 81 (x, y) − i82 (x, y) (say)
⇒ ux = ex [(x2 − y2 ) cos y − 2xy sin y
Replace x by z and y by 0 (Milne–Thomson’s + 2x cos y − 2y sin y] = 81 (x, y)
method) uy = ex [−2y cos y − (x2 − y2 ) sin y − 2x sin y
− 2xy cos y] = 82 (x, y)
⇒ cos x cosh y − 2 sin x sinh y + 2x + 4y − i(sin x ′
∴ f (z) = ux + ivx = ux − iuy
sinh y + 2 cos x cosh y − 2y + 4x)
= 81 (z, 0) − i82 (z, 0)
= 81 (z, 0) − i82 (z, 0) = 8(z) (say)
= ez (z 2 + 2z) − ez (0) = ez (z 2 + 2z)
= (cos z · 1 − 0 + 2z + 0) − i(sin z · 0 + 2 cos z · 1
− 2 × 0 + 4z) Integrating, f (z) = z 2 ez + c

Example 2.56
Or 8(z) = (1 − 2i) cos z + 2(1 − 2i)z
If f (z) = u + iv ∈ H (D) then prove that
Integrating w.r.t z,
(i) ∇ 2 |f (z)|2 = 4|f ′ (z)|2 . [JNTU 1993]
Z
f (z) = 8(z)dz+c = (1−2i) sin z+(1−2i)z 2 +c. (ii) ∇ 2 up = p(p − 1)up−2 |f ′ (z)|2 . [JNTU 1997S]

Solution Since f (z) = v + iv is analytic in a

Example 2.54 domain D, the functions u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y)
Find the analytic function whose imaginary part is satisfy Cauchy–Riemann equations in D
e−x (x cos y + y sin y). [JNTU 1998S] ux = vy uy = −vx (1)
Solution Let f (z) = u + iv be the analytic Further, u and v are harmonic functions in D which
function. Then v = e−x (x cos y + y sin y) implies that u, v satisfy Laplace’s equation ∇ 2 8 = 0,
i.e., ∇ 2 u = 0, ∇ 2 u = 0 in D
We know that f ′ (z) = ux + ivx = vy + ivx
2 ∂2 ∂2

∇ = 2+ 2 (2)
= 81 + i82 = 8(z) say ∂x ∂y

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2-26 Engineering Mathematics III

(i) f (z) = u + iv ⇒ |f (z)|2 = u2 + v2 = p(p − 1)u p−2 (ux2 + uy2 ) ∴ ∇u2 =0

p−2 2
We calculate partial derivatives w.r.t x and y of = p(p − 1)u |ux − iuy |
|f (z)|2 = u2 + v2 = p(p − 1)u p−2
|f ′ (z)|2 .
∂ ∂
|f (z)|2 = (u2 + v2 ) = 2uux + 2vvx
∂x ∂x EXERCISE 2.3
∂2 ∂2 ∂
|f (z)|2 = 2 (u2 + v2 ) = (2uux + 2vvx )
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x 1. Prove that the following functions are harmonic.
= 2ux2 + 2uuxx + 2vx2 + 2vvxx ) Find their harmonic conjugates.

Similarly, (a) u = x2 − y2 − y,
Ans: v = 2xy + x + c.
∂2 x
|f (z)|2 = 2uy2 + 2uuyy + 2vy2 + 2vvyy (3) (b) v = x2 −y2 + ,
∂y2 x2 +y2
x
Adding the two results (3) and (4) Ans: u = −2xy+ 2 +c.
x + y2
2
∂2

∂ (c) u = 3xy2 − x3 ,
+ |f (z)|2 = 2(ux2 + vx2 + uy2 + vy2 )
∂x2 ∂y2 Ans: v = y3 − 3x2 y + c
+ 2u∇ 2 u + 2v∇ 2 v (4) (d) v = y2 − x2 ,
= 2(ux2 +vx2 +uy2 +vy2 ), by Eq. (2) Ans: u = 2xy + c
= 4(ux2 + uy2 ), by Eq. (1) 2. Find the analytic function f (z) = u+iv in ques-
2
= 4|ux − iuy | tion 1.
= 4|f ′ (z)|2 (5) Ans: (a) z 2+ iz + c
1
(b) i z 2 + +c
(ii) Differentiating u p partially w.r.t x twice, we get z
(c) −z 3 + ic
∂ p ∂u
u = pu p−1 ; (d) −iz 2 + c
∂x ∂x
2
2
∂ p p−2 ∂u ∂2 u 3. Find the analytic function f (z) = v + iv such
2
u = p(p − 1)u + pu p + 2 (6) ey − cos x + sin x
∂x ∂x ∂x that u − v = and f (π/2) =
cosh y − cos x
Similarly, we obtain (3 − i)/2.
2 Ans: f (z) = cot(z/2) + (1 − i)/2
∂2 p 2

∂u p−1 ∂u
u = p(p − 1)u p−2 + pu (7) 4. Find the analytic function f (z) = u+iv such that
∂y2 ∂y ∂y2
cos x+sin x − e−y
u−v = and f (π/2) = 0.
Adding Eqs. (6) and (7), we obtain 2 cos x − ey − e−y
1 1
Ans: f (z) = − cot(z/2) + π
2
∂2

∂
+ up 2 2
∂x2 ∂y2
" 2 # 5. Find the analytic function f (z) = u + iv such
p−2 ∂u 2 ∂u 2 sin 2x
= p(p − 1)u + that u + v = 2y .
∂x ∂y e − e−2y − 2 cos 2x
−i c
+ pu p−1 ∇ 2 u Ans: f (z) = cot z +
1+i 1+i

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Functions of a Complex Variable 2-27

∂2 ∂2

6. If f (z) = u + iv is an analytic function of z =
+ log |f (z)| = 0 and
x − iy and u − v = cx (cos y − sin y) find f (z) ∂x2 ∂y2
in terms of z. [JNTU 1995S] ∇ 2 (amp f (z)) = 0.
Ans: f (z) = ez + c(1 + i)
12. From Laplace’s equation for u(x, y) prove that
7. Show that u(x, y) = sin x cosh y+2 cos x sinh y+ ∂2 u
x2 −y2 +4xy is harmonic. Find an analytic func- = 0.
∂z∂z̄
tion f (z) with u as its real point.
13. Show that f (x, y) = x3 y − xy3 + xy + x + y can
Ans: f (z) = sin z + z 2 − 2i sin z − 2iz 2 + c
be the imaginary part of an analytic function of
8. Find the real part of the analytic function whose z = x + iy.
imaginary part is e−x [2xy cos y+(y2 −x2 ) sin y]. 14. Find the analytic function f (z) = u(r, θ) +
Find the analytic function. iv(r, θ) such that
Ans: u = e−x [(x2 − y2 ) cos y + 2xy sin y] (a) u(r, θ) = −r 3
sin 3θ
f (z) = e−z · z 2 1
(b) v(r, θ) = r − sin θ (r 6= 0).
9. Prove that u + iv is analytic if u = 8y − 9x r
and v = 8x + 9y where 8 and 9 are harmonic Ans: (a) iz 3 + ic
function.

1 1
(b) r + cos θ + r − sin θ + c
10. If f (z) is analytic, prove that r r
2
∂ ∂2
1
+ |f (z)|2 = 4|f ′ (z)|2 . 15. If f (z) = u + iv = show that the curves
∂x2 ∂y2 z
u(x, y) = c1 and v(x, y) = c2 intersect
11. If f (z) = u + iv is analytic prove that orthogonally.

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Elementary Functions 3
3.1 Introduction where Pn (z) 6= 0, Pr (z) (r = 0, 1, . . . n) are poly-
The reader is familiar with elementary functions nomials in z and n ∈ N is called an algebraic
studied in real calculus. One can define similar func- function.
tions involving a complex variable z = x + iy which Polynomials and rational functions are special
reduce to the real-valued functions when we put cases of algebraic functions.
y = 0 so that z = x (real). Complex functions have a Exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and
wide range of applications. Most of the properties of hyperbolic functions are other elementary functions.
real functions, such as continuity and differentiabi-
lity, hold in the case of complex functions. Some of 3.2.1 Exponential Function
them have interesting properties, not apparent in the
case of real functions. The exponential function of a complex variable z =
In this chapter, we define the elementary functions x + iy denoted by ez or exp(z) is defined in terms of
of a complex variable and study their properties. In the real functions ex , cos y and sin y as
the following, z = x + iy and w = u + iv in Cartesian
ez = ex+iy = ex · eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y) (3.1)
coordinates, and z = reiθ and w = Reiφ in polars.
This definition is motivated by the fact that ez is a
3.2 Elementary Functions of a natural extension of the real exponential function ex
Complex Variable and reduces to it when we put y = 0 in Eq. (3.1).
Complex functions w = f (z) defined by the fol-
lowing rules are examples of elementary complex Properties
functions.
1. If we write w = f (z) = u + iv = f (x + iy) =
Power function: f (z) = z n (n ∈ N, z ∈ C) ex (cos y + i sin y), then
Polynomial function: f (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2
+ · · · + an z n denoted by Pn (z) (ar ∈ C, an 6= 0) is a u = ex cos y and v = ex sin y (3.2)
polynomial of degree n.
Differentiating these partially w.r.t. x and y
Rational function: f (z) = Pn (z)/Qm (z) (Qm 6= 0)
respectively, we get
where Pn and Qm are polynomials.

Algebraic function: A function w = f (z) which is ux = ex cos y vy = ex cos y
(3.3)
a solution of the polynomial equation uy = −ex sin y vx = ex sin y
Xn
Pr (z)wr ≡ P0 (z) + P1 (z)w + · · · + Pn−1 wn−1 From Eq. (3.3) it is clear that ux = vy and
r=0 uy = −vx ; thus the Cauchy–Riemann equations
+ Pn (z)wn = 0 (CREs) are satisfied for all x and y.

3-4 Engineering Mathematics III

Euler’s formula is valid for complex variable |cos z|2 = |cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y|2
= |cos x|2 |cosh y|2 + |sin x|2 |sinh y|2
eiz = cos z + i sin z for all z ∈ C (3.27)
= cos2 x(1 + sinh2 y) + (1 − cos2 x) sinh2 y
We now find real and imaginary parts of cos z and [ ∵ cosh2 y − sinh2 = 1, cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 ]
sin z, and also the absolute values and periodicity of = cos2 x + sinh2 y (4)
these functions. |sin z| = |sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y|2
2

= |sin x|2 |cosh y|2 + |cos x|2 |sinh y|2

Elementary Functions 3-7

Table 3.1
Relation between complex trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
eiz + e−iz et + e−t e−t + et
cos z = = cosh(iz) cosh t = =
2 2 2
ei(it) + e−i(it)
= = cos(it)
2
eiz − e−iz 1 et − e−t e−t − et
sin z = = sinh(iz) sinh t = =−
2i i 2 2
1 ei(it) − e−i(it) 1
= = sin(it)
i 2i i
sin z 1 1
tan z = = tanh(iz)(cos z 6= 0) tanh t = tan(it)
cos z i i
cos z
cot z = = i coth(iz)(sin z 6= 0) coth t = i cot(it)
sin z
1
sec z = = sech(iz)(cos z 6= 0) sec ht = sec(it)
cos z
1
cosecz = = icosech(iz)(sin z 6= 0) cosecht = icosec(it)
sin z

ez1 − e−z1 ez2 + e−z2 3.2.4 Logarithm

(ii) RHS = ·
2 2
We now introduce complex logarithm. This is more
ez1 + e−z1 ez2 − e−z2
+ · complicated than its real counterpart, which is a
2 2 special case of the complex logarithm.
1 z1 +z2 −(z1 +z2 )
= e −e + ez1 −z2 The natural logarithm of z = x + iy is defined as
4 the inverse of the exponential function and is denoted
−e−(z1 −z2 ) + ez1 +z2 − e−(z1 +z2 ) by ln z or log z.
− ez1 −z2 − e−(z1 −z2 )

w = ln z
ez1 +z2 − e−(z1 +z2 )
= is defined for z 6= 0 by
2
= sinh(z1 + z2 ) = LHS
ew = z (3.34)
z −z 2 2 −z 2

e +e e −e
3. (i) LHS = − Since ew 6= 0 for all w, z = 0 is not possible.
2 2
z −z Setting w = u + iv and z = reiθ , we get
e e
= 4· · = 1 = RHS
2 2 ew = eu+iv = reiθ (3.35)
∵ (a + b) − (a − b)2 = 4ab
2

2 2 Now we note that ew has the absolute value eu and

2 −z 2 −z

e +e e −e the argument v. Equating the absolute values and the
(ii) LHS = +
2 2 arguments on either side, we have
−2z
2z
e +e
=2 eu = r and v = θ (3.36)
4
= cosh 2z = RHS
eu = r ⇒ u = ln r, the real logarithm of the positive
∵ (a + b)2 + (a + b)2 = 2(a2 + b2 ) number r = |z|. Hence, w = u+iv = ln z is given by

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3-8 Engineering Mathematics III

v Values of natural logarithm and its principal values

for some specified numerical values are centered in
–0.927+6π Table 3.2.
The following familiar laws for real natural loga-
–0.927+4π rithm continues to hold for complex values:

–0.927+2π 4. (i) ln(z1 z2 ) = ln z1 + ln z2

(ii) ln(z1 /z2 ) = ln z1 − ln z2 (3.41)
0 1 2 2.08 u Caution: These relations are to be understood in the
sense that the cosh value of one side is also contained
–0.927
in the value of the another side.
–0.927–2π
Illustration of the functional relations

Some values of Ln (6–8i) Let

z1 = z2 = eπi = −1
Figure 3.2
Taking the principal values

1. ln z = ln r + iθ, r = |z| > 0, θ = arg z (3.37) ln z1 = Ln z2 = πi

Note Result 4(i) holds provided we write ln z1 z2 =
Since the argument of z is determined only up to inte- ln 1 = 2π. It is not true for the principal value
ger multiples of 2π, the complex natural logarithm ln z1 z2 = ln 1 = 0
ln z (z 6 = 0) is infinitely many-valued. From Equation (3.34),
The value of ln z corresponding to the principal
value arg z such that −π < arg z ≤ π is denoted by ln z = ln r + iθ r = |z| > 0, θ = arg z
Ln z (note the capital L) and is called the principal we have
value of ln z. Thus eln r = r
2. Ln z = ln |z| + i arg z (z 6 = 0) (3.38) for positive real r and so we obtain
This ln z is single-valued and it is therefore a eln z = z
function in the usual sense.
Since the other values of ln z differ by the integer as expected, but since arg(ez ) = y ± 2nπ is multi-
multiples of 2π, they are given by valued so is

3. ln z = ln z ± 2nπi n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (3.39) ln ez = z ± 2nπi n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

They all have the same real part and their imag- For every fixed non-negative integer n formula
inary parts differ by integer multiples of 2π. These
points can be seen from the graph of Ln (6 − 8i) ln z = ln z ± 2nπi n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
shown for some values in Fig. 3.2. defines a function. We prove that each of these func-
If z is positive real, then Arg z = 0 and Ln z tions, in particular, the principal value Ln z is analytic
becomes identical with the real natural logarithm of except at z = 0 and on the negative real axis (where
real calculus. the imaginary part of such a fraction is not even con-
If z is negative real (for which the natural log of tinuous but has a jump of magnitude 2π). We do this
calculus is not defined) we have Arg z = π and by proving that
1
Ln z = ln |z| + πi (3.40) (ln z)′ =
z

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Elementary Functions 3-9

Table 3.2
Natural Log Principal Value
ln 1 = 0, ±2πi, ±4πi, . . . Ln 1 = 0

ln 8 = 2.079442 ± 2nπi Ln 8 = 2.079442

ln(−1) = ±πi, ±3πi, ±5πi, . . . Ln (−1) = πi

ln(−8) = 2.079442 ± (2n + 1)πi, Ln (−8) = 2.079442 + πi

πi 3 5 πi
ln i = , − πi, πi, . . . Ln i =
2 2 2 2
πi πi
ln 8i = 2.079442 + ± 2nπi Ln 8i = 2.079442 ±
2 2
πi πi
ln(−8i) = 2.079442 − ± 2nπi Ln (−8i) = 2.079442 −
2 2
ln(6 − 8i) = ln 10 + i arg(6 − 8i) Ln (6 − 8i) = 2.302585 − 0.927295i

= 2.302585 − 0.927295i + 2nπi

In (1), we have ′ x y
(ln z) = ux + ivx = 2 +i − 2
x + y2 x + y2
ln z = u + iv x − iy
= 2
x + y2
where
z 1
1 = =
u = ln r = ln |z| = ln(x2 + y2 ) zz z
2
y 3.2.5 General powers of z: z α (α ∈ C)
v = arg z = arc tan + C
x
The general power of a complex number z, i.e.,
where C is a constant which is a multiple of 2nπ. z α (α ∈ C) is defined by the equation
We calculate the partial derivatives of u and v and
z α = eα(ln z) or exp(α ln z) (z 6= 0)
observe that they satisfy the CREs:
Since ln z is multi-valued z α is, in general,
x
ux = ; multi-valued.
x + y2
2

1 1 x Case 1 If α = k (k ∈ N), then z k is single-valued

vy = · = 2
y 2
;
1+ x x x + y2 and is identical with the usual nth power of z. Indeed,
y z k = exp(k ln z) = exp[k ln r + ik(θ + 2nπ)]
uy = ;
x + y2
2

1 y is the single-valued kth power of z, which is analytic.

vx = − · − 2 1
1 + yx
2
x When α = −k (k ∈ N), then z −k = k is single-
z
y valued.
= − 2
x + y2 z −k = exp(−k ln z) = exp[−k ln r − ik(θ + 2nπ)].
so that Case 2 If α = k1 (k ∈ N), then
ux = vy , uy = −vx
1 1 1 i
′
The formula f (z) = ux + ivx gives z k = exp ln z = exp ln r + (θ + 2nπ)
k k k

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3-10 Engineering Mathematics III

Elementary Functions 3-15

The general value is Since ex = 2, cos y = −1 and sin y = 0 ⇒ y = π

Hence z = x + iy = ln 2 + iπ ± 2kπi,
∴ log(−1) = log 1 + i(π ± 2kπ) k = 0, 1, 2, . . . √ √
The principal value is (ii) ez = z x 2
√1 + i ⇒ |e | = e = 1 + 1 = 2 ⇒
2

x = ln 2
log(−1) = log 1 + iπ.
ez = 1 + i
Example 3.13
Determine the values of (1 + i)i . ⇒ ex+iy = 1 + i
⇒ ex (cos y + i sin y) = 1 + i
Solution By definition, ⇒ ex cos y = 1 and ex sin y = 1
√
(1 + i)i = exp[i ln(1 + i)] But ex = 2
1 1
Expressing (1 + i) in polar form, we have ⇒ cos y = √ , sin y = √
p √ √ 2 2
x = 1, y = 1, r = x2 + y2 = 12 + 12 = 2 π
1 1 π ⇒ y=
cos θ = √ , sin θ = √ ⇒ θ = ± 2nπ 4
2 h 2 i 4
√ π √ π
∴ 1 + i = 2 exp i ± 2nπ n = 0, 1, 2, . . . Hence z = ln 2 + i ± 2kπi, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
4 4
1 p Example 3.15
ln z = ln(x + iy) = log x2 + y2 Determine all the values of (x + iy)a+ib and in
2
b
particular those of (1 − i)1+i .
+ i tan−1 ± 2nπ
a
Solution Let w = u + iv = (x + iy)a+ib .
1 π
Applying logarithms, we have
⇒ ln(1 + i) = log 2 + i ± 2nπ
2 4
i π
ln w = ln(u + iv) = (a + ib) ln(x + iy)
⇒ i ln(1 + i) = log 2 − ± 2nπ
2 4 = (a + ib) ln(re(iθ) )
= (a + ib)(ln r + iθ);
⇒ (1 + i)i = exp[i ln(1 + i)]

1 h π i
= exp log 2 exp − ±2nπ y
2 4
p
r= x2 + y2 , θ = tan−1
√ π x
= 2 exp − ± 2nπ ;
4 = (a ln r − bθ) + i(b ln r + aθ)
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . ⇒ w = u + iv = ea ln r−bθ · ei(b ln r+aθ)
= ea ln r−bθ [cos(b ln r + aθ)
Example 3.14
+ i sin(b ln r + aθ)]
Find all the values of z which satisfy (i) ez = −2;
(ii) ez = 1 + i. [JNTU 2006 (Set 4)] ⇒ u = ea ln r−bθ cos(b ln r + aθ),
p
Solution where r = x2 + y2 , v = ea ln r−bθ sin(b ln r + aθ)
(i) ez = −2; y
and θ = tan−1 .
x
p
⇒ |ez | = ex = (2)2 + 02 = 2 ⇒ x = ln 2
(For general solution, replace θ by θ + 2kπ,
ez = −2 ⇒ ex (cos y + i sin y) = −2 + 0 cot i
k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . )
⇒ ex cos y = −2, ex sin y = 0 For (1 − i)1+i , choose x = 1, y = −1;

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4-2 Engineering Mathematics III

If the integration is along a contour we call it a 4.2.5 Simply-Connected Domain

2a
OA 0 3 0 3
Z Z 1
2 2
I2 = z dz = (4 − y + 4iy)i dy O x
AB y=0 M (2a, 0)
1
1 4 1
=i 4y − y3 + iy2 = i(4 − + 2i) Figure 4.8
3 2 0 3
11
=−2+ i We can evaluate the integral by the indefinite
3
1 3
Z 2+i
8 11 2 11 integral method. If F(z) = z 3 + z 2 + 2z, then
∴ z 2 dz =I1 + I2 = − 2 + i = + i 3 2
0 3 3 3 3 F ′ (z) = f (z) so that
Z Z Z Z (aπ+2ia) (aπ+2ia)
I1 = z 2 dz; I2 = z 2 dz f (z)dz = F ′ (z)dz = F(z)
OP PB C 0 0
1 3
(ii) Along OP: x = 0, z = x + iy, dz = idy, = (aπ + 2ia)3 + (aπ + 2ia)2
z 2 = (iy)2 = −y2 ; y varies from 0 to 1 3 2
+ 2(aπ+2ia)
1 1
y3
Z Z
i
I1 = z 2 dz= −y2 idy = −i =− If we want to evaluate the integral by representa-
OP y=0 3 0 3
tion of path we may choose the simplest path con-
Along PB: y = 1, z = x + i, dz = dx; x varies sisting of straight line segments
from 0 to 2 (i) OA joining O = (0, 0) and A = (0, 2a) and
Z Z 2 Z 2 (ii) AB joining A = (0, 2a) and B = (aπ, 2a)
I2 = z 2 dz = (x + i)2 dx = (x2 − 1 + 2ix)dx Z Z Z
PB 0 0 ∴ (z 2 + 3z + 2)dz = f (z)dz + f (z)dz
3
2 C OA AB
x 8 2
= − x + ix2 = − 2 + i4 = + 4i =I1 + I2
3 0 3 3
1 3
= (aπ+2ia)3 + (aπ+2ia)2
Z
2 i 2 2 11
∴ z dz = I1 + I2 = − + + 4i = + i. 3 2
C 3 3 3 3
+ 2(aπ + 2ia)
Note
The line integral is independent of the path of inte- Along OA: x = 0, because z = iy, dz = idy; y varies
gration C when f (z) is analytic. from 0 to 2a
Z 2a
ExampleZ 4.7
Z
I1 = f (z)dz = [(iy)2 + 3(iy) + 2]d(iy)
Evaluate (z 2 + 3z + 2)dz where C is the arc of the OA 0
C 2a
−y3 y2

cycloid x = a(θ + sin θ), y = a(1 − cos θ) between =i + 3i + 2y
the points (0, 0) and (aπ, 2a). 3 2 0
1 3
Solution The integrand f (z) = z 2 + 3z + 2 is an = − i(2a)3 − (2a)2 + 2i(2a)
3 2
entire function (analytic in the entire complex plane).
So, its integral along any curve connecting two fixed Along AB: z = x + 2ia, dz = dx; y = 2a; x varies
points will be the same, whatever the path may be. from 0 to aπ

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4-6 Engineering Mathematics III

Z Z aπ Z 1
I2 = f (z)dz = [(x+2ia)2 +3(x+2ia)+2]dx = (15x4 − 162x5 )dx
AB 0 0
aπ
1 3 3 2
1
= (x + 2ia) + (x + 2ia) + 2(x) =(3x5 − 27x6 ) = 3 − 27 = −24.
3 2 0 0

1 3 3 2 Note
= (aπ + 2ia) + (aπ + 2ia) + 2aπ The value of the integral along both paths is the
3 2
1 3 same. We know R from vector Rintegral calculus that
+ i(2a)3 + (2a)2 . a line integral C F̄(r̄) · d r̄ = C (F1 dx + F2 dy) with
3 2
Example 4.8
continuous F1 , F2 in a domain D is independent of
Z (1,3)
path in D if F̄ = (F1 , F2 ) is the gradient of a scalar
Evaluate [3x2 ydx+(x3−3y2 )]dy along the curve function 8 in D such that F̄ = ∇8 or, in components,
(0,0)
∂8 ∂8
(i) y = 3x and (ii) y = 3x2 . [JNTU 2003S (Set 3)] , F2 =
F1 = .
∂x ∂y
∂8 ∂8 3
Here F1 = = 3x2 y; F2 = x − 3y2
∂x ∂y
y
P (1, 3) ⇒ 8(x, y) = x3 y − y3 = C.

4.3.6 Non-Analytic Functions: Path

Dependence
Example 4.9
Z 1+i

O x
Evaluate (x − y + ix2 )dz along the line z = 0 to
0
z = 1 + i. [JNTU 1993]

Figure 4.9
y

Solution Treating x as a parameter we can P (1+i)

convert the integral in terms of x.
(i) y = 3x, dy = 3dx. Substituting for y and dy,
Z (1,3)
[3x2 ydx + (x3 − 3y2 )dy]
(0,0) O x
Z 1
= [3x2 · 3x dx + (x3 − 3 · 9x2 )3dx]
x=0
Z 1 Figure 4.10
= (12x3 − 81x2 )dx
0
Solution Equation of OP is y = x
81 1
= 3x − x3 = 3 − 27 = −24
4
Let z = x + iy = x + ix = (1 + i)x
3 0
2
(ii) y = 3x ; dy = 6xdx. Substituting for y and dy, dz = (1 + i)dx; x varies from 0 to 1
Z (1,3) Z 1+i Z 1
[3x2 ydx + (x3 − 3y2 )dy] ∴ (x − y + ix2 )dz = (1 + i) ix2 dx
(0,0)
0 0
Z 1 1
x3

= 2 2 3
[3x · 3x · dx + (x − 3 · 9x )6x dx] 4 i−1
= (1 + i)i = .
x=0 3 0 3

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Complex Integration 4-7

1
= (1 + 2i) t 2 + 3t + i(t 2 − t) 0

Example 4.10
Z 2+i
= (1 + 2i)4 = 4 + 8i.
Evaluate (2x + iy + 1)dz along the path
z=1−i
(i) x = t + 1, y = 2t 2 − 1 and Example 4.11
(ii) x = t+1, y = 2t−1. [JNTU 1999S, 2005 (Set 1)] Integrate f (z) = x2 + ixy from A(1, 1) to B(2, 8)
along the straight line AB.
Solution
(i) x = t + 1, y = 2t 2 − 1 are parametric equations Solution Equation of AB is y = 7x −6. Let z =
of the parabola y + 1 = 2(x − 1)2 x + iy, dz = dx + idy = 1 + 7idx; x varies from 1 to 2
z = x + iy = (t + 1) + i(2t 2 − 1), dz = (1 + 4it)dt; Z
t varies from 0 to 1 (x2 + ixy)dz
AB
Z 2
y = [x2 + i(7x2 − 6x)](1 + 7i)dx
Axis

x=1
2
x3

7 3
=(1 + 7i) +i x − 3x2
Q (0, 1) P (2, 1) 3 3 1
3
2 −1 7 3
(0.293, 0) (1.707, 0)
=(1 + 7i) +i (2 − 1) − 3(22 − 1)
3 3
O x
7 49 7+22i
=(1+7i) +i −9 = (1+7i)
3 3 3
7 − 154 + i(22 + 49) −147 + i71
A (1, –1)
= = .
3 3

Figure 4.11 Example 4.12

R
Z 2+i Evaluate C z̄ dz where C is the upper half of the unit
(2x + iy + 1)dz circle |z| = 1 taken in the clockwise sense.
z=1−i
Z 1
= [2t + 2 + 1 + i(2t 2 − 1)](1 + i4t)dt y
t=0
Z 1 P
= [(2t +3+4t −8t 3 )+i(8t 2 +12t +2t 2 −1)]dt
0
1
10t 3

2 2
4
= (3t + 3t − 2t ) + i + 6t − t
3 0
A O B x
10 25
= (3 + 3 − 2) + i +6−1 =4+ i
3 3
(ii) x = t+1, y = 2t−1 are the parametric equations Figure 4.12
of the straight line y = 2x − 3. The limits for t are 0
and 1. Solution The upper half of the unit circle
Z 2+i |z| = 1 taken in the clockwise sense is given by
(2x + iy + 1)dz z = eit (π ≤ t ≤ 0), dz = ieit dt so that z̄ = e−it
z=1−i
Z 1 Z Z 0 0
= [(2t + 3) + i(2t − 1)] (dt + i2dt)
t=0
∴ z̄ dz = e−it ieit dt = it = −iπ.
C π π

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4-8 Engineering Mathematics III

ExampleZ 4.13 x = t, y = t 2 joining the points (1,1) and (2,4).

Evaluate f (z)dz where f (z) = y − x − i3x2 and
c
Solution
(i) C is the straight line segment from 0 to 1 + i and (i) C: Straight line
also (ii) when C consists of line segments OA from y = 3x −2, z = x +iy = x +i(3x −2), dz = (1+3i)dx
z = 0 to z = i and AB from z = i to z = 1 + i.
f (z) = z̄ = x − iy = x − i(3x − 2).
y
TheZlimits forZx 2are x = 1 to 2.
A B (1, 1) z̄ dz = [(1 − 3i)x + 2i](1 + 3i)dx
C 1
2
x2

= 10 · + (2i − 6)x
2 1
=5(22 − 1) + (2i − 6)(2 − 1)
=15 − 6 + 2i = 9 + 2i
O x
(ii) C: Parabola
Figure 4.13 y = x2 , z = x + iy = x + ix2 , dz = (1 + 2ix)dx
f (z) = z̄ = x − iy = x − ix2 .
Solution
(i) If O = (0, 0) and B = (1, 1) then the equation of Z limits Zfor2 x are x = 1 to 2
The
OB is y = x and x varies from 0 to 1 (Fig. 4.13). z̄ dz = (x − ix2 )(1 + 2ix)dx
C x=1
z = x + iy ⇒ dz = (1 + i)dx ∵y=x Z 2
(x + 2x3 ) + ix2 dx

=
Z Z Z 1 x=1
f (z)dz = (y−x−i3x2 )dz = −3i x2 (1+i)dx x2

2 i
2
C C 0 = + x4 + x3
x3 1 2 4 3 1
=(3 − 3i) = (1 − i) 1 2 1 4 i
3 0 = (2 − 1) + (2 − 1) + (23 − 1)
2 2 3
(ii) Along OA: x = 0; y varies from 0 to 1 3 15 7i 7i
Z 1 = + + =9+ .
y2 1 i
Z
2 2 3 3
(y−x−3ix2 )d(x+iy) = i y dy = i =
OA 0 2 0 2 Example 4.15
Z 1+i
Along AB: y = 1; x varies from 0 to 1 Evaluate (x2 − iy)dz along the paths (i) y = x
Z 1 0
and (ii) y = x2 .
Z
(y − x − 3ix2 )d(x + iy) = (1 − x − 3ix2 )dx
AB 0
Solution
x2 1
− ix3 )
=(x − (i) Equation of OB is y = x, dy = dx, x varies from 0
2 0
to 1 (Fig. 4.14)
1 1 Z 1+i Z (1,1)
=1 − − i = − i
2 2 (x2 − iy)dz = (x2 − iy)(dx + idy)
Z 0 (0,0)
i 1 1−i 1
∴ f (z)dz = + − i = .
Z
C 2 2 2 = (x2 − ix)(dx + idx)
x=0
ExampleR 4.14 Z 1
Evaluate C z̄dz where C is (i) the line segment join- =(1 + i) (x2 − ix)dx
ing the points (1,1) and (2,4) and (ii) the curve x=0

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Complex Integration 4-9

y Example 4.16
Integrate f (z) = x2 +ixy from A(1, 1) to B(2, 8) along
B(1, 1) (i) the straight line AB and (ii) the curve C : x = t,
y = t3.

Solution
y−1 x−1
(i) Equation of straight line AB is =
O x 8−1 2−1
⇒ y= 7x−6, dy= 7dx. The limits for x are x = 1 to 2

Figure 4.14 y
B (2, 8)

1
x3 x2

1 i
=(1 + i) −i = (1 + i) −
3 2 0 3 2

1 1 1 1 5 i
= + +i − = − A (1, 1)
3 2 3 2 6 6
O x
y

Figure 4.16
B (1, 1)
P
O x Z Z
f (z)dz = (x2 + ixy)d(x + iy)
AB AB
Z2
= [x2 + ix(7x − 6)](1 + 7i)dx
1
Figure 4.15 Z 2
=(7i + 1) [(7i + 1)x2 − 6ix]dx
(ii) Equation of OPB is y = x2 , dy = 2x dx; x 1
varies from 0 to 1 (Fig. 4.15) 2 2
x3 x2

Z 1+i Z (1,1) =(14i − 48) + (42 − 6i)
3 1 2 1
(x2 − iy)dz = (x2 − ix2 )(dx + i2xdx)
0 (0,0)
7 3
=(14i − 48) + (42 − 6i)
Z 1 3 2
=(1 − i) (x2 dx + i2x3 dx) 98 71
x=0 = i − 112 + 63 − 9i = −49 + i
1 3 3
x3

2 4
=(1 − i) +i x (ii) C : x = t, y = t 3 . The limits for t are t = 1 to 2
3 4
0 Z Z (2,8)
1 1
=(1 − i) +i f (z)dz = (x2 + ixy)d(x + iy)
3 2 C (1,1)
2

1 1 1 1 5 i
Z
= + +i − = + . = (t 2 + it 4 )d(t + it 3 )
3 2 2 3 6 6 t=1

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ4” — 2009/11/16 — 15:59 — page 4-13 — #13

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Complex Integration 4-13

Integral along C1 4.4 Cauchy–Goursat Theorem

We take x = t, y = t 2 , dx = dt, dy = 2tdt; t varies 2
Cauchy’s integral theorem (C.I.T.) or Cauchy’s
from 0 to 1. theorem
Theorem 4.1 If f (z) ∈ H (D) where D is a
Z
(y2 + 2xy)dx + (x2 − 2xy)dy simply-connected domain, then
C1
1
Z Z
= (t 4 + 2t 3 )dt + (t 2 − 2t 3 )2tdt f (z)dz = 0
0 C
Z 1
= (−3t 4 + 4t 3 )dt for every simple, closed curve C in D.
0
1
3
= − t5 + t4
5 0

3 2
=− +1=
5 5
D
►C
y

Figure 4.22

y2=x P (1, 1)
Proof: Let f (z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y), dz = dx+idy
so that
y=x2
Z Z
O x
f (z)dz = (u + iv)(dx + idy)
C
ZC Z
= (udx−vdy)+i (vdx+udy) (4.6)
C C

Figure 4.21 =I1 + iI2 (say) (4.7)

Integral along C2 Let us assume that f ′ (z) is continuous in D.

We take x = t 2 , y = t, dx = 2tdt, dy = dt; t varies Therefore, partial derivatives ux , uy , vx and vy are
from 1 to 0. continuous in D containing C and satisfy the
Cauchy–Riemann equations
Z
(y2 + 2xy)dx + (x2 − 2xy)dy
C2
Z 0 ux = vy , uy = −vx (4.8)
2 3 4 3
= (t + 2t )2tdt + (t − 2t )dt
1 Hence we can apply Green’s theorem in plane to
Z 0
Eq. (4.7).
= 5t 4 dt = [t 5 ]01 = −1
1
Z Z Z 2 Cauchy, Augustin Louis (1789–1857), great French analyst,

∴ (y2 +2xy)dx+(x2 −2xy)dy = + applied mathematician and group theorist. After Euler, the most
C c1 c2 prolific mathematician in history. He worked on wave, elasticity
and group theory; introduced modern rigour into calculus, founded
2 −3 the theory of functions of a complex variable; inaugurated modern
= −1= .
5 5 era in differential equations with his existence theorems.

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4-14 Engineering Mathematics III

3 Green’s Theorem 4.5 Cauchy’s Theorem for

Multiply-Connected Domain
If F1 and F2 are continuous functions of x and y Theorem
∂F1 ∂F2
having continuous partial derivatives and in Theorem 4.2 If f (z) is analytic in a doubly-
∂y ∂x
a region R bounded by a simple closed curve C, then connected domain D bounded by two simple closed
I Z Z curves C1 and C2 , then
∂F2 ∂F1 Z Z
F1 dx + F2 dy = − dxdy
C R ∂x ∂y f (z)dz = f (z)dz.
C1 C2
where C is traversed in the counter-clockwise direc-
Proof: Select two points A and B on C1 and
tion.
C2 respectively and join them by an arc AB. This
Take F1 = u, F2 = −v to evaluate I1 and F1 = v,
converts the doubly-connected domain D into a
F2 = u to evaluate I2 . We obtain
simply connected one bounded by APABQBA. By
Cauchy’s integral theorem,
ZZ 
I1 = − (uy + vx )dxdy = 0  

ZZ D by Eq. (4.8)
I2 = (ux − vy )dxdy = 0 


D Q
D
Z A B
∴ f (z)dz = 0.
C C2 C1
P
4.4.1 Alternative Statement of
Figure 4.23
Cauchy’s Theorem
If f (z) is analytic at all
Z points inside and on a simple Z
closed curve C, then f (z)dz = 0. f (z)dz = 0
C APABQBA
Z Z Z Z
Note ⇒ + + + f (z)dz = 0
1. Cauchy’s integral theorem forms the basis for the APA
Z
AB BQB
Z
BA
theory of complex integration.
⇒ f (z)dz = f (z)dz
2. An additional condition that f ′ (z) is continuous in C1 C2
D is assumed to apply Green’s theorem in the proof. Z Z
French mathematician E. Goursat (1858–1936) ∵ f (z)dz = − f (z)dz
proved the theorem in 1900 without this assumption Z BA ZAB
and this theorem is known as Cauchy–Goursat and f (z)dz = − f (z)dz.
theorem. His proof is somewhat complicated and BQB APA

hence omitted here. Note

3. The Cauchy–Riemann equations are precisely the We can extend the result to p-ply connected domains,
conditions for two real integrals in Eq. (4.7) above p > 3.
to be independent of path. Hence the line integral of
an analytic function f (z) in D is independent of the Alternative Statement
path joining any two points in D. Let C be a simple closed curve. Let Cj (j =
1, 2, · · · n) be a finite number of simple closed curves
3 Green, George (1793–1841), English analyst and applied lying in the interior of C such that the interiors of
mathematician. Cj ’s are disjoint. Suppose D is the closed region

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ4” — 2009/11/16 — 15:59 — page 4-15 — #15

where f (z) = u + iv; u = u(x, y), v = v(x, y).

This proves the theorem for paths having only
Steps:
the two end points in common. We can extend the
1. Represent the path C in the form
theorem to the case of paths with more common
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) (a ≤ t ≤ b).
dz(t) points.
2. Compute the derivative ż(t) = .
dt
3. Substitute z(t) for every z in f (z). Hence x(t) for 4.5.5 Integral of Non-Analytic
x and y(t) for y. Function: Dependence on
4. Integrate f [z(t)]ż(t) over t from a to b. Path of Integration
The following example illustrates that the complex
line integral of a non-analytic function depends not
4.5.4 Value of Line Integral: only on the end points z1 and z2 , but also on the path
Independence of Path of integration joining z1 and z2 .
We have observed that the value of a line integral ExampleZ 4.26
of a given function f (z) from a point z1 to another Z
point z2 is, in general, dependent upon the path C of Evaluate f (z)dz = Re z dz along the two
C C
integration and not merely on z1 and z2 . ∗
given paths: (i) Along C , the straight line joining
We call an integral of f (z) independent of path in a O(0, 0) and P(1, 2) and (ii) along C1 , the straight
domain D if, for every z1 and z2 in D its value depends line joining O(0, 0) and A(1, 0) and then along C2 ,
only on z1 and z2 and not on the choice of path C in D. the straight line joining A(1, 0) and P(1, 2).
y
Theorem 4.5 If f (z) is analytic in a simply-
connected domain D, then the integral of f (z) is P (1, 2)
independent of the path in D.

▲
C1
O x
*
C2
▲
C2
▲

Figure 4.29

Z1
Solution
y x
(i) Equation of OP is = = t (say) ⇒ x = t, y = 2t.
Figure 4.28 2 1

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4-18 Engineering Mathematics III

dz 4.5.7 Verification and Application

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) = t + 2it, = 1 + 2i.
dt of C.I.T.
Along OP: t varies from t = 0 to 1; Re z = t
Z 1 Functions with no singularities (Entire
t2 1
Z
1 functions)
Re z dz = t(1 + 2i)dt = (1 + 2i) = +i
C 0 2 0 2
The following functions are entire functions, i.e.,
(ii) C consists of C1 : z(t) = x(t) + io = t where they have no singularities.
t varies from 0 to 1 and dz = dt; C2 : z(t) = Polynomial function:
x(t) + iy(t) = 1 + it where t varies from 0 to 2 and
dz = idt
Z Z Z Pn (z) = a0 + a1 z + · · · + an z n (an 6= 0)
Re z dz = Re z dz + Re z dz
C C1 C2 Exponential function: ez
Z 1 Z 2 sine and cosine functions: sin z, cos z
= tdt + idt sinh and cosh functions: sinh z, cosh z
0 0 Integrals of these functions along any simple
1 2 1 2 1 closed path C is zero. In particular,
= t + it = + 2i
2 0 0 2 I
Clearly, the two results are different. (i) z n dz = 0 n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
C
I I I
4.5.6 Bound for the Absolute Value (ii) z
e dz = 0 sin zdz = 0 cos zdz
of an Integral IC C C
(ML-Inequality)
I
(iii) sinh dz = 0 cosh zdz = 0
We say that a function f (z) defined on a simply- C C
connected domain D is bounded if there exists a
Example 4.28
positive real number M such that |f (z)| ≤ M for I
all z in D. Evaluate I = (5z 4 − 3z 2 + 6)dz where C is
C
Suppose f (z) is defined on a simply-connected
domain D and C is any path of integration in C. Then (a) the unit circle |z| = 1 and
f (z) is bounded by M on C. If L is the length of the
path CZ we have Z (b) the square ABCD with A = (0, 0), B = (1, 0),
Z C = (1, 1) and D = (0, 1)
f (z)dz ≤ |f (z)|dz ≤ M dz ≤ M
C C C (c) The parabola y = x2 (C1 ) and parabola x =
This inequality is known as Cauchy’s ML- y2 (C2 ) joining (0, 0) and (1, 1).
inequality and is very useful in estimating the value
of an integral without evaluating it. Solution The integral f (z) = 5z 4 − 3z 2 + 6 is a
polynomial in z. So, f (z) is an entire function. Also,
Example Z
4.27 each of the above contours is a simple closed path.
√ By C.I.T.,
Show that z 2 dz 6 2 2 if C is the straight line I Z
C
segment from 0 to 1 + i. f (z)dz = (5z 4 − 3z 2 + 6)dz = 0.
C C
√ √
Solution L=length of the path= 12 + 12 = 2
√ Singularities lie outside the contour
|f (z)| = |z 2 | 6 |z|2 6 ( 2)2 = 2
Example 4.29
Hence by Cauchy’sZ ML-inequality
√ I centre at 0, i.e., |z| = 1.
LetIC be the unit circle with
z 2 dz 6 2 2.
C
(i) sec zdz = 0 and (ii) tan zdz = 0.
c

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Complex Integration 4-19

Solution Sec z and tan z are analytic everywhere C.I.T. is not applicable in the following
π 3π example:
except at z = ± , ± , . . . lying outside |z| = 1
2 2
since the singularities of sec z and tan z are the zeros Example 4.34
of cos z.
I
dz
where C : |z−2| = 3 ⇔ x2+y2−4x−5 = 0.
Example 4.30 z2 + 4
I
dz 1
= 0. Solution The singularities of are at
c z2 + 2 +4 z2
1 √ 2
z + 4 = 0, i.e., z = ±2i, i.e., A = (0, 2) and B =
Solution is analytic except at z = ± 2i.
z2 + 2 (0, −2), centre = C = (2, 0), radius r = 3.
1
Singularities of 2 are the zeros of z 2 + 2 = 0
z +2
and these points lie outside C; so, no singularities lie
inside C. (0, 2)
A
Example 4.31 C
(2, 0)
I
dz
= 0.
2
z +4 B n=3
1 P
Solution 2
is analytic except at z = ±zi,
z +4
which lie outside C; so, no singularities inside C.
Example 4.32
I Figure 4.31
dx
2
= 0.
z +3 The distance between C and A is
1 √
Solution is analytic except at z = ± 3i, p √
z2 + 3 CA = 22 + 22 = 2 2 = 2.828 < radius r (= 3)
which lie outside C; so, no singularities lie inside C.
Example 4.33 ∴ The singularities lie inside C. Hence C.I.T. is not
I applicable.
dz
where C : |z −2| = 2 ⇔ x2 +y2 −4x = 0.
C z2 + 4
4.5.8 Non-Analytic Functions
2i
There exist
I functions f (z) and simple closed paths C
such that f (z)dz = 0.
C
For example, let f (z) = z̄ and C : |z| = 1.
C If z(t) = eit , dz = ieit dt, then t varies from 0 to 2π
2 I I I 2π Z 2π
f (z)dz = z̄dz = e−it .ieit dt = i dt = 2πi
C C 0 0
–2i
This does not contradict Cauchy’s theorem
Figure 4.30 because f (z) = z̄ is not analytic for any z, and hence
1 the condition of Cauchy’s theorem that f (z) = z̄
Solution The singularities of are at should be analytic is not satisfied.
+4 z2
2
z + 4 = 0, i.e., z = ±2i which lie outside C. The condition of analyticity of Cauchy’s theorem
Hence C.I.T. applies and the integral is zero. is only a sufficient condition but not necessary:

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4-20 Engineering Mathematics III

Z
Example 4.35 xdx−ydy
⇒ p = 0 (considering the real part)
Show that the condition that f (z) must be analytic for
I C x2 + y2
f (z)dz = 0 is only a sufficient condition but not This implies that the integral is independent of the
C
necessary. path of integration.

Solution Let f (z) = 1/z 2 and C: |z| = 1, the Example 4.37

unit circle Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function f (z) = z 3
I I
1
I 2π when the integral is taken around the boundary of the
f (z)dz = 2
dz = e−2it ieit dt rectangle with vertices −1, 1, 1 + i and −1 + i.
C z 0
Z 2π Z
=i e−it dt = 0 Solution By C.I.T. z 3 dz = 0. z 3 is analytic in
0 C
D and C is a piece-wise smooth simple closed curve.
z(t) = eit , dz = ieit ; t varies from 0 to 2π since
e0 = e2πi = 1. This result does not follow from C3 y
Cauchy’s theorem, because f (z) = z12 is not analytic (0, 1) B (1, 1)
B´ (1, 1)
at z = 0 inside C. Hence the condition that f be
analytic in D is sufficient but not necessary for the C2
integral to vanish. C4

4.5.9 Principle of deformation of A´ (–1, 0) 0 C1 A (1, 0) x

path:
Imagine that the path C2 is obtained from C1 by
continuously moving C1 with ends fixed, until it Figure 4.32
coincides with C2 . As long as our path of deformation Z Z
always contains only points at which f (z) is analytic, The integral f (z)dz = z 3 dz had to be evalu-
the integral retains the same value. This is called the C C
ated along the contour C, which is the boundary of
principle of deformation of path.
the rectangle A′ ABB′ consisting of curves (straight
Example 4.36 line segments) C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 . Hence
Z
xdx − ydy Z Z Z Z Z
Show that p is independent of the path z 3 dz = z 3 dz+ z 3 dz+ z 3 dz+ z 3 dz (1)
C x2 + y2 C C1 C2 C3 C4
of integration which does not pass through the origin.
′
[JNTU 2003 (Set 1)] Along C1 : A A; z = x, y = 0, dy = 0, −1 6 x 6 1,
dz = idy
z Z Z 1
Solution Let f (z) = 6 = 0. Then f (z) 3
z dz = x3 dz = 0 (2)
|z| C1 −1
is analytic throughout the complex plane except at
z = 0 ⇔ (x, y) = (0, 0), the origin. If C is any Along C2 : AB; z = 1 + iy, x = 1, 0 6 y 6 1,
simple closed path not containing the origin as an dx = 0, dz = idy
interior point or a boundary point, then by Cauchy’s Z Z 1
3
integral theorem z dz = (1 + iy)3 (idy)
C2 0
Z Z Z
z (x + iy)(dx + idy) Z 1
f (z)dz = dz = p =0 =i (1 + 3iy − 3y2 − iy3 )dy
C C |z| C x2 + y2 0
Z Z 1
xdx − ydy xdy + ydx

3 i
⇒ p +i p =0 =i y + iy2 − y3 − y4
C x2 + y2 C x2 + y2 2 4 0

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Complex Integration 4-21

(z 2 − z − 1)/(z − i)2
Z
Solution Tan z is not analytic at z = ±π/2, 2πi
∴ dz = f (0) = 2πi.
±3π/2, . . . but
all these points
lie outside C. C z 1
1 1 1 1
= − has singularities at
z2 − 1 2 z−1 z+1 ExampleZ 4.42
z = 1 and z = −1, respectively. z 3 − 2z + 1
Evaluate dz where C is the circle
I Z I C (z − i)2
tan z 1 tan z 1 tan z |z| = 2, using Cauchy’s integral formula.
2
dz = dz − dz
C z −1 2 C z−1 2 C z+1 [JNTU 2003 (Set 4)]
1
= 2πi[tan 1 − tan(−1)] = 2πi tan 1. Solution The given curve is |z| = 2 ⇔ x2 +y2 =
2 2
2 which is a circle of radius 2 with its centre at the
origin. The integrand has a singularity at z = i, which
ExampleZ 4.41 lies inside C. We apply Cauchy’s generalised integral
z2 − z − 1 1 formula
Evaluate 2
dz where C : |z − | = 1 Z
f (z)dz 2πi (n)
C z(z − 1) 2 = f (a) (1)
using Cauchy’s integral formula. C (z − a)
n+1 n!

Solution The given curve is Here a = i, n = 1, f (z) = z 3 − 22 + 1

⇒ f ′ (z) = 3z 2 − 2; f ′ (i) = 3i2 − 2 = −5
1 2

1
+ y 2 = 12 ,
Z 3
C : |z − | = 1 ⇔ x − z −2z+1 2πi ′
2 2 ∴ 2
dz = f (i) = 2πi(−5) = −10πi.
C (z−i) 1!

1
which is a circle with centre at , 0 and radius =
2 ExampleZ 4.43
1. The integral has singularities at z = 0 and z = i z 3 − sin 3z
of which the former lies inside C and the latter lies Evaluate 3
dz with C: |z| = 2 using
C (z − π/2)
outside C. We apply Cauchy’s generalised integral Cauchy’s integral formula. [JNTU 2005S (Set 5)]
formula
Solution The given curve is |z| = 2 ⇔ x2 +y2 =
I
f (z) 2πi (n)
n+1
dz = f (a) (1) 2
2 , which is a circle of radius 2 with its centre at the
C (z − a) n!

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Complex Integration 4-25

origin. The integrand has a unique singularity (a pole y

of order 3) at z = π/2 = 1.5708... < 2 and hence
lies inside C.
3
Z = z −sin 3z. We apply Cauchy’s integral
Let f (z)
f (z)dz 2πi (n) A C B
formula n+1
= f (a).
C (z − a) n! 0 1/2 1 3/2 x
′′
Here a = π/2,
n = 2 and f (z) = 6z
π+ 9 sin 3z
′′ π π
⇒f = 6 · + 9 sin 3
2 2 2
= 3π − 9 = 3(π − 3)
Figure 4.36
Z 3
z − sin 3z 2πi ′′ π
π 3 dz = f = 3πi(π − 3).
C (z − 2 ) 2 2 at z = 1 which lies inside C. Let f (z) = z 3 e−z , which
is analytic at all points inside C. We apply Cauchy’s
ExampleZ 4.44 generalised integral formula
zez dz n!
Z
f (z)
Evaluate 3
where c is any simple closed f (n) (a) = dz
C (z + a) 2πi C (z − a)n+1
curve enclosing the point z = −a, using Cauchy’s
integral formula. [JNTU 2004, 2004S (Set 1)] Here we have a = 1, n = 2,

Solution The given curve is any simple closed f ′′ (2) = (z 3 )·′′ e−2 +2(z 3 )′(te−2 )′ +z 3 (e−z )′′
path enclosing the only singular point z = −a of the = [6z + 6z 2 (−1) + z 3 ]e−z
integrand. We apply Cauchy’s generalised integral by Leibnitiz’s theorem
formula
Z ⇒ f ′′ (a) = f ′′ (1) = (6·1−6·12 +13 )e−2 = e−1
f (z) 2πi (n) Z 3 −z
z e 2πi ′′
dz = f (z0 ) (1) ∴ dz = f (1) = πie−1 .
(z − z0 )n+1 n! (z−1) 3 2
C

Here z0 = −a, n = 2, f (z) = ze2 Example

Z 4.46
dz
f ′′ (z) = (ez )′′ z + 2(ez )′ (z)′ = (z + 2)ez Evaluate where C is the circumference
C (z 2+ 4)2
f ′′ (−a) = (2 − a)e−a 2
of the ellipse x +4(y−2)2 = 4. [JNTU 2003 (Set 1)]
y
Substituting in Eq. (1), we get B
Z
zez 2πi ′′ b=1
dz = f (z0 ) = πi(2 − a)e−a . A´
a=2 A
c (z + a)
3 2 (0,2)
B´
ExampleZ 4.45 x
3 −z 0
z e dz
Evaluate using Cauchy’s theorem where
C (z − 1)3
C is the circle |z − 1| = 1/2.
[JNTU 2003, 2006 (Set 4)]
Figure 4.37
Solution The equation of the given curve is
2
2 2 1 Solution The given curve is the ellipse whose
C: |z − 1| = 1/2 ⇔ (x − 1) + (y − 0) =
12 equation is
It is a circle. Its centre = (1, 0); radius r = . The
2
z3 (x − 0)2 (y − 2)2
integrand is and it has a unique singularity 2
+ =1 (1)
(z − i)3 ez 2 12

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4-26 Engineering Mathematics III

The centre of the ellipse is (0, 2). The integrand ∴ By Cauchy’s theorem,
has two singular points at z = 2i and −2i. Of the two
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
points z = 2i, (i.e., y = 2) lies inside C and z = −2i f (3) = dz = 0
lies outside C. Also (z 2 + 4)2 = (z + 2i)2 (z − 2i)2 . C z−3
1 Z
3z 2 + 7z + 1
f (z) = is analytic inside and on C. We (ii) f (1) = dz
(z + 2i)2 z−1
C
apply Cauchy’s integral formula
Since z = 1 lies inside the circle C: |z| = 2, the
3z 2 + 7z + 1
I
(n) n! f (z)
f (a) = (2) integrand has a singularity at z = 1
2πi C (z − a)n+1 z−1
g(z)
and is of the form where g(z) = 3z 2 + 7z + 1
−2 z−1
Here f ′ (z) = ; a = 2i and n = 1 is analytic everywhere.
(z + 2i)3
Substituting these in Eq. (1), we get ∴ By Cauchy’s integral theorem,
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
1
Z
(z+2i)2
dz
d

1

f (1) = dz = 2πi · g(1)
=2πi C z−1
C (z − 2i)2 (z + 2i)2 z=2i
dz
=2πi[3z 2 + 7z + 1]z=1 = 22πi
−2 −4πi π
=2πi 3
= 3
= . Z
3z 2 + 7z + 1
(z + 2i) z=2i (4i) 16 (iii) f (1 − i) = dz
C z − (1 − i)
ExampleZ 4.47 √
3z 2 + 7z + 1 Since |1 − i| = 2 < 2, the point 1 − i lies inside
If f (a) = dz where C is |z| = 2 find 3z 2 + 7z + 1
c z−a the circle C : |z| = 2, the integrand
(i) f (3), (ii) f (1), (iii) f (1 − i), (iv) f ′′ (1 − i). z − (1 − i)
[JNTU 1998] has a singularity at z = 1 − i and is of the form
g(z)
where g(z) = 3z 2 + 7z + 1 is analytic
y z − (1 − i)
everywhere. By Cauchy’s integral theorem,
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
f (1 − i) = dz = 2πig(1 − i)
C z − (1 − i)
=2πi [3z 2 + 7z + 1]z=1−i
0 1 2 3 x =2πi [(3z + 7)z + 1]z=1−i
(1, –1) =2πi [(10 − 3i)(1 − i) + 1]
=2πi [7 − 13i + 1] = 2π(13 + 8i)
(iv) Differentiating the given equation twice w.r.t ‘a’,
Figure 4.38 we get
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
3z 2 +7z+1
Z
Solution It is given that f (a) = dz f ′′ (a) = 2 dz
z−a C (z − a)3
C
3z 2 + 7z + 1
2 2 2
Z
where C is the circle |z| = 2 ⇔ x + y = 2
∴ f ′′ (1 − i) = 2 2+1
dz
C [z − (1 − i)]
3z 2 + 7z + 1
Z
(i) ∴ f (3) = dz 2πi ′′
z−3 =2· · g (1 − i) = 12πi
C
2!
Since z = 3 lies outside the circle C : |z| = 2, the g(z) = 3z 2 + 7z + 1
.
3z 2 + 7z + 1 g ′′ (z) = 6, g ′′ (1 − i) = 6
integrand is analytic within and on C.
z−3

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Complex Integration 4-27

y
Example 4.48

zez
Z
Evaluate dz where C is the circle
C z2−1
|z| = 2.
C1 C2
y
0 3 x
1 2

–1 0 1 x
Figure 4.40

Aliter: 2z 2z
e e
e2z dz
Z Z Z
z−2 z−2
Figure 4.39 = dz + dz
c (z − 1)(z − 2) c1 z − 1 c2 z − 2
zez 2z
e
2z
e
Solution The singularities of the integrand 2 = 2πi + 2πi
z −1 z − 2 z=1 z − 1 z=2
are at z = −1 and 1, which lie inside the circle |z| = 2. 2·1 2·2
e e
z 1 1 1 = 2πi + 2πi
Now, 2 = + 1−2 2−1
z −1 2 z−1 z+1
Z
zez 1
Z
ez 1
Z
ez = 2πi(e4 − e2 ) = 4πie3 sinh 1 or 4πe3 sin i.
∴ 2
dz = dz + dz
C z −1 2 C z−1 2 C z+1
1 1 Example 4.50
= · 2πi · [ez ]z=1 + · πi[ez ]z=−1 Z
2 2 z+4
Evaluate dz where C is the circle
(e1 + e−1 ) C z 2 + 2z + 5
=2πi = 2πi · cosh 1. |z| = 1. [JNTU 1998]
2
(by Cauchy’s integral theorem) Solution z 2 + 2z + 5 = (z + 1)2 − (2i)2
= (z + 1 + 2i)(z + 1 − 2i)
ExampleZ 4.49
e2z Hence the singularities of the integrand are at
Evaluate dz where C is the circle −1 − 2i, −1 + 2i,
C (z − 1)(z − 2)
|z| = 3. [JNTU 1999S, 2001] i.e., at P1 = (−1, −2) and P2 = (−1, 2), C1 : |z| = 1;
|z| = 1 ⇒ x2 + y2 = 1
Solution Let f (x, y) = x2 + y2 − 1.
1 1 1 Then f (−1, 2) and f (−1, −2) are positive so that
= −
(z − 1)(z − 2) z − 2 z − 1 the points (−1, 2) and (−1, −2) lie outside C. The
e2z integrand is analytic at all points inside C.
Z Z 2z Z 2z
e dz e dz
∴ dz = − Z
z+4
C (z−i)(z−2) C z−2 C z−1 ∴ dz = 0, by Cauchy’s integral theorem.
2
C z +2z+5
=2πi[e2z ]z=2 − 2πi[e2z ]z=1 ,
=2πi(e4 − e2 ) ExampleZ 4.51
z+4
(by Cauchy’s integral theorem) Evaluate dz where C is the circle
C z2
+ 2z + 5
=4πie3 sinh 1 or 4πe3 sin i (i) |z + 1 − i| = 2 and (ii) |z + 1 + i| = 2.

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4-28 Engineering Mathematics III

y y

C
a C1
(–1, 2)
c
(–1, 1) 0 x
0 x
C2

b
(–1, –2)

Figure 4.41 Figure 4.42

Solution Since z 2 + 2z + 5 = (z + 1)2 + 22 =

ez (−2)ez

(z +1+2i)(z +1−2i), the integrand has singularities
= 2πi +
at z = a = −1 + 2i, z = b = −1 − 2i. (z − πi)2 (z − πi)3 z=−πi
(i) C: |z + 1 − i| = 2 ⇔ (x + 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 22 .
ez (−2)ez

The singularity a = (−1, 2) lies inside C and the + 2πi +
(z + πi)2 (z + πi)3 z=−πi
singularity b = (−1, −2) lies outside C.
Z z+4 (by generalised Cauchy’s integral formula)
dz

z−b z+4 a+4 −πi
= 2πi = 2πi 2e−πi

∴ e
C z−a z − b z=a z−b = 2πi −
(−2πi)2 (−2πi)3
3 + 2i π
= 2πi = (3 + 2i)
πi
2eπi

e
4i 2 + 2πi −
(2πi)2 (2πi)3
(ii) C: |z + 1 + i| = 2 ⇔ (x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 22 . πi −πi

e +e 2πi
+ 3 eπi − e−πi

The singularity a = (−1, 2) lies outside C and the = 2πi 2
singularity b = (−1, −2) lies inside C. −4π 4π i
Z z+4 i i i
dz = − cos π + 2 sin π =

z−a z+4 b+4
∴ =2πi = 2πi π π π
C z−b z − a z=b b−a eπi + e−πi

3 − 2i

π = cos π = 1
=2πi = − (3 − 2i). 2
−4i 2 eπi − e−πi
= sin π = 0.
Example 4.52 2i
ez
I
Evaluate dz where C is |z| = 4 using ExampleZ 4.53
C (z 2
+ π2 )2 z−1
Cauchy’s integral theorem. Evaluate dz where C is |z−i| = 2.
C (z + 1)2 (z − 2)
[JNTU 1999, 2004, 2006 (Set 1)] [JNTU 1998S]

Solution The singularities of the integrand are Solution C is the circle |z − i| = 2 ⇔ x2 + (y −

the zeros of (z 2 + π2 )2 =
0 z⇔z = ±πi. z
2 2
1) = 2 . The singularities of the integrand are at
e e z = a = −1 and z = b = 2 out of which the former
ez
Z Z Z
(z+πi)2 (z−πi)2
∴ 2 2 2
dz = 2
dz+ 2
dz lies inside C while the latter lies outside C.
C (z +π ) C1 (z−πi) C2 (z+πi)
z−1

ez

2πi d
Z Z
z−1 z−2
= dz = dz
1! dz (z − πi)2 z=−πi 2
C (z+1) (z−2) C (z + 1)
2

ez

2πi d 2πi d z − 1
+ , =
1! dz (z + πi)2 z=πi 1! dz z − 2 z=−1

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Complex Integration 4-29

y ExampleZ 4.55
log z dz 1
Evaluate 3
where C: |z − 1| = using
C (z − 1) 2
Cauchy’s integral Formula. [JNTU 2003 (Set 4)]
P
2 y
C
(0, 1) A
a b (2, 0) C
Q (–1, 0) R x
(–√3, 0) (√3, 0)
x´ 0 1/2 1 3/2 x

Figure 4.43

(z−2)1−(z−1)·1
Figure 4.44
= 2πi
(z−2)2 z=−1 Solution The function f (z) = log z is analytic

−3 + 2 2πi inside C (log z is not analytic along OX ’ including the
= 2πi =− .
9 9 origin) and the integrand has a singular point at z = 1,
which lies inside C. We apply Cauchy’s generalised
Example 4.54
integral formula
Let C be the circle |z| = 3 described in the
Z
anticlockwise direction. Let f (z) 2πi (n)
n+1
dz = f (a) (1)
2z 2 − z − 2 C (z − a) n!
Z
g(a) = dz (|a| 6 = 3)
C z−a Here a = 1, n = 2 and f (z) = log z
show that g(a) = 8πi. Find g(a) if |a| > 3. ⇒ f ′′ (z) = − z12 , f ′′ (1) = − 112 = −1
Z
2z 2 −z−2
log z 2πi ′′
Solution is analytic for all z except for ∴ 3
dz = f (1) = −πi.
C (z − 1) 2
z−a
z = a, which may be (i) inside C, (ii) on C, or (iii)
outside C. ExampleZ 4.56
2z 2 − z − 2 cos πz 2
(i) z = a is inside C if |a| < 3. is Evaluate dz where C is |z| = 3
z−a C (z − 1)(z − 2)
3
analytic for all z except z = a. by using Cauchy’s integral formula.
Taking f (z) = 2z 2 − z − 2,
Solution The integrand has singularities at
2z 2 − z − 2
Z Z
f (z)
g(a) = dz = dz z = 1 and z = 2 both of which lie inside C. We
C z − a C z −a 1
put into partial fractions. We know
= 2πif (a) (by Cauchy’s integral formula) (z − 1)3 (z − 1)
1 1 1
= 2πi(2 · a2 − a − 2) that = − . Multiplying
(z − 2)(z − 1) z−2 z−1
∴ g(2) = 2πi(2 · 22 − 2 − 2) = 8πi 1
both sides by twice, we get
z−2
2z 2 − z − 2
(ii) z = a is outside C if |a| > 3. is 1 1 1
z−a = −
analytic for all z inside and on C. (z − 1)2 (z − 1) (z − 2)2 (z − 2)(z − 1)
Z
2z 2 −z−2 1 1 1
∴ dz = 0 by Cauchy’s integral theorem. = 2
− +
z−a (z − 2) z−2 z−1
C

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4-30 Engineering Mathematics III

1 1 1 1 1 Example 4.58
= − + −
(z−1)3 (z−1) (z−2)3 (z−2)2 z−2 z−1 Z
dz
By Cauchy’s integral formula, Evaluate where C is the circle |z| = 2.
C z 8 (z+ 4)
[JNTU 2004 (Set 2)]
Z
f (z) 2πi (n)
n+1
dz = f (a);
C (z − a) n!
Solution The integrand has singularities at z = 0
cos πz 2 dz
Z
and z = −4 of which z = 0 alone lies inside C. We
3
C (z − 1)(z − 2) apply Cauchy’s generalised integral formula
cos πz 2 cos πz 2
Z Z I
2πi f (z)
= 3
− 2
dz f (n) (a) = dz, we get
C (z − 2) C (z − 2) n! C (z − a)n+1
cos πz 2 cos πz 2
Z Z 1

dz
Z
+ dz − dz z+4 2πi 1 πi
= (−1) · 7! · 8 = − 15 .
C z−2 C z−1 C z 8 7! 4 2

1 1 1
= 2πi f ′′ (2)− f ′ (2)+ f (2)−f (1) 1
2! 1! 0! By taking f (z) = and
z+4
= 2πi[−8π − 0 + 1 − 1] = −16π3 i.
2

a = 0, n = 7, f (n) (z) = (−1)n n!(z + 4)−n−1

We have,
1
f (z) = cos πz 2 f ′ (z) = −2zπ sin πz 2 f (7) (0) = [(−1)7 !(z + 4)−8 ]z=0 = (−1)7! .
48
f ′′ (z) = −2π sin πz 2 − 4π2 z 2 cos πz 2
Example 4.59
f ′′ (2) = −2π sin 4π − 16π2 cos 4π = 0 − 16π2 Z
cos z − sin z
f ′ (2) = −4π sin 4π = 0 Evaluate dz with C : |z| = 2 using
C (z + i)3
f (2) = cos 4π = 1 Cauchy’s integral formula.
f (1) = cos π = −1. [JNTU 2005S (Set 1)]

Example 4.57 Solution The integrand has a singular point at

ez
Z
z4
z = −i which lies inside C : |z| = 2. Let f (z) =
Evaluate 3
+ dz where C: |z| = 2, cos z − sin z then f (z) is analytic inside and on C.
C z (z + i)2
using Cauchy’s integral formula. We apply Cauchy’s integral formula
Z
[JNTU 2004, 2004S (Set 1)] f (z) 2πi (n)
n+1
dz = f (a) (1)
C (z − a) n!
Solution The given curve C is |z| = 2 ⇔ x2 +
2 2
y = 2 which is a circle with radius=2 and centre Here a = −i, n = 2, f (z) = cos z − sin z
at the origin. We apply Cauchy’s generalised integral f ′′ (z) = − cos z + sin z
formula ′′
f (−i) = cos(−i) + sin(−i) = − cos i − sin i
Z
f (z) 2πi (n) (1 + i)e + (1 − i)e−1
n+1
dz = f (a) (1) =−
C (z − a) n! 2
The integrands have singularities at z = 0 and z =
2πi (1+1)e+(1−i)e−1
Z
−i inside C. In the first case, a = 0, n = 2, f (z) = cos z−sin z
∴ dz = −
e2 and f ′′ (0) = 1 and in the second case a = i, C (z+i)3 2 2
n = 1, f (z) = z 4 , f ′ (z) = 4z 3 , f ′ (−i) = 4(−i)3 = 4i πi
(1+i)e+(1−i)e−1 .

=−
Z z
e z4
′′
f (0) f ′ (−i)
2
∴ 3
+ dz = 2πi + ExampleZ 4.60
C z (z+i)2 2 1
dz
= πi·1+2πi · 4i = π(i − 8). Evaluate where C is |z| = 2 using
C z 3 (z + 4)

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Complex Integration 4-31

I
Cauchy’s integral formula. [JNTU 2006 (Set 1)] sin z
7. Evaluate dz where C is the circle |z| = 1.
C z 2 ez
Solution The integrand has singularities at z = 0 Ans: 2πi
and z = −4 of which only z = 0 lies inside C. We
e2z
Z
apply Cauchy’s integral formula 8. Evaluate dz where C is the
Z C (z − 1)(z − 2)
f (z)dz 2πi (n) circle |z| = 3 [JNTU 2001]
= f (a) (1)
C (z − a)
n+1 n! Ans: 2πi(e4 − e2 ).

1 Z 3
z − sin 3z
Here a = 0, n = 2; f (z) = 9. Evaluate dz where C is the circle
z+4 C (z − π/2)
3
(−1)(−2) ′′ 2 1 |z| = 2. [JNTU 2003S, 2005S, 2007S, 2008S
⇒ f ′′ (z) = , f (0) = 3 =
(z + 4)3 4 32 (Set 3)]
1
Ans: 3πi(π − 3)
dz
Z
z+4 2πi ′′ πi
∴ = f (0) = . Z
C z 3 2! 32 z
10. Evaluate 2
dz where C is the curve
C z +1
1
EXERCISE 4.1 z+ = 2. [JNTU 1996]
z
I
ez Ans: 2πi
1. Evaluate dz. (a) C : |z| = 1 and (b)
C z−2
C : |z| = 3. 11. Using Cauchy’s integral formula evaluate
z4
Z
Ans: (a) 0, (b) 2πie2 dz where C is the ellipse
2
I iz C (z + 1)(z − i)
e 9x2 + 4y2 = 36. [JNTU 2004S (Set 2)]
2. Evaluate 3
dz if C : |z| = 1.
C Z Ans: 4π(1 − i)
Ans: −πi Z
I dz
3. Evaluate f (z)dz around C: |z − i| = 1 if 12. Prove that = ±πi according as C is the
C z
c lower or upper semicircle of |z| = 1.
1 1
(a) f (z) = , (b) f (z) = 2 .
z 2 +4 (z +4)2 Z 4−3i
[JNTU 2000] 13. Evaluate (6z 2 + 8iz)dz along any path
Ans: (a) π/2, (b) π/16 3+4i
joining 3 + 4i and 4 − 3i.
Z 2
z −z+5 Ans: 238 − 266i
4. If f (a) = dz where C is the ellipse
z−a
C
z 2 ez
Z
x2 y2 14. Evaluate dz where C is |z| = 2.
+ = 1. Evaluate (a) f (1), (b) f (i). C (z − 1)
3
4 9 2
Ans: (a) f (1) = 10πi, (b) 2πi(4 − i) Ans: 14πie

4z 2 + z + 5
Z
5. Using the formula for the derivatives of an ana- 15. If F(a) = dz where C is the
sin6 z z−a
I
C
lytic functions prove that 3
dz ellipse x = 2 cos θ, y = 3 sin θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π).
C (z − π/6)
21πi Find (a) F(4), (b) F(i), F ′ (−1)F ′′ (−i).
= where C is given by |z| = 1. Ans: (a) 0, (b) 2π(i − 1) − 14πi, 16πi
16
sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
I Z 2
z +1
6. Evaluate dz where C is the 16. Evaluate 2
dz where C is the circle
C (z − 1)(z − 2) C z −1
circle |z| = 3. |z − 1| = 1.
Ans: 4πi Ans: 2πi

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Complex Integration 5-3

∞
(a) uniformly convergent in any closed disk X f (n) (a)
or f (z) = an (z − a)n where an = .
|z| ≤ r < 1; but n!
n=0
(b) not uniformly convergent in its whole disk of
convergence |z| < 1.
Proof: Let z be any point inside C. Draw a circle
C1 with centre ‘a’ enclosing z. Let t be a point on C1 .
Relation between the behaviour of real and Then
complex series
Let

(a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 ) + · · · + (an + ibn ) + · · · (5.5)

t
be a series of complex terms. Here the D
Pa’s and the
Pb’s z
are real numbers. If the real series an and bn a
converge to the sums A and B, respectively, then the C
series (5.1) converges to the sum A + iB. C1
If the series (5.1) is convergent, then
lim (an + ibn ) = 0. This is a necessary condition for
n→∞
convergence. If the condition fails to hold, then the
series is divergent.
Figure 5.1

5.6 Weierstrass’s M-Test

z − a −1

The series 1 1 1
= = 1−
t − z (t − a) − (z − a) t−a t−a
f1 (z) + f2 (z) + · · · + fn (z) + · · · (5.6) " #
z−a 2

1 z−a
is uniformly convergent in a region R ifPthere is a = 1+ + + ···
t−a t−a t−a
convergent series of positive constants Mn such
that |fn (z)| ≤ Mn for all z in R. (5.8)
A uniformly convergent series of continuous com- z−a
Since < 1 the series converges uniformly.
plex functions is continuous and can be differentiated t−a
or integrated term by term. 1
Multiplying Eq. (5.8) by f (t) and integrating
Term-by-term differentiation or integration of a 2πi
non-uniformly convergent series of functions is not each term over C1 we get
permissible—it leads to wrong results. Z Z
1 f (t) 1 f (t)
dt = dt
2πi C1 t − z 2πi C1 − a
t
5.7 Taylor’s Theorem (Taylor Z
Series) z−a f (t)
+ dt + · · ·
2πi C1 (t − a)2
Theorem 5.1 Let D be a simply-connected
(z − a)n
Z
domain and f (z) ∈ H (D). Suppose C is a circle in D f (t)
+ n+1
dt +· · ·
with centre ‘a’. Then, for any z inside C 2πi C1 (t − a)
∞
f ′ (a) f ′′ (a)
X
f (z) = f (a) + (z − a) + (z − a)2 ⇒ f (z) = an (z − a)n , (5.9)
1! 2! n=0
f (n) (a) f (n) (a)
+ ··· + (z − a)n + · · · (5.7) where an = by Cauchy’s integral formula.
n! n!

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ5” — 2009/11/16 — 16:02 — page 5-4 — #4

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5-4 Engineering Mathematics III

Remainder after n terms f (z) has singularity at z = 1, which lies on the circle
of convergence |z| = 1.
(z − a)n+1
Z
f (t)
Rn = n+1
dt
2πi C1 (t − z)(t − a) 2. Exponential function ez analytic for all z:
|z − a| = r, |t − a| = r1 , |t − z| ≥ r1 − r X zn
ez =
n!
f (t)
≤M (f (t) is analytic and hence bounded) z z2 zn
t−z =1 + + + · · · + + · · · |z| < ∞
1! 2! n!
r n+1 1 Put z = iy, eiy = cos y + i sin y
⇒ |Rn | ≤ · · M 2πr1
2π r1n+1 X (iy)n X (−1)k y2k X (−1)k y2k+1
n+1
r eiy = = +i
= M r1 → 0 as n → ∞ n! (2k)! (2k + 1)!
r1
r
∵ <1 3. Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions:
r1
∞
For a = 0, we obtain Maclaurin series X (−1)n z 2n
cos z =
∞ n=0
(2n)!
X
n f (n) (0)
f (z) = an z , where an = z2 z4
n=0
n! =1 − + − ··· + ··· |z| < ∞
2! 4!
f ′ (0) f ′′ (0) 2 ∞
= f (0) + z+ z + ··· . X (−1)n z 2n+1
1! 2! sin z =
n=0
(2n + 1)!

5.7.1 Important Special Taylor z3 z5

=z − + − · · · |z| < ∞
Series 3! 5!
1. Geometric series: z3 2z 5 π
tan z =z + + + · · · |z| <
3 15 2
1 z2 5z 4 π
f (z) = sec z =1 + + + · · · |z| <
1−z 2 24 2
n! ∞ 2n
⇒ f (n) (z) = ; f (n) (0) = n! X z
(1 − z)n+1 cosh z =
n=0
(2n)!
1 X
= zn z2 z4
1−z =1 + + + ··· |z| < ∞
= 1 + z + z 2 + · · · |z| < 1 (5.10) 2! 4!
∞
X z 2n+1
1 − αn+1 1 αn+1 sinh z =
1 + α + α2 + · · · + αn = = − (2n + 1)!
1−α 1−α 1−α n=0

1 αn+1 z3 z5
⇒ = 1 + α + α2 + · · · + αn = (α 6 = 1) =z + + + ··· |z| < ∞
1−α 1−α 3! 5!
z−a 1 1
α= ⇒ = 4. Logarithm:
t−a t−z (t − a)(1 − z−ata )
z2 z3
" 2
1 z−a z−a
= 1+ + + ··· Ln(1 + z) =z −+ − ··· |z| < 1
t−a t−a t−a 2 3
z2 z3
z−a n z − a n+1 |z| < 1

−Ln(1 − z) =z + + + · · ·

1
+ + · 2 3
t−a t−a t−z

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Complex Integration 5-5

1 1+z z3 Example 5.3

Ln =z + + · · · |z| < 1 z−1
2 1−z 3 Expand f (z) = as a Taylor’s series (i) about
z+1
z = 0 and (ii) about z = 1.
Binomial Series
∞ Solution
1 X
= zn = 1 + z + z2 + · · · |z| < 1
1−z n=0 z−1 (z + 1) − 2
(i) f (z) = =
∞ z+1 z+1
1 X
2
= (−1)n z n = 1−z+z 2 −· · · |z| < 1 =1−
1 + z n=0 z+1
∞ = 1 − 2(1 + z)−1
1 X (m + n − 1)!
m
= zn = 1 − 2[1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + · · · ]
(1 − z) m=0
(m − 1)!n!
(m, non-negative integer) |z| < ∞ = −1 + 2z − 2z 2 + 2z 3 − · · ·
∞ (Binomial theorem)
1 X −m n
= z
(1 + z)m n=0
n The region of convergence is |z| < 1.

Remark z−1 z−1

Eventhough we can directly apply the formulas of (ii) f (z) = =
z+1 2 + (z − 1)
Taylor or Laurent for obtaining expansions of given !
functions we can frequently obtain the expansions z−1 1
=
by making use of standard expansions of elementary 2 1 + z−1
2
functions, sometimes by a change of variable as the
z − 1 −1

z−1
following worked-out examples will illustrate. = 1+
2 2
"
z−1 2

Example 5.2 z−1 z−1
= 1+ +
Find the Taylor series expansions of f (z) = ez about 2 2 2
z = a. Determine the region of convergence. 3 #
z−1
− + ···
Solution Taylor series of f (z) is 2

∞
z−1
X f (n) (a) valid for < 1 (Binomial theorem)
f (z) = (z − a)n 2
n=0
n! z − 1 (z − 1)2 (z − 1)3
= − − − ···
f (z) = ez ⇒ f (n) (z) = ez , f (n) (a) = ea 2 22 23
X∞
ea X∞
(z − a)n valid in circular disk |z − 1| < 2.
∴ ez = (z − a)n = ea
n=0
n! n=0
n!
Example 5.4
Show that
Alternatively ∞
1 X
(i) 2 = 1 + (n + 1)(z + 1)n when |z + 1| < 1
z n=1
ez =e(z−a)+a = ea · ez−a ∞
z−2 n

1 1 1X
∞
(z − a)n (ii) 2 = + (−1)n (n + 1) when
z 4 4 n=1 2
X
=ea valid for |z| < ∞
n=0
n! |z − 2| < 2.

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5-6 Engineering Mathematics III

Solution Example 5.6

1 1 3
(i) 2 = = [1 − (z + 1)]−2 Expand f (z) = about z0 = 1 − i by Taylor
z [1 − (z + 1)]2 5 − 2z
series.
= 1+2(z+1)+3(z+1)2 +4(z+1)3 +· · ·
if |z + 1| < 1 Solution a = −2, b = 5, k = 3 and z0 = 1 − i
∞ q = az0 + b = −2(1 − i) + 5 = 3 + 2i
X
= 1+ (n+1)(z+1)n where |z+1| < 1 a −2 3 − 2i −6 + 4i
n=0 p= = · =
q 3 + 2i 3 − 2i 13
z − 2 −2

1 1 1 ∞
(ii) = = 1 + 3 9 − 6i X (−6 + 4i)n
z2 [(z − 2) + 2]2 4 2 ∴ = (−1)n (z−1+i)n .
" 3 # 5 − 2z 13 n=0 13n
1 z−2 z−2
= 1−2 +3 −· · ·
4 2 2
Example 5.7
z−2 1
<1
if Expand f (z) = about z = −1 by Taylor
2 z2 +z−2
z−2 2 series.

1 1 z−2 1
= − ·2 + ·3 −· · ·
4 4 2 4 2
Solution
∞
z−2 n

1 1X n 1 1 1 1 1
= + (−1) (n + 1) . f (z) = = − ,
4 4 n=1 2 z2 + z − 2 3z−1 3z+2
Example 5.5 putting into partial fractions
Expand the following function about the given points About z = −1 means in powers of z + 1
k
f (z) = about z0 . 1 1 1 1
az + b ∴ f (z) = −
3z−1 3z+2
Solution We have 1 1 1 1
= −
k 3 (z + 1) − 2 3 (z + 1) + 1
f (z) =
az − az0 + (az0 + b) 1 1 1 1
= · z+1
− ·
Adding and subtracting az0 3 −2 1 − 2 3 1 + (z + 1)
" # ∞ n ∞
1 k k

1
1 1 X z+1 1 X
= = = · − · (−1)n (z+1)n ,
az0 + b 1 + a(z−z 0) q 1 + p(z − z0 ) 3 −2 n=0 2 3 n=0
az0 +b
a by binomial theorem.
where q = az0 + b, p =
q ∞
1X z+1 n 1X
∞
∞ =− − (−1)n (z + 1)n
kX 6 n=0 2 3 n=0
= (−1)n pn (z − z0 )n
q n=0
valid for |z + 1| < 1.
1 q Example 5.8
if |p(z − z0 )| < 1or |z − z0 | < =
p a Expand f (z) = e1+z in powers of (z − 1).
b [JNTU 2003, 2004 (Set 4)]
= z0 + by binomial theorem
a
∞ n Solution We have
k X n 1
⇒ f (z) = (−1) (z − z0 )n . z − 1 (z − 1)2

az0 +b n=0 az0 +b e1+z = e2 · ez−1 = ez 1 + + + ···
1! 2!

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ5” — 2009/11/16 — 16:02 — page 5-7 — #7

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Complex Integration 5-7

Aliter 5 17 65
= −1+ z− z 2 + z 3 −· · · valid for |z| < 1
By direct application of Taylor’s theorem 4 16 64
∞
f (n) (a)
z 2 + 5z + 4 = (z + 1)(z + 4)
X
f (z) = (z − a)n
n=0
n!
z2 − 4 A B
with a = 1, f (z) = e1+z , we get Let =1+ +
∞ ∞ (z + 1)(z + 4) z+1 z+4
X e1+1 X (z − 1)n
e1+z = (z − 1)n = e2 ⇒ (z + 1)(z + 4) + A(z + 4) + B(z + 1) = z 2 − 4
n=0
n! n=0
n!
Put z = −1
valid for all z.
A(−1 + 4) = (−1)2 − 4 ⇒ A = −1
Example 5.9
z = −4
Expand ze2z in a Taylor’s series about z = −1 and
determine the region of convergence. B(−4 + 1) = (−4)2 − 4 ⇒ B = −4.

Solution Example 5.11

π
2z 2(z+1)1 f (z) = sin z about z = .
ze = ze · 2 [(z + 1)e2(z+1) − e2(z+1) ] 4
e
2(z + 1) 4(z + 1)2 Solution Taylor’s series of f (z) about z = a is

1
= 2 (z + 1) 1 + + + ···
e 1! 2!
(z−a)2 ′′
2(z + 1) 4(z + 1)2 f (z) = f (a)+(z−a)f ′ (a)+ f (a)+· · · (1)

− 1+ + + ··· 2!
1! 2!
1

2(z + 1) 2
2 (z + 1)3
2 π π 1
= 2 (z + 1) + + + ··· Here a = ; f (z) = sin z; f =√
e 1! 2! 4 4 2
f ′ (z) = cos z; f ′′ (z) = − sin z; f ′′′ (z) = − cos z; etc.
2(z + 1) 22 (z + 1)2

− 1+ + + ···
π 1 π 1 π 1
1! 2! f′ = √ ; f ′′ = − √ ; f ′′′ =−√
4 2 4 2 4 2
2 22

1 2 Putting these values in Eq. (1)
= 2 1+ 1− (z+1)+ − (z+1)2
e 1! 1! 2!
2
z − π4
2
23

2 3
1 π 1 1
+ − (z + 1) + · · · sin z = √ + z − √ + −√
2! 3! 2 4 2 2! 2
π 3

valid for all z in the complex plane. z− 4 1

+ −√ + · · · valid for all z.
Example 5.10 3! 2
z2 − 4
Expand f (z) = valid for |z| < 1. Example 5.12
z2 + 5z + 4 π
[JNTU 1994S] f (z) = cos z about z = .
2
Solution Putting f (z) into partial fractions, we Solution
have
π π
1 4 z −1 Put t = z − ⇒ cos z = cot t + = − sin t
f (z) = 1− − = 1−(1 + z)−1 − 1+
z+1 z+4 4 2 2
1 1
2 3
= 1−(1−z+z − z + · · · ) = − t − t3 + t5 − · · ·
3! 5!
z2 z3

z π 1 π 3 1 π 5
− 1− + − + ··· = − z− + z− − z− +· · ·
4 16 64 2 3! 2 5! 2
by binomial theorem if |z| < 1 valid for all z

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5-8 Engineering Mathematics III

Example 5.13 Example 5.15

1 Obtain the Taylor’s series to represent the function
f (z) = sin valid in 1 < |z| < ∞. z2 − 1
z−1 in the region |z| < 2.
(z + 2)(z + 3)
1 1 [JNTU 2005S (Set 4), 2006 (Set 3)]
Solution ⇒z−1=
Put t =
z−1 t
z = 1 ⇒ t = ∞ and z = ∞ ⇒ t = 0 Solution
1 1 z2 − 1 3 8
But sin t =t − t 3 + t 5 − · · · Let f (z) = =1+ − .
3! 5! (z + 2)(z + 3) z+2 z+3
1 1 1 1 1 1 Resolving into partial fractions
⇒ sin = − + − · · ·.
z−1 z−1 3! (z−1)3 5! (z−1)5 3 z −1 8 z −1
=1+ 1+ − 1+
2 2 3 3
Example 5.14
z2 z3

3 z
1 =1+ 1 − + − + ···
Find Taylor’s expansion for f (z) = with the 2 2 4 8
(1 + z)2
2 3

centre at −i. [JNTU 1998S] 8 z z z
− 1− + − + ··· .
3 3 9 27
Solution By Taylor’s theorem
By binomial theorem,
(z − a)2 ′′ ∞
3 X (−1)n n 8 X (−1)n n
∞
f (z) = f (a) + (z − a)f ′ (a) + f (a) + · · · =1+ z − z
2! 2 n=0 2n 3 n=0 3n
(z − a)n (n)
+ f (a) + · · · ∞
n! X
n 3 8
=1+ (−1) n+!
− n+1 z n ,
1 n=0
2 3
Here a = −i and f (z) =
(1 + z)2 valid for |z| < 2.
(n + 1)!
⇒ f (n) (z) = (−1)n
(1 + z)n+2
Example 5.16
1 i Expand log(1−z) when |z| < 1 using Taylor’s series.
f (−i) = = ;
(1 − i)2 2 [JNTU 2003S (Set 1)]
(−1)n (n + 1)!
f (n) (−i) = Solution
(1 − i)n+2
∞
1 i X (z + i)n (−1)n (n + 1)! Let f (z) = log(1 − z)f (0) = log 1 = 0
∴ = +
(1 + z)2 2 n=1 n! (1 − i)n+2 −1 −1
f ′ (z) = f ′ (0) = = −1
∞ 1−z 1−0
i X (z + i)n
= + (−1)n (n + 1) −1 −1
2 n=1 (1 − i)n+2 f ′′ (z) = 2
f ′′ (0) = = −1
(1 − z) (1 − 0)2
∞ −z −z
i X (z + i)n 1 f ′′′ (z) = f ′′′ (0) = = −z etc.
= + (−1)n (n + 1) (1 − z)3 (1 − 0)3
2 n=1 (1 − i)2 (−i)2
i X
∞
(z + i)n Taylor’s series is
= + (−1)n (n + 1)
2 n=1 (1 − i)n (−2i) z 2 f ′ (0) z 2 ′′ z3
f (z) = f (0) + + f (0) + f ′′′ (0) + · · ·
∞ 1! 2! 3!
i i X (z + i)n
(−1)n (n + 1) z 2 3z 2 z2 z3

= + .
2 2 n=1 (1 − i)n = 0−z− − −· · · = − z+ + +· · ·
2! 3! 2 3

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Complex Integration 5-9

Example 5.17
2z 3 + 1
Find Taylor’s expansion of f (z) = about C
z2 + z
z = 1. [JNTU 2006 (Set 1)] a
C2
Solution Resolving f (z) into partial fractions, C1
we have
2z + 1
f (z) = 2z − 2 + Figure 5.2
z(z + 1)
2 1 z−a
= 2z − 2 + + Since < 1 for any t on C1 , we can replace
z + 1 z(z + 1) t−a
1 1 1
= 2z − 2 + + in I1 by
z z+1 t−z "
z−a 2 z−a n

(n) n 1 1 1 z−a
⇒ f (z) = (−1) n! n+1 + for n ≥ 2 1+ + +· · ·+
z (z + 1)n+1 t−a t−a t−a t−a

1

f (n) (1) = (−1)n n! 1 + n+1 +··· .
2
By Taylor’s theorem, Then performing term-by-term integration, we get
∞
(z − a)n
Z Z
∞
(z − 1)n (n) 1 f (t) X f (t)
f (z) = f (1) +
X
f (1) I1 = dt = n+1
dt
n! 2πi C1 t − z n=0
2πi C1 (t − a)
n=1
∞
∞
(z − 1)n
X
3 X
n 1 = an (z − a)n (5.13)
= + (−1) n! 1 + n+1
2 n=1
n! 2 n=0
Z
∞ 1 f (t)
where an = dt

3 X 1
= + (−1)n 1 + n+1 (z − 1)n . 2πi C (t − a)
n+1
2 n=1
2
and C is a simple closed curve in D, taken in the
counter-clockwise direction.
5.8 Laurent’s Series z−a
Since < 1 for any t on C2 , we can replace
Theorem 5.2 If f (z) is analytic in the closed t−a
annular domain D bounded by the two concentric 1
in I2 by
circles C1 and C2 of radii r1 and r2 (r1 > r2 ) and t−z "
with centre ‘a’, then∞for all z in D t−a 2 t −a n

1 t−a
X − 1+ + +· · ·+
f (z) = an (z − a)n (5.10) z−a z−a z−a z−a

n=−∞
Z +··· .
1 f (t)
where an = dt (5.11)
2πi C (t − a)n+1 Then performing term-by-term integration, we get
Z
over a simple closed path C in the annulus described 1 f (t)
I2 = − dt
in the counter-clockwise direction. 2πi C2 t − z
∞
(z − a)−n
Z
Proof: By Cauchy’s integral formula,
X f (t)
=− dt
Z Z 2πi C2 (t − a)n+1
1 f (t) 1 f (t) n=1
f (z) = dt − dt ∞ Z
2πi C1 t − z 2πi C2 t − z X a−n 1 f (t)
= n
where a −n = dt
= I1 − I2 (say) (5.12) n=1
(z−a) 2πi C (t −a)n+1

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5-10 Engineering Mathematics III

C being taken in the counter-clockwise direction. 3

2. With centre at z = : Taylor’s series expansion of
∞ 2
X 3 3 1
∴ f (z) = an (z − a)n f (z) about z = in |z − | < .
n=−∞
2 2 2
Z
1 f (t)dt
where an = . r < 1/2
2πi C (t − a)n+1 r
Remark 0 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2 3
If f (z) is analytic at a point z = a, then we obtain
a unique Taylor’s series expansion for f (z) about
z = a. We can also determine its region of conver- Figure 5.4
gence, which is unique.
This is not the case in respect of Laurent’s series 1 1 1 1 1 1
expansion of function f (z) about a point z = a. f (z) = − + .
3z−1 2z−2 6z−4
Different Laurent’s series expansions in powers of
3 3
(z − a) can be obtained for a function f (z) whose Put z − = t ⇒ z = t +
regions of convergence are different. This point can 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
be illustrated through the following example: = − +
3 t + 21 2 t − 12 6 t − 52
Example 5.18 2t −1

2 1
1 1 1 = (1+2t)−1 +(1−2t)−1 − 1−
Expand f (z) = = − 3 15 5
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 4) 3z−1
1 1 1 1 3 1
+ , putting into partial fraction; f (z) for |t| = z − <
2z−2 6z−4 2 2
has singular points at z = 1, 2 and 4. 2X
∞ X ∞ ∞
1 X 2t n

n n n
= (−1) (2t) + (2t) −
3 n=0 15 n=0 5
I Taylor’s series expansions n=0
∞
1. With centre at z = 0: Maclaurin’s series expansion 3 n

X 2 1 1
of f (z) about z = 0 in |z| < 1. = 2n (−1)n · +1 − · n z−
n=0
3 15 3 i

3. With centre at z = 3: Taylor’s series expansion of

f (z) about z = 3 in |z − 3| < 1.
–2 –1 0 1 2

r <1
Figure 5.3 r

1 1 1 z −1 0 1 2 3 4
f (z) = − (1 − z)−1 − 1−
3 2 −2 2

1 1 z −1 Figure 5.5
+ 1−
6 −4 4
∞ ∞ ∞
1 X 1 X z n 1 X z n 1 1 1 1 1 1
=− zn + − f (z) = − +
3 n=0 4 n=0 2 24 n=0 4 3z−1 2z−2 6z−4
for |z| < 1 Put z − 3 = t ⇒ z = t + 3
z z 1 1 1 1 1 1
∵ |z| < 1 ⇒ <1⇒ <1 = − +
2 4 3t+2 2t+1 6t−1

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Complex Integration 5-11

∞
t −1 1

1 1 1 1X 1 1X n 1 1X 1 n
= · 1+ − (1 + t)−1 + (1 − t)−1 = n+1
− 2 · n+1 − z
3 2 2 2 6 3 n=0 z 2 z 3 22n+3
∞
X 1 n 1 1 n 1 valid for 2 < |z| < 4
= · (−1) n − (−1) + (z − 3)n
n=0
6 2 2 6
for |z − 3| < 1

II Laurent’s series expansions

r2
1. With centre z = 0: Laurent’s series expansion valid
for 1 < |z| < 2.
r1

y 0 2 4
r2 < 2

r2 r1 > 1
r1
r1 > 2
r2 < 4
0 1 2 x

Figure 5.7

3. With centre z = 1: Laurent’s series expansion

in the region 0 < |z − 1| < 1.
Figure 5.6
y
1 1 1 1 1 1 x=1
f (z) = − +
3z−1 2z−2 6z−4 r<1
r
1 −1 1

1 z −1 1 z −1
= 1− + 1− − 1−
3z z 4 2 24 4 0 x
1 2
∞ ∞ ∞
1 X 1 1X z n 1 X z n

= + −
3z n=0 z n 4 n=0 2 24 n=0 4
∞ ∞
1 X 1 X 1 1 1
= + − zn
32 n=0 z n n=0
2n+2 3 22n+3
Figure 5.8
valid for 1 < |z| < 2

2. With centre z = 0: Laurent’s series expansion valid 1 1 1 1 1 1

f (z) = − +
for 2 < |z| < 4. 3 z − 1 2 (z − 1) − 1 6 (z − 1) − 3
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 = − [1 − (z − 1)]−1
f (z) = − + 3z−1 2
3z−1 2z−2 6z−4
z − 1 −1

1
1 −1 2 −1

1 1 + 1−
= 1− − 1− 6(−3) 3
3z z 2z z
z−1 n

1 1 1 X
n 1 X
1 z −1
= + (z − 1) −
+ 1− 3z − 1 2 18 3
6(−4) 4

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Calculus of Residues
6
6.1 Evaluation of Real Integrals 3. f (z) = sin z; z = 0, ±π, ±2π, . . . are simple
6.1.1 Introduction zeros of f .

It is interesting to note that the residue theorem 4. f (z) = ez has no zero.

provides us with an elegant and simple method for
evaluation of certain classes of real integrals, which 6.1.3 Types of Singularities
cannot be evaluated by the usual methods of real 1. Isolated singularities: A point z = a is called an
calculus. Evaluation of a real definite integral is done isolated singularity of an analytic function f (z) if
by converting it into a contour integral. In order to (a) f (z) is not analytic at z = a and if f (z) is analytic
do this one has to identify in some deleted nbd of z = a, i.e., there exists a nbd
1. an appropriate closed contour C and of ‘a’ which contains no other singularity of f (z).
2. a suitable complex function to be chosen as
an integrand.
We classify the real integrals to be evaluated under
►

different types, identify the closed contour C, the

Z R
complex function to be integrated in each case and
evaluate the integrals. But at first we will briefly study
►

C2
►

a
about zeros, singularities and their types, the theory C1
of residues and Cauchy’s residue theorem.
D
6.1.2 Zeros and Singularities
Zero of an analytic function: A zero of an analytic
function f (z) is a value a of z such that f (a) = 0.
Figure 6.1
Order of a zero: If an analytic function f (z) can be
expressed in the form f (z) = (z − a)m φ(z) where
φ(z) is analytic and φ(a) 6 = 0 then z = a is called a Example 6.2
zero of f (z) of order m. If m = 1 it is called a simple 1
1. ; z = ±1 are two isolated singularities
zero. z2 − 1
of f (z).
Example 6.1
2. f (z) = cot z; z = 0, ±π, ±2π, . . . , ±nπ
1. f (z) = z 3 − z 2 − z + 1 = (z − 1)2 (z + 1); are an infinite number of isolated singularities
z = −1 is a simple zero and z = 1 is a zero of of f (z).
order 2 of f .
2. Non-isolated singularities: A singularity of an
1 analytic function f (z) that is not isolated is called a
2. f (z) = ; z = ∞ is a simple zero of f . non-isolated singularity.
z−2

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6-2 Engineering Mathematics III

Example 6.3 z2 z4 sin z

π 1− + + · · · . If we set f (z) = = 1 at
Consider f (z) = cot . The function is not analytic 3! 5! z
z z = 0, lim f (z) exists and is a finite quantity.
π π z→a
when sin = 0, i.e., when = nπ, n = ±1, ±2, . . ..
z z 2. Essential singularity: In this case, there are
1 1
In other words, z = ±1, ± , ± , . . . are all isolated an infinite number of terms in the principal part
2 3
singularities as there are no singularities in the nbd which contains terms P with negative powers of
of any of them. z = 0 is a non-isolated singularity (z − a). The series ∞ n=1 bn (z − a)
−n
= b1 (z − a)−1
because in a δ-nbd of 0, we find more singular points +b2 (z − a)−2 + · · · contains non-vanishing coeffi-
for large n that lie in it. cients bn for an infinite number of values of n.

Types of singularities Let f (z) ∈ H (D − a), i.e., Example 6.5

2 1 1 1
f (z) is analytic within a domain D except at the point f (z) = e1/z = 1 + 2
+ 4
+ + · · · has
z = a, which is an isolated singular point. Draw a z 2!z 3!z 6
an infinite number of negative powers of z (though
circle C1 , with centre a and radius as small as we b2n−1 = 0 for all n).
please. Draw another large concentric circle C2 of z = 0 is an essential singularity. In this case,
radius R lying wholly within D. f (z) is analytic in lim f (z) does not exist.
the annular region bounded by circles C1 and C2 . If z z→a

is any point inside this region, by Laurent’s theorem, 3. Pole: In this case, the principal part contains
∞ ∞
X X aP finite number of terms. If in the series
f (z) = an (z − a)n + bn (z − a)−n
bn (z − a)−n , bn = 0 for n > m then
n=0 n=1

for 0 < |z − a| < δ lim (z − a)m f (z) = l 6= 0 exists

z→a

The second part ofP the series with negative powers and in this case z = a is called a pole of order m of
of (z − a) namely ∞ n=1 bn (z − a)
−n
is called the f (z). If m = 1, it is called a simple pole.
principal part of f (z) at the isolated singularity z = a.
With respect to the principal part, there are three Example 6.6
distinct possibilities:
ez 1 z z2 z2 z3 z4

(i) bn = 0 for all n, i.e., the principal part is f (z) = 2 = 2 1+ + + + + +· · ·
absent. z z 1! 2! 2! 3! 4!
(ii) bn 6 = 0 for an infinite number of values of n, 1 1 1 1
= 2 + + + z + ···
i.e., the principal part contains an infinite z z 2 6
2
number of terms. lim z f (z) = 1 (finite)
z→0
(iii) The principal part contains a finite
number of terms. Hence z = 0 is a pole of order 2 (double pole) of
These three cases give rise to three kinds of singu- f (z).
larities. Singularity at infinity
1. Removable singularity: In this case, f (z) = 1 1
P ∞ n
Put z = in f (z) and obtain f = F(t), say.
n=0 (z − a) (Taylor series). The singularity can be
t t
removed by defining f (z) at z = a in such a way that Then the nature of singularity at ∞ is defined to be
it is analytic at z = a. the same as that of F(t) at t = 0.
3
= z has a pole of order 3 at z = ∞ since
f (z)
Example 6.4 1 1
f = 3 has a pole of order 3 at t = 0.
z3

sin z 1 t t
Let f (z) = = z − + ··· = f (z) = ez has an essential singularity at z = ∞
z z 3!

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Calculus of Residues 6-3

1 1 6.1.4 Formulas for Residues at
since f = e t has an essential singularity at
t Poles
t = 0. Residue at simple pole
f (z) = cosec πz
has a non-isolated singularity at
1 π 1 (i) If z = a is a simple pole of f (z), we have by
z = ∞ since f = cosec = has a
t t sin πt Laurent’s theorem
non-isolated singularity at t = 0. b1
The theory of residues deals with the evaluation f (z) = + a0 + a1 (z − a) + an (z − a)z + · · ·
z−a
of integrals of the form
I 0 < |z − a| < R
I = f (z)dz (6.1) ∞
X
C
⇒ (z − a)f (z) = b1 + (z − a) an (z − a)n
taken round a simple closed path C. n=0
If f (z) is analytic everywhere on C and inside C, b1 6= 0
then I = 0 by Cauchy’s integral theorem (CIT). ⇒ b1 = lim[(z − a)f (z)] (Formula I)
If f (z) is analytic every on C and inside C except z→a

for an isolated singularity at z = a inside C, then p(z)

f (z) can be expanded in a Laurent series (ii) Let f (z) = p, q are analytic, p(a) 6= 0,
q(z)
X∞
b1 b2 q(z) has simple zero at z = a.
f (z) = an (z−a)n + + 2
+· · · (6.2) By Taylor’s theorem,
n=0
z−a (z−a) (z − a)2 ′′
q(z) = (z − a)q′ (a) + q (a) + · · ·
which converges in 0 < |z − a| < R. Here the 2!
constants bn are given by p(z)
Resz=a f (z) = lim(z − a) ′
I z→a q (z)
1
bn = (z − a)n−1 f (z)dz. (6.3) (z − a)p(z)
2πi C = lim h ′′ (z−a)
i
z→a
(Cauchy’s generalised integral formula) (z − a) q′ (a) + q (a)2! + ···

Formula (6.3) can be used for determining the p(a)

=
constants bn by evaluating the integral, which is q′ (a)
more difficult. Instead we can use the formula for p(z)
Resz=a f (z) = Resz→a
evaluating the integral since we can obtain Laurent q′ (z)
series expansion for a given function in several ways. p(a)
Taking n = 1 in Eq. (6.3), we have (Cauchy’s integral = . (Formula II)
q′ (a)
formula)
Example 6.7
I
1
b1 = f (z)dz (6.4) Find the residue at a simple pole z = i for
2πi C
I 9z + i
f (z) = .
or f (z)dz = 2πib1 (6.5) z(z 2 + 1)
C

This formula enables us to evaluate the integral on Solution

the LHS of Eq. (6.5) when we know b1 , which can

9z + i
be found through one or the other of the methods Resz=i f (z) = Resz=i
z(z 2 + 1)
of Laurent’s series expansion. The coefficient b1 is (z − i)(9z + i) 9z + i
called the residue of f (z) at z = a and we denote it = lim = lim
z→i (z − i)z(z + i) z→i z(z + i)
by
10i
b1 = Resz=a f (z) or b1 = Res (f : z = a). (6.6) = 2 = −5i (Formula I).
2i

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6-4 Engineering Mathematics III

Example 6.8 Resz→+2 f (z) = lim(z − 2)f (z)

z→2
Find the residues at simple poles z = 0, 1 for
4z − 3 2z + 1
f (z) = . = lim(z − 2)
z(z − 1) z→2 (z + 1)(z − 2)
2z + 1
Solution = lim
z→2z+1
2(2) + 1 5
4z−3 4z−3 = = .
Resz=0 = 2+1 3
z(z−1) 2z−1 z=0
=3 (Formula II) Residue at a pole of order m

4z−3

4z−3
Let f (z) have a pole of order m > 1 at z = a. Then
Resz=1 = Laurent’s series for f (z) is
z(z−1) 2z−1 z=1
=1 (Formula II). bm bm−1 b1
f (z) = + + ··· +
Example 6.9
(z − a)m (z − a)m−1 (z − a)
z ∞
Find the residues of f (z) = at poles.
X
z2 +1 + an (z − a)n (bm 6= 0) (6.7)
[JNTU 1995S] n=0

Multiplying Eq. (6.7) by (z − a)m , we get

Solution f (z) has two simple poles at z = ±i
(z − a)m f (z) = bm + bm−1 (z − a) + · · · + b1
Resz=i f (z) = lim(z − i)f (z) ∞
z→i
X
z (z − a)m−1 + an (z − a)n+m
= lim(z − i) n=0
z→i (z − i)(z + i) (6.8)
z i 1
= lim = = Differentiating both sides of Eq. (6.8) (m − 1)
z→i z + i 2i 2
Resz=−i f (z) = lim (z + i)f (z) times w.r.t z, we have
z→−i
z d m−1
= lim (z + i) [(z − a)m f (z)]
z→−i (z + i)(z − i) dz m−1
X (m + n)!
z −i 1 = (m − 1)! b1 + (z − a)n+1
= lim = = . (n + 1)!
z→−i z − i −2i 2
Taking limits as z → a, we get,
Example 6.10
Find the poles and the corresponding residues of 1 d m−1
b1 = lim m−1 [(z − a)m f (z)].
2z + 1 (m − 1)! z→a dz
f (z) = 2 . [JNTU 1994S]
z −z−2 (Formula III) (6.9)
Solution f (z) has simple poles at z = −1, 2 Corollary m = 1 (simple pole)
b1 = lim [(z − a)f (z)].
z→a
Resz→−1 f (z) = lim (z + 1)f (z)
z→−1
Note
2z + 1
= lim (z + 1) If z = a is an essential singularity, then the above
z→−1 (z + 1)(z − 2) formulas fail so that the residue is obtained by
2z + 1 2(−1) + 1 1 expanding f (z) about z = a in the Laurent’s series
= lim = =
z→−1 z − 2 −1 − 2 3 and identifying the coefficient b1 of (z − a)−1 .

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Calculus of Residues 6-5

6.1.5 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem Example 6.11 I

3 − 2z
Theorem 6.1 Let f (z) be analytic inside and on Evaluate I = dz counter-clockwise
2
a simple closed path C except at a finite number of C z −z
around any simple closed path C such that
singularities at zj (j = 1, 2, . . . , m) inside C. Then
(i) the singularities 0 and 1 lie inside C,
I m
X (ii) the singularity 0 lies inside and 1 lies outside C,
f (z)dz = 2πi Resz=zj f (z) (6.10) (iii) the singularity 1 lies inside and 0 lies outside C,
C j=1 (iv) the singularities 0 and 1 lie outside C.

Proof: Enclose each zj in a circle Cj with radius 3 − 2z

Solution The integrand f (z) = has
so small that these circles and closed path C are all z(z − 1)
separated and do not overlap. Then f (z) is analytic in simple poles at z = 0 and z = 1.
the multiply-connected domain D bounded by these
circles C1 , C2 , . . . , Cm and C. 3 − 2z
Resz=0 f (z) = lim z
z→0 z(z − 1)
3 − 2z
= lim = −3
z→0 z − 1
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Calculus of Residues 6-17

Z ∞
dx π |z 2 + a2 | > ||z|2 − |a|2 | = R2 − a2
⇒ = by Eqs. (2), (3) and (4)
0 x2 + a2 2a 1 1
Note 2 2 2
< 2
(z + a ) (R − a2 )2
From integral
Z ∞ calculus, we know that
dx 1 x ∞ π I2 : On L, z = x, dz = dx; x varies from −R to R.
2 2
= tan−1 =
0 x +a a a 0 2a Z R
dx
Z
lim = f (z)dz
R→∞ −R (x 2 + a2 )2
Example 6.33 C
Z ∞ n
dx X
Evaluate I = . = 2πi Resz=zk f (z).
0 (x2 + a2 )2 k=1

Solution Let C be the closed contour consisting 1

of (i) Semicircle S : z = Reiθ in the upper half-plane f (z) = has singularities at z = ±ia
(x2 + a2 )2
dz = iReiθ dθ, θ varies in [0, 2π] which are double poles, of which only z = ia lies in
1 1 the upper half-plane.
f (z) = f (Reiθ ) ⇒ = 2 2iθ
(z 2 + a2 )2 (R e + a2 )2
Resz=ia f (z)

1 d 1
= lim (z − ai)2
(2 − 1)! z→ia dz (z − ai)2 (z + ai)2
−2 −1
= = 3
(z + ia)3 z=ia 4a
∞
1 ∞
Z Z
dx dx
∴ I= 2 + a2 )2
= 2 + a2 )2
0 (x 2 −∞ (x
Figure 6.5
1 X −i π
(ii) Line segment L : [−R, R] on the x-axis = · 2πi Res f (z) = πi = 3.
2 4a3 4a
1
z = x, dz = dx and f (z) = f (x) = 2
(x + a2 )2 Note Z ∞
Z Z Z dx π
We have to prove that =
f (z)dz = f (Reiθ )iReiθ dθ + f (x)dx 0 +a 2x2 2a
C S L Differentiating both sides partially w.r.t the
= I1 + I2 (say) parameter ‘a’, we get
1 π ∂
Z ∞
dx
Z ∞
−2a dx
where f (z) = . − 2 = =
(z 2
+ a2 )2 2a ∂a 0 x + a 2 2 (x2 + a2 )2
0
On S: Estimation of I1 z = Reiθ dz = iReiθ dθ; Z ∞
θ varies from 0Z to π, i.e., 0 ≤Z θ ≤ π dx π
⇒ 2 2 2
= 3.
π
0 (x + a ) 4a
|I1 | = f (z)dz = f (R eiθ iR eiθ dθ
S 0 Example Z6.34
Z π ∞
iθ x2 dx π
≤ |f (Re )|Rdθ Show that = .
0 2 2 2 2
(x + a )(x + b ) 2(a + b)
0
πR
< 2 → 0 as R → ∞ z2
(R − a2 )2 Solution Take f (z) = 2 and
⇒ I1 = 0 as R → ∞ Z (z + a2 )(z 2 + b2 )
1 consider I = f (z)dz where C comprises of
f (z) = 2 C
(z + a2 )2 (i) S : z = Reiθ , θ varies in [0, π],

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6-18 Engineering Mathematics III

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Calculus of Residues 6-23

6.1.8 Type II (a): Improper (∵ m > 0, y ≥ 0 and |eimx | = 1)

Integrals Involving
Trigonometric Functions We have |f (z)eimz | = |f (z)||eimz | ≤ |f (z)| (6.23)
Improper integrals involving trigonometric func- (m > 0, y ≥ 0)
tions (Fourier integrals) of the type p(z)
If f (z) is a rational function f (z) = where p, q
Z ∞ ncos mxo q(z)
f (x) dx are polynomials in z such that (deg q) ≥ (deg p) + 2
−∞ sin mx 1
then f (z) ∼ 2 for large z
Z ∞ Z ∞ R
i.e., f (x)cos mxdx and f (x)sin mxdx, Z
π
−∞ −∞ f (z)eimz dz| ≤ as R → ∞ (6.24)
(6.19) S R
Now equating the real and imaginary parts on both
occurring in connection with Fourier integrals may sides of Eq. (6.21), we have
be evaluated by considering the contour integral Z ∞
I f (x) cos mxdx
f (z)eimz dz (m > 0) (6.20) −∞
X
C
= −2π Im Res [f (z)eimz ] (m > 0) (6.25)
over the closed contour C consisting of Z ∞
f (x)sin mxdx
(i) Semicircle S : z = Reiθ , dz = iReiθ dθ; θ ranging −∞
from 0 to π as z traces S in the upper half-plane and X
= 2π ReRes [f (z)eimz ] (m > 0) (6.26)
(ii) Line segment L : [−R, R], z = x, dz = dx; x
Example 6.40
ranges from −R to R where R is large enough to Z ∞
cos mx π
enclose all poles of the integrand in the upper half- Show that (i) 2 2
dx = e−ma
plane and ultimately R is allowed to tend to ∞. −∞ x +a a
We obtain, by Cauchy’s residue theorem Z ∞
sin mx
(ii) dx = 0.
Z Z
−∞ x2 + a2
f (z)eimz dz = f (Reiθ )eim (R eiθ )iReiθ dθ
C S eimz
Solution Let f (z) = . We have to
Z
+ f (x)eimx dx z2 + z2
eimz
Z
L
Z R Z ∞ evaluate 2 2
dz over the closed contour C
C z +a
⇒ lim f (x)eimx dx = f (x)eimx dx consisting of
R→∞ −R −∞
X (i) Semicircle S in the upper half-plane and z =
= 2πi Res(f (z)eimz ) (m > 0) (6.21) Reiθ , (0 ≤ θ ≤ π), dz = iReiθ dθ and
(ii) Line segment L along x-axis = [−R, R] where
where the summation extends to the residues of
z = xdz = dx, x varies from −R to R and R → ∞,
f (z)eimz at all its poles in the upper half-plane,
ultimately.
provided the integral over S namely
The integrand has simple poles at z = ±ia of
Z
iθ which z = ia alone lies in the upper half-plane.
f (Reiθ )eim(Re ) iReiθ dθ → 0 as R → ∞ (6.22) The other singularity z = −ia which lies in the
S
lower half-plane is of no interest for us. By Cauchy’s
Now m > 0 and S is in the upper half-plane so that residue theorem, we have
y ≥ 0. Since z = x + iy and
eimz
Z Z
f (z)eimz dz = 2 2
dz
|eimz | = |eimx+iy | = |eimx ||e−my | = e−my < 1 C C z +a

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6-24 Engineering Mathematics III

eimz dz
Z
πR
imz imx ∴ ≤ 2
Z Z
e e 2 2 2 2
= dz + dx S (z + a )(z + a ) (R − a )(R2 − b2 )
2
2 2 2 2
S z +a L x +a 1
= 2πi
X
Res [f (z)eimz ] ∼ 3 → 0 as R → ∞
R
imz
e By Cauchy’s residue theorem, as R → ∞, Eq. (1)
imz
Now Resz=ia [f (z)e ] = Resz=ia 2 gives
z + a2
Z ∞
eimz e−ma eima dx eimz dz
Z
= = 2 2 2 2
= 2 2 2 2
z + ia z=ia 2ia −∞ (x + a )(x + b ) C (z + a )(z + b )
imz
|eimz |e−my
Z
e = 2πi
X
Res [f (z)eimz ]
2 2
dz ≤ 2 πR
S z +a R − a2
πRe−my of f (z)eimz where the summation extends over
= 2 residues at all poles of f (z)eimz in the upper half-
R − a2
1 plane. The integrand has simple poles at z =
∼ → 0 as R → ∞ ±ia, ±ib of which z = ia, ib alone lie in the upper
R
half-plane.
∴ We have (as R → ∞) eimz
R1 = Resz=ia (f (z)eimz ) =
(z + ia)(z 2 + b2 ) z=ia
Z ∞
eimx ema π
dx = 2πi. = e−ma −ma
2
−∞ x + a
2 2ia a e
=
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both zia(b2 − a2 )
sides, we get the results. eimz
R2 = Resz=ib (f (z)eimz ) =
Z ∞
cos mx π −ma (z + ib)(z 2 + a2 ) z=ib
Also, dx = e (since the
0
2
x +a 2 2a e−mb
integrand is an even function) =
2ib(a2 − b2 )
Corollary Replace m by a and a by 1, we get
Z ∞
cos ax Sum of residues = R1 + R2
dx = πe−a . −ma
e−mb

−∞ x 2 +1 i e
= −
Example 6.41
2(a2 −b2 ) a b
Z ∞ −ma −mb

Z ∞ cos mxdx −π e e
cos mxdx = 2 −
Evaluate (a 6 = b). 2 2 2
−∞(x +a )(x +b )
2 a − b2 a b
−∞ (x2
+ a2 )x2 + b2 −mb −ma

π e e
Z Z Z = 2 −
Solution Consider imz
f (z)e dz = + a − b2 b a
C S L Z ∞
where C is the closed contour consisting of cos mx
Corollary dx
(i) Semicircle S in the upper half-plane: z = Reiθ , 0 (x + a2 )(x2 +b2 )
2

e−mb e−ma

dz = iReiθ dθ; θ varying from 0 to π as z traces S. π
= −
(ii) Line segment L along the x-axis [−R, R] where 2(a2 − b2 ) b a
z = x, dz = dx and x varies from −R to R.
6.1.9 Jordan’s Lemma
In the foregoing section, we have considered the case
Estimate of the integral on S of the integrand being a rational function of the form
p(z)
Since |eimz | = |eim(x+iy) | = |eimx−my | = e−my where (deg q) ≥(deg p)+2. There arise situa-
q(z)
≤ |(m > 0, y ≥ 0)| tions where this condition is not satisfied. We need

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Calculus of Residues 6-25

a sharper inequality to evaluate such integrals. This 2 2θ

= ⇒ sin θ ≥ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2)
is provided by what is known as Jordan’s Lemma, π π
which we take up now.
6.1.10 Type III: Application of
y
Jordan’s Lemma
Example 6.42
R Z R
sin x π
Show that dx − π < (R > 0) and
Z−R∞ x R
sin x π
–R O R x deduce that dx = .
0 x 2
Figure 6.8 y
S

Jordan’s Lemma:ZIf S is the semicircle in the upper

R
half-plane and J = eiz dz, then |J | ≤ π(1−e−R ) < π.
S

Proof: On S, we have –R O R x
iθ iz −y −R sin θ
z = Re (0 ≤ θ ≤ π) and |e | = e = e
ix
Figure 6.10
∵ |e | = 1, y = R sin θ |dz| = Rdθ
Z Z Z π eiz−1
|J | = eiz dz | ≤ |eiz ||dz| = e−R sin θ Rdθ Solution Let f (z) = and consider
R z
S S 0
C
f (z)dz where C is the closed contour consisting
Z π/2 h π iπ/2
≤ 2R
2R
e− π θ dθ = 2R e−
2Rθ
π − of the line segment [−R, R] and the semicircle S in
0 2R 0 the upper half-plane with the line segment [−R, R]
= π(1 − e−R ) < π as diameter.
eiz−1 1 i2 z 2 i3 z 3

Now, = 1+iz+ + +· · · −1
z z 2! 3!
1 1
= i − z − z2 + · · ·
2 6
eiz−1
lim = i (finite number).
z→0 z
So, the integrand has a removable singularity at
z = 0 and the function can be so defined that it is
analytic inside C. By Cauchy’s theorem, we have
Z iz−1 Z R ix−1 Z iz−1
e e e
dz = 0 ⇒ dx + dz = 0
Figure 6.9 C z R x S z
Slope of OP ≥ slope of OA since there is no singularity inside C.
Z R Z Z iz
PM AN cos x − 1 sin x dx e
∴ ≥ ⇒ sin(π − θ) = sin θ ⇒ +i dx− = dz
OM ON −R x x S z S z
sin θ
0≤ ≤ π/2 On S, z = Reiθ ; dz = iReiθ dθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π)
θ Z π
2θ sin θ 1
Z
dz 1
⇒ sin θ ≥ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2) ⇒ ≥ = iθ
iReiθ dθ = iπ
π θ π/2 S z 0 Re

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6-26 Engineering Mathematics III

Also, (0 ≤ θ ≤ π) in the upper half-plane.

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
1 π −R sin θ
Z iz Z ix −y Z
e |e |e |dz|
dz ≤ = e · Rdθ Z R Z
S z S |z| R 0 X
Z π/2 f (x)dx + f (z)dz = 2πi Res f (z) (1)
−R S
=2 e−R sin θ dθ ∵ f (π − θ) = f (θ)
0 zeimz
Z π/2 π
π/2 The singularities of f (z) = are simple
≤2 e
−2Rθ
π dθ = 2e − 2R
π θ − + a2 z2
0 2R poles at z = ±ia of which z = ia alone lies in the
0
2θ upper half-plane.
∵ sin θ ≥ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2)
π (z − ia)zeimz
π π Resz=ia f (z) = lim (2)
= (1 − e−R ) < , z→ia (z − ia)(z + ia)
2 R
iae−ma 1
by Jordan’s lemma. = = e−ma
2ia 2
Z R Z R
cos x − 1 sin x
⇒ dx + i dx − π Now on S z = Reiθ , dz = iReiθ dθ;
−R x −R x
Z iz Z R |eimz | = |eimx |e−my = e−mR sin θ
e π sin x π
≤ dz < ⇒ dx − π < z2 R2
S z R −R x R and ≤ 2
z2
+a 2 R − a2
Taking limits as R → ∞, we get Z π
R2
Z
Z ∞ Z ∞ f (z)dz ≤ · e−mR sin θ (3)
sin x sin x S R2 − a2 0
dx = π ⇒ dx = π/2,
−∞ x 0 x 2R2
Z π/2
= e−mR sin θ dθ
sin x R2 − a2 0
since the integrand is an even function. ∵ f (π − θ) = f (0)
x
2 Z π/2
Example 6.43 2R 2mRθ
≤ e− π dθ
Z α
x sin mx dx π −ma R2 − a2 0
Show that = e . 2θ
0 (x2 +a2 ) 2 ∵ sin θ ≥ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2)
[JNTU 2003S] π
π/2
y
2R2 − 2mR θ π
= e π −
S R2 − a2 2mR 0
2R2 π
= · (1 − e−mR )
R2 − a2 2mR
R
πR

= (1−e−mR ) → 0 as R → ∞
R2 − a2
–R O R x (4)
Figure 6.11 Letting R → ∞, we obtain from Eqs. (1) – (3)
Z ∞
xeimx
zeimz 2 2
dx = πie−ma
Solution We integrate f (z) = over the −∞ x + a
+ a2 z2
closed contour C shown in Fig. 6.11. Equating the real and imaginary parts,
Z ∞
It consists of the line segment L = [−R, R] along x cos mx
the real axis and the semicircle S : Z = Reiθ 2 2
dx = 0
−∞ x + a

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Calculus of Residues 6-27

Z R Z R
This is to be expected since the integrand is an odd x cos πx x sin πx
⇒ dx+i dx
function. 2
−R x +2x+5 −R x2 +2x+5
Z ∞
x sin mx
Z
2 + a2
dx = πe−ma + f (z)dz
−∞ x −CR
Z ∞
x sin mx π π −2π
⇒ dx = e−ma = e − iπe−2π (4)
0 x2 + a2 2 Z 2
since the integrand is an even function. Now f (z)dz
CR
Z π/2
Example 6.44 R
≤ |e−πR sin θ iReiθ |dθ
Z ∞ |R2 − 2R − 5| 0
x sin πx
Evaluate dx. ∵ |z 2 + 2z + 5| ≥ R2 − 2R − 5
−∞ x2 + 2x + 5 Z π/2
2R2 2θ
Solution We have to evaluate ≤ 2 e−πR π dθ
|R − 2R − 5| 0
Z ∞ 2θ π
x sin πx
dx (1) ∵ sin θ ≥ for 0 ≤ θ ≤
−∞ x2
+ 2x + 5 π 2
2R2

Z
zeiπz 1 −2Rθ π/2
Consider dz = 2 − [e ]0
2 |R − 2R − 5| 2R
C z + 2z + 5
Z R
xeiπx
Z R
1 − e−πR → 0 as R → ∞

= dx + f (z)dz (2) = 2
2 R − 2R − 5
−R x + 2x + 5 CR
(5)
where C is the part of real axis from −R to +R and Allowing R → ∞ we get from Eq. (4), on using
the semicircle in the upper half-plane, as shown in Eq. (5), and separating the real and imaginary parts
Z ∞
Fig. 6.12. x cos πx π
y 2
dx = e−2π
−∞ x + 2x + 5 2
CR Z ∞
x sin πx π
2
dx = − e−2π .
−∞ x + 2x + 5 2

Example 6.45
Show that
–R O R x Z ∞ 2 −a
x3 eix b2 e−b

ae
2 2 2 2
dx = πi 2 2 + 2 2 .
Figure 6.12 −∞ (x +a )(x +b ) a −b b −a

The integrand has simple poles at z = −1 ± zi but Solution Let a, b ∈ C, a 6= b, and Re b > 0.
only z1 = −1 + zi lies inside C. Then, consider
z 3i z
Z Z
zeiπz f (z)dz = dz (1)

2 2 2 2
Res(f : −1 + zi) = lim (z + 1 − 2i) 2 C C (z +a )(z +b )
z→z1 z + 2z + 5
−iπ−2π
where C is the contour shown in Fig. 6.13.
e
= (−1 + 2i) (3) Z
z 3eiz
Z R
x3 eix
4i dz = dx
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C (z +a )(z +b ) −R (x +a )(x +b )
By residue theorem,
z 3 eiz
Z
R + dz
xeiπx
Z Z
π 2 2
CR (z +a )(z +b )
2 2
dx + f (z)dz = (1 − 2i)e−2π
−R x2 + 2x + 5 CR 2 (3)

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6-28 Engineering Mathematics III

y 6.1.11 Type IV: Poles on the Real

CR
Axis (Indentation)
Theorem 6.2 (Simple pole on the real axis.) If
f (z) has a simple pole at z = a on the real axis, then
Z
O
lim f (z)dz = πi [Resz=a f (z)] (6.27)
–R R x r→0 Cr

Figure 6.13
Cr
The only isolated singularities of the integrand in
the upper half-plane are at z = ia, z = ib.

z 3 eiz

Res(f : ia) = a–r a a+r x
4z 3 + 2(a2 + b2 )z
z 2 eiz

Figure 6.14
=
4z 2 + 2(a2 + b2 ) z=ia
−a2 e−a Proof: Since f (z) has a simple pole at z = a, f (z)
=
−4a2 + 2(a2 + b2 ) has Laurent series
a2 e−a b1
= (4) f (z) = + g(z), and b1 = Resz=a f (z)
2(a2 − b2 ) (z − a)
−b2 e−b (6.28)
Res(f : ib) =
−4b2 + 2(a2 + b2 )
where g(z) is analytic on the semicircle of integration
b2 e−b (Fig. 6.14)
= (5)
2(b2 − a2 )
Cr : z = a + reiθ 0≤θ≤π (6.29)
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
Z R and for all z between Cr and the x-axis
x3 eix
Z
2 2 2 2
dx + f (z)dz Z Z π
1
Z
−R (x + a )(x + b ) CR f (z)dz = b1 i r e iθ
dθ + g(z)dz
iθ
X Cr 0 re cr
= 2π Res(f : ak )
2 −a = b1 · πi
b2 e−b

ae
= πi 2 + 2 (6) Z
a − b2 b − a2 since g(z)dz ≤ M πr → 0, as r → 0 by
3
z M Cr
We have 2 2 2 2 ≤ |z| = R ≥ R0 (7) the ML-inequality if |g(z)| ≤ M .
(z +a )(z +b ) R
Z Z
M iz M Corollary If bk (k = 1, 2, . . . n) are n simple poles
∴ f (z)dz = |e ||dz| <
CR CR R R of f (z) on the real axis and Crk are small semicircles
→ 0 as R → ∞ (by Jordan’s lemma) (8) with centre at bk in the upper half-plane, then
Z n
∴ By letting R → ∞, we have from Eqs. (6) and
X
f (z)dz = πi Resz=bk f (z) = −K
(8) P
Crk k=1
Z ∞ 2 −a
x3 eix b2 e−b

ae
R
dx = πi 2 2 + 2 2 . where the integral Crk
f (z)dz is taken in the clock-
2 2 2 2
−∞ (x +a )(x +b ) a −b b −a wise direction.

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Calculus of Residues 6-29

Formula for finding the principal value of where the first sum extends over all poles in the
an improper integral (the case of n simple upper half-plane and the second over all poles
poles on the real axis) (assumed to be simple) on the real axis.
The
Z ∞ principal value (Pr. V.)ZofR improper integral Example 6.46
f (x)dx is the limit lim f (x)dx if the limit Z ∞
log(1 + x2 )
R→∞
−∞ −R Prove that dx = π log 2.
exists and the Pr. V. of the improper integral 0 1 + x2
Z a+r
f (x)dx, where x = a is a pole is the limit y
a−rZ S
a+r
lim f (x)dx if the limit exists, where f (x) =
r→0 a−r i
p(x)
is a rational function with (deg q) ≥ (deg p)+2.
q(x)
–R O R x
S

Figure 6.16
Cr log(z + i)
Solution We integrate f (z) = over
z2 + 1
–R O a–r a a+r +R x
the closed contour C consisting of the line segment
L = [−R, R] along the real axis and the semicircle
Figure 6.15 The case of n simple poles on the S : z = Reiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π) in the upper half-plane.
real axis The only pole of f (z) inside C is the simple pole
at z = i.
For sufficiently large R, the integral over the closed (z − i) log(z + i)
contour C consisting of the semicircles S and Cr and Resz=i f (z) = lim
z→i (z − i)(z + i)
the line segments [−R, a − r] and [a + r, R] along
log 2i 1 πi
the x-axis (Fig. 6.15) has the value J and = = log 2 + (1)
Z Xm 2i 2i 2
J = f (z)dz = 2πi Resz=aj f (z) (6.30) ∵ log 2i = log 2 + log eiπ/2
C j=1
iπ
where z = aj (j = 1, 2, · · · m) are singularities of = log 2 + (Pr. V.)
2
f (z) in the
Z upper half-plane. Now we have By residue theorem,
f (z)dz → 0 as R → ∞ (6.31) Z
log(z + i) 1

iπ

S dz = 2πi · log 2 +
∵ (deg q) ≥ (deg p) + 2 C z2 + 1 2i 2
As r → 0 the integral over Cr , taken in the iπ2
= π log 2 + , [by Eq. (1)] (2)
clockwise direction, 2
Z n Z 0 Z R
X log(x + i) log(x + i)
f (z)dz → K = −πi Resz=bk f (z), (6.32) LHS = dx + dx
Cr k=1 −R x2 + 1 0 x2 + 1
Z
for each bk (by Theorem 6.2). It follows that log(z + i)
m
+ dz
Z ∞ X S z2 + 1
Pr. V. f (x)dx = 2πi Resz=aj f (z) Z R
log(−x + i)
Z R
log(x + i)
−∞ j=1 = dx + dx
2
(−x) + 1 x2 + 1
n 0 0
Z
log(z + i)
X
+ πi Resz=bk f (x) (6.33) + dz
k=1 S z2 + 1

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6-30 Engineering Mathematics III

Z R
log(−x + i)(x + i) 1 1
= dx + 0, Resz=1 f (z) = =−
x2 + 1 (z − 2)(z 2 + 1) 2
Z0 z=1
log(z + i) 1 1
if dz → 0 as R → ∞ Resz=2 f (z) = =
S z2 + 1 (z − 1)(z 2 + 1) 5
Z R z=2
log(1 + x2 ) + iπ 1
= dx Resz=i f (z) = 2
0 1 + x2 (z − 3z + 2)(z + i) z=i
Z R
log(1 + x2 ) π 1 1 3−i
= 2
+ iπ · = = ·
0 1+x 2 (1 − 3i)2i 6 + 2i 3 − i
3−i
provided the last integral → 0 as R → ∞. =
20
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we get Z ∞
dx
Pr. V. 2 − 3x + 2)(x 2 + 1)
Z ∞
log(1 + x2 ) −∞ (x
dx = π log 2.
3−i

1 1

0 1 + x2 = 2πi +πi − + = π/10.
20 2 5
Example 6.48
On S, z = Reiθ , dz = iReiθ dθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π) ∞
log2 x π3 ∞
Z Z
log x
Z
log(z + i) log(R + 1) Show that dx = , dx = 0.
dz ≤ πR 0 1 + x2 8 0 1 + x2
z 2 +1 R2 − 1
S
Solution We will prove that
→ 0 as R → ∞
log2 x
Z ∞
π3
log |x| dx = (1)
∵ → 0 as |x| → ∞. 0 1 + x2 8
|x|

Example 6.47
Find the principal value
i
Z ∞
dx
Pr. V. 2 − 3x + 2)(x 2 + 1)
. –R –ε O +ε +R x
−∞ (x
1 Figure 6.18
Solution Let f (z) = and
(z 2
− 3z + 2)(z 2 + 1)
C be the closed contour shown in Fig. 6.17. Z
log2 z
Let I = 2
dz where C is the indented
C 1+z
y
semicircle of Fig. 6.18 with inner radius ε < 1 and
outer radius R > 1. Let log z = Log z, the principal
value on C. Then the integrand is analytic except for
i
a simple pole at z = i inside C and hence by Cauchy’s
residue theorem,
–R O z =1 z = 2 R x log2 i iπ 2 −π3
I = 2πi =π = (2)
Figure 6.17 2i 2 4
on the negative real axis z = reiπ . Hence
f (z) has simple poles on the real axis at z = 1 and
log2 x
Z R Z ∈
(Log rei π)2 eiπ dx
z = 2 and a simple pole at z = i inside C (in the upper I= dx+ +J1 +J2
2 1+r 2
half-plane). The other singularity of f (z) at z = −i is ∈ 1+x R

in the lower half-plane and is thus outside C. (3)

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Calculus of Residues 6-31

where J1 and J2 are the integrals over the parts of C y

where |z| = R and |z| =∈, respectively. Since Log D
Cr
reiπ = Log r + iπ we have
(Log reiπ )2 = Log 2 r + 2iπLog r − π2 R
and setting r = x in the second integral above, we cr
have E A B
–1 rH G x
2 log2 x+2πi log x−π2
Z R
I= dx + J1 +J2 (4)
∈ 1 + x2
On J1 , we have z = Reiθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and so the
F
integrand satisfies

(logz )2 | log R + iθ|2 log2 R + π2

= ≤ Figure 6.19
1 + z2 |1 + z 2 | R2 − 1
log2 R + π2 Since AB and GH are arbitrarily close to the x-axis
∴ |J1 | ≤ πR and z = xe2πi along GH , we have
R2 − 1
Z R p−1 Z 2π
Since (log R)2 /R → 0 as R → ∞. It follows that x (Reiθ )p−1 iReiθ
dx + dθ
J1 → 0 as R → ∞. A similar calculation with ∈ r 1+x 0 1 + Reiθ
Z r Z 0
replacing R shows that J2 → 0 as ∈→ 0. Letting (xe2πi )p−1 (reiθ )p−1 ireiθ
R → ∞ and ∈→ 0 in Eq. (4) therefore gives + 2πi
dx + dθ
R 1 + xe 2π 1 + reiθ
−π3
Z ∞
2 log2 x+2πi log x
Z ∞
dx = 2πie(p−1)πi (3)
2
= 2
dx−π
4 0 1+x 0 1 + x2 Now the absolute values of the second and fourth
2 integrals
when we recall that I = −π /4 by Eq. (2). The
second integral is π/2 and Eq. (1) follows, by Z 2π p ipθ 
R e idθ 2πRp 
equating real and imaginary parts. iθ
≤ → 0 as R → ∞  
1 + Re R−1

0
Z 0 p ipθ p
(4)
r e idθ 2πR
Example 6.49

≤ → 0 as r → 0


iθ
2π 1 + re 1−r

∞
xp−1
Z
π
Show that dx = (0 < p < 1).
0 1+x sin pπ Letting r → 0 and R → ∞, we have from Eqs.
(3) and (4)
z p−1 Z ∞ p−1
x
Z ∞ p−1
x
Solution We integrate f (z) = over the dx − e2π1(p−1) dx
1+z 1+x 1+x
closed contour C shown in Fig. 6.19, f (z) has a 0 0
Z ∞ p−1
simple pole at z = −1 in the interior of C x
= (1 − e2πi(p−1) ) dx
0 1+x
(z + 1)z p−1
Resz=−1 f (z) = lim = (eπi )p−1 (1) = 2πie(p−1)πi
z→−1 (1 + z) Z ∞ p−1
x 2πie(p−1)πi
= e(p−1)πi ∵ eπi = −1 ⇒ dx =
0 1+x 1 − e2πi(p−1)
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, we have 2πi π
= pπi =
Z Z Z Z Z e − e−pπi sin pπ
f (z)dz = f + f + f + f
C AB CR GH cr e2πi(p−1) = e2πpi · e−2πi = e2πpi ∵ e−2πi = 1
= 2πie(p−1)πi (2) e(p−1)πi = epπi · e−πi = −epπi ∵ e−πi = −1.

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6-32 Engineering Mathematics III

Z 0
Integration around rectangular/sectorial 2 +iRy+y2
I4 = e−R idy
contours b
Z 0
Example 6.50 = ie−R
2 2
e2iRy+y dy → 0 as R → ∞
2
By integrating e−z around the boundary of the b

Z −R,
rectangle with vertices
∞
R, R+ib, −R+ib letting
(interchanging limits and changing the sign).
−z 2
√
R → ∞ and using e dz = π/2 show that Equating the real parts
Z ∞ 0 √
−x2 π −b2 √
Z ∞
e cos 2bxdx = e (heat conduction 2 2
0 2 ∴ π − eb e−x cos 2bx dx = 0
problem). −∞
Z ∞
2 √ 2
⇒ e−x cos 2bx dx = πe−b .
y −∞

Example 6.51
–R+ib y=1 R+ib Z ∞
cosh ax π
Prove that dx = (|a| < 1).
0 cosh x 2 cos(πa/2)

–R O R x eaz
Solution Let f (z) = and consider
cosh z
Z
Figure 6.20 f (z)dz (1)
C

2
Solution f (z) = e−z has no poles inside the where C is the rectangle with vertices at −R, R, R +
contour C (Fig. 6.20). By Cauchy’s residue theorem, πi, −R + πi as shown in Fig. 6.21.
we have
Z y
2
⇒ e−z dz = 0
C
Z R Z b Z −R
3̟i/2
−x2 −(R+iy)2 −(x+ib)2 –R+̟i R+̟i
⇒ e dx+ e idy + e dx
−R 0 R
Z 0
̟i/2
−(−R+iy)2
+ e idy = 0 –R O R x
b –̟i/2
As R → ∞
Z ∞ ∞
√
Z
−x2 2
I1 = e dx = 2 e−x dx = π (given) Figure 6.21
−∞ 0
Zb The poles
are simple and occur where cosh z = 0
2 −2iRy+y2
I2 = e−R idy 1
0 i.e., z = n + πi, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . The only
Z b 2
2 2 pole inside C is πi/2.
= ie−R e−2iRy+y dy → 0 as R → ∞
0
Z −∞ eaz eaπi/2
I3 =
2 2
ex +b · e−2ibx dx Res(f : πi/2) = lim (z−πi/2) =
z→πi/2 cosh z sinh πi/2
∞
Z ∞ eaπi/2
= −e b2 2
e−x (cos 2bx − i sin 2bx)dx = = −ieaπi/2 (2)
i sin π/2
−∞

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Calculus of Residues 6-33

By residue theorem, we have Z ∞ ax 0

eax
Z
e
Z Now LHS = dx + dx
f (z)dz = 2πi(−ieaπi/2 ) = 2πeaπ/2 −∞ cosh x 0 cosh x
Z ∞ ∞
C e−ax eax
Z
Z R
eax
Z π
ea(R+iy) = dx + dx
⇒ dx + idy 0 cosh −x 0 cosh x
−R cosh x 0 cosh(R + iy)
Z ∞
cosh ax
Z −R
ea(x+πi)
Z 0
ea(−R+iy) =2
+ dx + idy 0 cosh x
R cosh(x + πi) π cosh(−R + iy)
Z ∞
= 2πeaπi/2 (3) cosh ax π
⇒ dx = (8)
0 cosh x 2 cos aπ/2
Denoting the integrals on the LHS of Eq. (3) by
I1 , I2 , I3 and I4 , we find that I2 and I4 → 0 as R → ∞ Miscellaneous definite integrals
as shown below:
Example 6.52
eR+iy + e−R−iy Z ∞ Z ∞
∵ | cosh(R + iy)| = 1p
2 Prove that sin x2 dx = cos x2 dx = π/2.
1 R+iy 0 0 2
|e | − |e−R−iy |

≥
2 y
1 1
= (eR − e−R ) ≥ eR (4)
2 4
Z π B
ea(R+iy)
∴ |I2 | = idy R
0 cosh(R + iy)
Z π aR
e
≤ dy = 4π ̟/4
1
0 4
R O R A x
e(a−1)R → 0 as R → ∞ if |a| < 1 (5)

Similarly, we can prove that the fourth integral I4 Figure 6.22

also approaches 0 as R → ∞

ex · eπi + e−x · e−πi Solution Let C be the contour as shown in Fig.

Also cosh(x + πi) = 6.22. By Cauchy’s theorem, we have
2
ex + e−x Z
2
=− = − cosh x eiz dz = 0 (1)
2
C
Z Z Z
Now let r → ∞ so, I1 , I4 → 0. In I3 replace 2 2 2
⇒ eiz dx + ⌢ eiz dz + eiz dz = 0
cosh(x + πi) by − cosh x and interchange its limits. OA AB BO
Therefore, we get from Eq. (3)
Z ∞ ax Z ∞ ax On OA, z = x from x = 0 to x = R
⌢
e e On AB z = Reiθ from θ = 0 to θ = π/4 and
I1 +I −3 = dx+eaπi dx
−∞ cosh x −∞ cosh x On BA, z = reπ/4 from r = R to r = 0
(6) Hence from Eq. (1)
= 2πeaπi/2 Z R Z π/4
2 2 2
∞ a aπi/2
eiR (cos 2θ+i sin 2θ)
Z
ex 2πe 2π (cos x + i sin x )dx +
⇒ dx = = aπi/2 0 0
−∞ cosh x 1 + e aπi e + e−aπi/2 Z 0
π iReiθ dθ + eir eiπ/2 eπi/4 dx = 0 (2)
= (7)
cos πa/2 R

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6-34 Engineering Mathematics III

Therefore, Eq. (7.5) reduces to a1

◄
1
Z
f′ p C1 C ◄
aj
dz = 0 − 2πi = −p (7.6) C2
2πi C1 f 2πi

◄
Cj

◄
γ1 ◄

Now f (z) has a zero of order n at z = b. So, we γ2 ◄

γk
can write
f (z) = (z − b)n G(z) (7.7)
Figure 7.2
where G(z) is analytic and non-vanishing on and Proof: If we enclose ar (r = 1, 2, . . . , j) and
inside C1 . Taking logs on both sides of Eq. (7.7) and br (r = 1, 2, . . . , k) in small non-overlapping circles
differentiating w.r.t z, we obtain Cr and γr respectively, and apply the above argument
f ′ (z) G ′ (z) n theorem, we obtain
= + Z ′ Z ′
f (z) G(z) z−b 1 f 1 Xk f
dz = dz
f′ G′
Z Z
1 1 2πi C f 2πi r=1 γ f
r
⇒ dz = dz
2πi C2 f 2πi C2 G f′
Z
1 Xj
Z + dz
n dz 2πi r=1 C f
r
+ (7.8)
2πi C2 z − b Xk Xj
= nr − pr = N − P.
r=1 r=1
By a similar argument as above, we obtain
1
Z
f′ n Principle of Argument (Angle)
dz = 0 + 2πi = n (7.9)
2πi C2 f 2πi By argument theorem,
Z ′
Substituting Eqs. (7.6) and (7.9) in Eq. (7.2), we 1 f (z)
N −P = dz
get 2πi C f (z)
Z
Z ′ 1 1
1 f (z) = d[ln f (z)] = −
dz = n − p. (7.10) 2πi C 2πi
2πi C f (z)
[Variation of ln f (z) in going completely once
7.4 Generalised Argument around C]
Theorem 1
= Var [ln |f (z)| + i arg f (z)]
Theorem 7.2 Let f (z) be meromorphic within 2πi
and on a simple closed curve C except for a finite 1 1
= Var [arg f (z)] =
number of poles a1 , a2 , . . . , aj repeated p1 , p2 , . . . , pj 2π 2π

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Argument Principle and Rouche’s Theorem 7-3

(change in the angle f (z) as C traversed completely Therefore, f (z) and f (z) + g(z) have no zeros on
once) C. Thus, the meromorphic function
f (z) + g(z) g(z)
1 F(z) = =1+ (7.11)
= △C (arg f (z)) f (z) f (z)
2π
has no zeros or poles on C. By the principle of the
∵ ln |f | is the same at the beginning and at the end argument for F
of one full circuit around C. 1
N −P = arg f (z) C
(7.12)
2π
Corollary If f (z) is analytic everywhere so that
p = 0, then Also,
g(z)
N =Number of zeros of f (z) inside C |F(z) − 1| = <1 (7.13)
f (z)
1 1
= Var[arg f (z)] = △C [arg f (z)] for all z on C. Thus, the point w = F(z) lies inside
2π 2π the circle of unit radius with center at 1, as shown in
as z traverses the closed curve C Fig. 7.3

Geometrically, this means that the number of zeros

v
of f (z) is equal to the number of times the locus C ∗
of w = f (z) encircles the origin.
Note
If w = 0 and C ∗ does not pass through the origin,
then N = net variation of arg f (z) is zero. 0 θ 1 u
The following theorem due to Rouche gives a sim-
ple procedure to find the number of zeros of an w = F(z)
analytic function in a given domain.

7.5 1
Rouche’s Theorem Figure 7.3

Theorem 7.3 Let f (z) and g(z) be ana-

Now, it follows that
lytic within and on a simple closed curve C. If
π π π
|g(z)| < |f (z)| at every point z on C, then f (z) and − < arg w < or | arg w| < (7.14)
f (z) + g(z) both have the same number of zeros 2 2 2
inside C. for z on C.
In general,
Proof: First, we observe that f (z) and f (z) + g(z) arg w = arg F(z) = 2πk (7.15)
have no zeros on C. (k : an integer)
For, if f (a) = 0 for some point z = a on C then
g(a) = 0 on C since g(a) < f (a). This implies If k 6= 0, then Eq. (4) is violated. Hence, k = 0.
that g(a) = f (a) = 0 on C, which contradicts the ∴ arg w = arg F(z) = 0 (7.16)
hypothesis that |g(z)| < |f (a)| for all z on C.
Also, if f (a) + g(a) = 0 for some point z = a on Eq. (2) now gives
C then |f (a)| = | − g(a)| = |g(a)|, which is again a N =P (7.17)
contradiction.
Since the poles of F are the zeros of f and the zeros
1 Rouche, Engene (1832-1910), French algebraist, analyst of F are the zeros of f (z) + g(z), Eq. (7) implies that
geometer and probabilist. the number of zeros of f (z) and f (z)+g(z) are equal.

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7-4 Engineering Mathematics III

2
7.6 Liouville Theorem everywhere. Also, |f (z)| → 0 as |z| → ∞ so that
Theorem 7.4 If f (z) is entire and |f (z)| is |f (z)| is bounded for all z. By Liouville’s theorem, a
bounded for all z, then f (z) is constant. function which is analytic everywhere and bounded
must be constant. This leads to contradiction since
Proof: By Cauchy’s generalised integral formula, p(z) is not constant. Hence, p(z) is zero for at least
Z one value of z.
(n) n! f (z)
f (a) = dz (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .)
2πi C (z−a)n+1 Alternative form of the theorem: Every polynomial
(7.18) of degree n in the complex plane has n zeros, counting
the multiplicities.vs10
where C is a circle with centre at ‘a’ and radius ‘r’.
Proof: (By Rouche’s theorem) Let p(z) = a0 +
Since |f (z)| is bounded, |f (z)| ≤ M . Applying
a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · + an z n (an 6= 0) be the polynomial.
ML-inequality to Eq. (7.12),
Choose f (z) = an z n and g(z) = a1 + a1 z + · · · +
an−1 z n−1 . Let C be a circle with centre at the origin
Z
n! f (z)
|f (n) (a)| ≤ dz (7.19)
2π C (z − a)n+1 and radius R > 1. Then on C
n! M (2πr) g(z) |a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · + an−1 z n−1 |
≤ ∵ C : |z − a| = r, =
2π r n+1 f (z) |an z n |
n!M
⇒ |f (n) (a)| ≤ n L = length of C = 2πr |a0 | + |a1 |R + |a2 |R2 + · · · + |an−1 |Rn−1
r ≤
|an |Rn
which is known as Cauchy’s inequality.
If we put n = 1 in Eq. (7.13) |a0 |Rn−1 +|a1 |Rn−1 +|a2 |Rn−1 +· · ·+|an−1 |Rn−1
≤ ,
M |an |Rn
|f ′ (a)| ≤ (7.20)
r replacing each power of R by Rn−1 , which is larger
Since f is entire (analytic throughout C) and |f | is for n > 1
bounded for all z Eq. (7.14) is true for any r. Letting |a0 | + |a1 | + |a2 | + · · · + |an |
r → ∞ we have |f ′ (a)| → 0. ≤
|an |R
Since ‘a’ is arbitrary f ′ (z) → 0 for all z and hence
f (z) is constant. For any specified values of the coefficients
a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an , we can choose R such that
7.7 Fundamental Theorem of g(z) g(z)
0< =
Algebra f (z) z on C f (z) |z|=R
Theorem 7.5 Every polynomial of degree n in < 1 ⇒ |g(z)| < |f (z)|
the complex plane has at least one zero.
By Rouche’s theorem, the total number of zeros of
Proof: (By Liouville’s theorem) Let p(z) be a the polynomial p(z) = f (z) + g(z) in the circle C is
polynomial in z of degree n > 1, given by the same as the number of zeros of f (z) = an z n in C.
But f (z) = an z n has n zeros (n-fold zero) all
p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · + an z n (7.21) located at z = 0. Hence p(z) = f (z) + g(z) has
(where an 6 = 0) n zeros in C. Since R is arbitrary, this is true for the
entire complex plane.
Suppose that p(z) has no zero. Then p(z) 6= 0
1 7.8 Maximum Modulus Theorem
for all z. This implies that f (z) = is analytic
p(z) for Analytic Functions
2 Liouville, Joseph (1809−1882) French analyst and geometer. Theorem 7.6 Let f (z) be a non-constant, analytic
First to prove existence of transcendental numbers. and bounded function in a domain D and also on its

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Argument Principle and Rouche’s Theorem 7-5

boundary. Then its absolute value |f (z)| cannot have 1

D implies that is analytic in D.
a maximum at an interior point of D. Consequently, f (z)
the maximum of |f (z)| is attained on the boundary 1
By the above result, attains the maximum on
of D. Similarly, if f (z) 6 = 0 the minimum of |f (z)| is |f (z)|
also attained on the boundary of D. the boundary of D so that |f (z)| attains its minimum
on the boundary of D. Hence the theorem.
Maximum principle for harmonic functions
r Let D be a simply-connected, bounded domain with
C1 p a
C2 C as its boundary curve. Then, if φ(x, y) is a non-
constant harmonic function in a domain containing
C
domain D and curve C then φ(x, y) has neither a
D maximum nor a minimum in D.
Consequently, the maximum and the minimum of
Figure 7.4 φ(x, y) occur only on the boundary C of D.
Example 7.1
Proof: We prove the theorem by the method of f ′ (z)
Z
contradiction. Assume that |f (z)| has a maximum Evaluate dz using the argument principle,
C f (z)
M at an interior point ‘a’ of D, i.e., f (a) = M and where C is a simple closed curve and f (z) = z 5 −
show that it leads to contradiction. Since f (z) is 8z 3 i + 2z − 3 + 5i.
not constant, |f (z)| is also not constant. Describe a
circle C of radius r with centre ‘a’ such that the inte- Solution By the fundamental theorem of
rior of C is in D and |f (z)| < M at some point P of C. algebra
f (z) = z 5 − 8z 3 i + 2z − 3 + 5i
Let C1 be an arc of C containing the point P (Fig.
7.4) Analyticity of f (z) implies continuity of f (z) being a polynomial and hence analytic everywhere of
within and on C. Therefore, |f (z)| < M on C1 con- degree 5 has 5 zeros and has no poles in the complex
taining the point P. Thus if ǫ > 0 then |f (z)| ≤ M −ǫ plane, i.e., N = 5, P = 0
for all z on C1 . ∴ By the argument principle
Let the length of C1 be l1 so that the complemen- Z ′
f (z)
tary arc C2 of C has the length (2πr − l1 ) since dz = 2πi(N − P) = 2πi(5 − 0) = 10πi.
C f (z)
|z − a| = r. Now, we have by Cauchy’s integral
formula ExampleZ 7.2
Z
1 f (z)dz f ′ (z)
|f (a)| = Evaluate dz using the argument principle,
2π C z − a C f (z)
where C is the simple closed curve |z| = 2 and
Z Z
1 f (z) 1 f (z)
≤ dz + dz z2 − 1
2π C1 z − a 2π C2 z − a f (z) = 2 .
1 (m − ǫ)l1 1 M (2πr − l1 ) (z + z)2
≤ + , z2 − 1
2π r 2π r Solution f (z) = 2 has two zeros of order
by ML-inequality (z + z)2
1 at z = ±1 and two poles each of order 2 at z = 0
ǫl1
≤M− <M and −1; otherwise, it is analytic inside C : |z| = 2
2πr (circle of radius 2 and centre 0).
which is a contradiction. Hence our assumption is ∴ By the argument principle
Z ′
false. This proves the first part of the theorem. f (z)
To prove the last part, we observe that f (z) 6= 0 in dz = 2πi(N −P) = 2πi(2·1−2·2) = −4πi.
C f (z)

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7-6 Engineering Mathematics III

Example 7.3 Now the radius of C is π = 3.1416 (approximately).

Prove that all the roots of the equation z 7 − 5z 3 ∴ By argument principle,
+12 = 0 lie between the circles |z| = 1 and |z| = 2. Z ′
f (z)
Solution Let f (z) = 12 and g(z) = z 7 −5z 3 . Both dz = 2πi(7 − 6) = 2πi.
C f (z)
f (z) and g(z) are analytic within and on C1 : |z| = 1.

f ′ (z)
Z
5. Evaluate dz where f (z) = z 5 − 3iz 2 + [Hint: Take f (z) = −5z, g(z) = z 4 +1 on C1 :
C f (z) |z| = 1 and f (z) = z 4 ; g(z) = −5z + 1 on C2 :
2z − 1 + 1 and C is a simple closed curve. |z| = 2.]
Ans: 10πi Ans: Three
Z ′
6. Apply Rouche’s theorem to determine the num- f (z)
8. Evaluate dz where f (z) = sin πz and
ber of zeros of z 9 − 2z 6 + z 2 − 8z − 2 that lie C f (z)
within the circle C : |z| = 1. L is the circle |z| = π.
[Hint: Take f (z) = −8z, Ans: 14πi
g(z) = z 9 − 2z 6 + z 2 − 2]
Ans: One zero
9. Use Rouche’s theorem to find the number of
zeros of the polynomial z 10 − 6z 7 + 3z 3 + 1 if
7. By Rouche’s theorem determine the num- |z|
< 1.
ber of zeros of z 4 − 5z + 1 in the region Hint: Take f (z) = −6z 7 , g(z) = z 10 + 3z 3 + 1
1 < |z| < 2 . Ans: Seven zeros

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Conformal Mapping
8
v
8.1 Introduction y
f C*
Let y = f (x) be a function in the xy-plane. The pair C w = f (z)
= (u, v)
(x, y) of real numbers x and y can be plotted with Range f
z = (x, y)
the help of two co-ordinate axes Ox and Oy. We thus D*
obtain a graph of the function. It gives a visual repre- D
sentation of the function. This helps in giving a better
O O'
understanding of the properties of the function. x u
z-plane w-plane
Now, consider a complex-valued function w =
f (z) where z = (x, y) and w = (u, v). The graphical Figure 8.1
representation as in the case of real-valued functions
is not possible in this case. However, if we have two points of a curve C in D, the image points form the
planes, one for each pair of numbers, and the map- image curve C ∗ of C in the w-plane.
ping assigns to each point z = (x, y) in the z-plane a Instead of using the phrase "the mapping by a
corresponding point w = (u, v) in the w-plane, this function w = f (z)" we briefly say "the mapping (or
modified version of the geometrical representation transformation) w = f (z)".
provides a better understanding of the problems. It
has several practical applications in potential theory,
8.1.2 Conformal Mapping
theory of elasticity, hydrodynamics and other applied
fields. A mapping under which the angles between any
two oriented curves are preserved both in mag-
nitude and sense is called a conformal mapping.
If a mapping preserves angles in magnitude only
8.1.1 Mapping f: z → w and not in sense then it is called an isogonal mapping.
Consider the complex function w = f (z) where z =
x + iy or (x, y) and w = u + iv or (u, v). Example 8.1
To represent this function graphically, we need two w = f (z) = z̄. Here |w| = |z̄| = |z| but arg w =
planes. One plane is the z-plane in which we plot the arg(z̄) = −arg(z).
values of z = (x, y) and the other is the w-plane Figure 8.2 shows the angle of intersection α of the
in which we plot the corresponding values of w = curves C1 and C2 defined as the angle between the
(u, v). Thus a given function f assigns to each z in its oriented tangents to the curves at the point P(z0 ) of
domain of definition D a corresponding point w = intersection of C1 and C2 .
f (z) in the w-plane (Fig. 8.1). We know that a curve in the xy-plane has paramet-
We say that f defines a mapping of D onto a range ric representation.
of values of w = f (z). If z is any point in D the point For example, the equation of the circle x2 + y2 = 1
w = f (z) is called the image of z under f . For the can be represented by x = cos t, y = sin t (0 ≤ t ≤ 2π)

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8-2 Engineering Mathematics III

C2 that as P moves on a curve C and P ′ moves on

►R the corresponding curve C ′ in G. Let Q(z + δz) and
Q′ (z + δz) be the neighbouring points on C and C ′ ,
P −
→ −−→
α respectively, so that PQ = δz and P ′ Q′ = δw.
z0 ►Q
Then δz is a complex number whose modulus r
z-plane is the length PQ and amplitude θ is the angle which
C1 ′
PQ makes with the x-axis. δz = reiθ and δw = r ′ eiθ ,
′
δw r ′
C2 * ∴ = ei(θ −θ) , where r ′ is the modulus and
► δz r
►
R* θ ′ the amplitude of δw of the tangent at Pon C,
and the tangent at P ′ on C makes angles α and α′ ,
P* respectively, with the real axes x and u. Then as
α*
δz → 0, θ → α and θ ′ → α′ . Hence,
w0 = f (z0) ►Q*

►
w-plane C2* Q (z+δz)
y
δz
Figure 8.2 Curves C1 and C2 in the z-plane and
their images C1∗ and C2∗ in the w-plane under a θ
α
conformal mapping
P (z)

and the equation of the parabola y2 = 4ax can be O z-plane x

represented by x = at 2 , y = 2at (−∞ < t < ∞).

In the complex plane, a curve can be represented
v
by z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) (a ≤ t ≤ b). We assume that Q´ (z+δz)
C is smooth. That is, at each point z(t) of C, ż(t)
δw
exists and is not zero. The positive sense of C is that
dz θ΄
in which t is increasing, i.e., = ż(t) > 0. α΄
dt
Conformal mapping preserves orthogonality of P΄(w)

curves. That is, if φ(x, y) = C1 , ψ(x, y) = C2 O w-plane u

are mutually orthogonal in the z-plane their image
curves in the w-plane given by φ∗ (u, v) = C1∗ and Figure 8.3
ψ∗ (u, v) = C2∗ are also mutually orthogonal.

8.2 Conformal Mapping: dw δw

f ′ (z) = = lim
Conditions for Conformality dz δz→0 δz
r ′ i(θ′ −θ)
The conditions under which the transformation = lim e (8.1)
w = f (z) is conformal are stated and proved in the
δz→0 r
following theorem. f ′ (z) 6= 0 ⇒ f ′ (z) = ρeiφ
Theorem 8.1 If f (z) is analytic and f ′ (z) 6= 0 in so that ρ = |f ′ (z)| and φ = amp f ′ (z)
′
a region R of the z-plane, then the mapping w = f (z) r ′
iφ
∴ ρe = lim ei(θ −θ)
is conformal at all points of R. δz→0 r
r′
Proof: Let P(z) be a point in the region R of the so that ρ = lim (8.2)
δz→0 r
z-plane and P ∗ (w) the corresponding point in the and φ = lim (θ ′ − θ) = α′ − α.
corresponding region G of the w-plane. Suppose δz→0

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Conformal Mapping 8-3

If C1 and C1 ′ be another pair of curves through P Solution w = f(z) = z 2 ⇒ f ′ (z) = 2z

and P ′ , respectively, in the z- and w- planes and the 1 1
and f′ + i = 1 + i.
tangents at these points make angles β and β′ with 2 2
the real axis then φ = β′ − β ⇒ α′ − α = β′ − β or 1 i
(i) The coefficient of magnification at z = + is
β − α = β′ − α′ = γ. 2 2
√

′ 1 i p
2 2
C1 f + = 1 + 1 = 2.
2 2
y
C 1 i
(ii) The angle of rotation at z = + is
2 2
1
γ ′ 1 i −1 2 π
amp f + = tan 1 = .
2 2 2
4
P(z)

O x
z-plane 8.3 Conformal Mapping by
Elementary Functions
C 1´
v
C´ 8.3.1 General Linear
Transformation
γ´ Consider the mapping
P´(w) w = f (z) = az + b (8.3)
O
w-plane u (a 6= 0, b are arbitrary complex constants.)

It maps conformally the extended complex

Figure 8.4
z-plane onto the extended w-plane since Eq. (8.3) is
analytic and f ′ (z) = a 6= 0 for any z. If a = 0, then
The angle between the curves before and Eq. (8.3) reduces to a constant function.
after the mapping is preserved in magnitude and
sense. Hence the mapping by the analytic function Special cases of linear transformation
w = f (z) is conformal at each point where f ′ (z) 6= 0.
Identity transformation
The mapping
Note
1. A point at which f ′ (z) = 0 is called a critical w=z (8.4)
point of the transformation.
r′ obtained from Eq. (8.3) for a = 1, b = 0 maps a
2. We have obtained ρ = lim . It follows that point z onto itself.
δz→0 r
under the conformal transformation w = f (z), the
lengths of arc through P are magnified in the ratio Translation transformation
ρ : 1 where ρ = |f ′ (z)|. The mapping
3. A harmonic function remains harmonic under a w =z+b (8.5)
conformal transformation.
obtained from Eq. (8.3) for a = 1 translates or shifts
Example 8.2 z through a distance |b| in the direction of b.
For the conformal transformation w = z 2 show that More specifically, if z = x + iy, b = p + iq, w =
1 i u + iv, then the transformation becomes
(i) the coefficient of magnification at z = +
√ 2 2
is 2 and u + iv = (x + iy) + (p + iq)
1 i π
(ii) the angle of rotation at z = + is . = (x + p) + i(y + q)
2 2 4

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8-4 Engineering Mathematics III

so that u = x + p and v = y + q.

′ −1 1
C(1, 1) ↔ C ′
0, √1 D(0, 1) ↔ D √ ,√
Thus the transformation is a mere translation of 2
2 2
the axes and it preserves the shape and size of the
figure in the z-plane.
y
For example, the rectangle ABCD in the z-plane is
transformed to the rectangle A′ B′ C ′ D′ in the w-plane D (0 + i) C (1 + i)
under the transformation w = z + (2 + i).

y
D (1 + 3i) C (4 + 3i)

A (0 + 0i) B (1 + 0i) x

z-plane

A (1 + i) B (4 + i)
C´ 0 + 1 
v 
O x  2 

z-plane

v  1 i 
D΄ (3 + 4i) C΄ (6 + 4i) 
D´ −
1
+
i 
 B´  + 
2 2   2 2 

O u
A´ (0, 0)
A΄ (3 + 2i) B΄ (6 + 2i) w-plane

Figure 8.6

O u
Stretching, scaling or magnification
w-plane The mapping
Figure 8.5 w = az (8.7)

Rotation transformation obtained from Eq. (8.3) for b = 0 stretches (magni-

The mapping fies) the radius vector by a factor a if a is real and >1
and contracts if a is real and 0 < a < 1.
w = eiα z (8.6)

obtained from Eq. (8.3) for a = eiα and b = 0 rotates 8.3.2 Inversion Transformation
a radius vector of a point z through a scalar angle α Consider the mapping
counter-clockwise if α > 0 and clockwise if α < 0. 1
π
For example, the mapping w = ei 4 z or w = iz w= (8.8)
z
rotates the square ABCD in the z-plane into the
square A′ B′ C ′ D′ , which is rotated through an Put z = reiθ and w = Reiφ then the transformation
π
angle . becomes
4
1 1 1 −iθ 1
A(0, 0) ↔ A′ (0, 0) B(1, 0) ↔ B′ √ , √ Reiφ = e ⇒R= and φ = −θ
2 2 r r

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Conformal Mapping 8-5

1 x −y
Thus under the transformation w = a point ⇒u= and v = 2
z x2 + y2 x + y2
P(r,
θ) in the z-plane is mapped into the point 1 1
1 Also, z = ⇒ x + iy =
P′ , −θ . w u + iv
r u − iv u − iv
Imagine that the w-plane is superposed on to = = 2

1 (u + iv)(u − iv) u + v2
the z-plane. If P is (r, θ) and P1 is , θ , then u −v
r ⇒x= 2 and y = 2
u +v 2 u + v2
1 1
OP1 = = ⇒ OP · OP1 = 1 so that P1 is the
r OP Now consider the second degree general equation
inverse of P w.r.t the unit circle |z| = 1. with equal coefficients for x2 and y2 viz.

Note a(x2 + y2 ) + bx + cy + d = 0 (8.9)

The inverse of a point P w.r.t the circle having its where a, b, c and d are real constants. If a 6= 0 the
centre at 0 and radius r is defined as the point Q on above equation represents a circle and if a = 0 it
OP such that OP · OQ = r 2 . represents a straight line, substituting for x and y in
terms of u and v we get,
y, v P (z)
u2 v2

a + 2
(u2 + v2 )2 (u + v2 )2

P1 (1/r, θ) u v
θ +b 2 −c 2 +d =0
u + v2 u + v2
O –θ x, u
or d(u2 + v2 ) + bu − cv + a = 0, (8.10)
P´(w)
on multiplication throughout by (u2 + v2 ).
The following cases arise
Figure 8.7 1. a 6= 0, d 6= 0. Equations (8.9) and (8.10)
show that circles not passing through the origin are
The reflection P ′ of P in the real axis represents
1 1 mapped into circles not passing through the origin.
w = . Thus the transformation w = is an inver-
z z 2. a 6= 0, d = 0. Equations (8.9) and (8.10) show
sion of z w.r.t the unit circle |z| = 1 followed by that circles passing through the origin are mapped
reflection of the inverse in the real axis. onto straight lines not passing through the origin.
1
Clearly, the transformation w = maps the inte-
z 3. a = 0, d 6= 0. Equations (8.9) and (8.10) show
rior of the unit circle |z| = 1 into the exterior of the that straight lines passing through the origin are
unit circle |w| = 1 and the exterior of |z| = 1 into mapped onto circles passing through the origin.
the interior of |w| = 1.
However, the origin z = 0 is mapped to the point 4. a = 0, d = 0. Equations (8.9) and (8.10)
w = ∞, called the point at infinity. show that straight lines passing through the origin
1 are mapped onto straight lines passing through the
We may discuss the transformation w = by origin.
z
changing it to cartesian coordinates. For this, we put 1
Thus, the mapping w = transforms circles and
z
z = x + iy and w = u + iv straight lines into circles and straight lines.
1 1 Since a straight line can be considered as a circle
w = ⇒ u + iv = with infinite radius, we conclude that under the
z x + iy
1
x − iy x − iy mapping w = circles are mapped into circles in
= = 2 z
(x + iy)(x − iy) x + y2 the w-plane.

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8-6 Engineering Mathematics III

8.4 Some Special Transformations Vertical lines

8.4.1 Transformation w = z 2 Consider a vertical line x = c (constant) in the z-
Polar coordinates plane. It is mapped onto the curve
Changing the equation into polar coordinates by u =c2 − y2 , v = 2cy
putting z = reiθ and w = Reiφ 2
⇒y = c − u, 2
4c2 y2 = v2 .
2
we have w = z
Eliminating y between these equations, we get
⇒ Reiφ = (reiθ )2 = r 2 e2iθ
v2 = 4c2 (c2 − u) = −4c2 (u − c2 )
⇒ R(cosφ + isinφ) = r 2 (cos2θ + isin2θ)
⇒ R = r 2 and φ = 2θ
L1 L2
y
Hence circles r = r0 (constant) in the z-plane are
transformed into circles R = r0 2 (constant) in the
w-plane.
In particular, the region 1 ≤ |z| ≤ 23 , π6 ≤ θ ≤ π3
is mapped onto the region 1 ≤ |w| ≤ 49 , π3 ≤ φ ≤ 2π3
.
O x
Mapping w = z 2 ; lines |z| = constant,
arg z = constant and their images are in the w-plane. x = c1 x=c2

Cartesian coordinates
z-plane
y v

O u
0 1
1 3
2 2 x C1*
2

z- plane w-plane

v C2*

Figure 8.9

These are parabolas with the negative u-axis as

their axis and their openings are to the left.
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 u The region between two vertical lines x = c1
and x = c2 (c2 > c1 ) is mapped into the region
w- plane between the parabolas v2 = −4c1 2 (u − c1 2 ) and
Figure 8.8
v2 = −4c2 2 (u − c2 2 ) in the w-plane whose ver-
tices are at (c1 2 , 0) and (c2 2 , 0), respectively, and their
Changing the equation w = z 2 by putting z = common axis is the negative u-axis.
x + iy and w = u + iv where x, y, u, v ∈ R we have
w = z 2 ⇒ u + iv = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + i(2xy). Horizontal lines
On equating the real and imaginary parts, we get Consider a horizontal line y = d(constant) in the
u = x2 − y2 ; v = 2xy. z-plane. It is mapped onto the curve v2 = 4d 2 (u+d 2 ),

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Conformal Mapping 8-7

1
a parabola with its axis along Ou and with its opening Solving w = z n for z, we have z = w n which has
to the right. n roots. For every non-zero w, this shows that there
y
are n pre-images.
Converting the equation w = z n into polars by
y = d2
putting z = reiθ and w = Reiφ , we get R = r n and
φ = nθ.
A circle |z| = r of radius r and centre at the origin
y = d1 in the z-plane is mapped into a circle of radius r n and
O x centre at the origin of the w-plane.

The sectorial region z = reiθ , α ≤ θ ≤ β is
z-plane
mapped into the sectorial region w = Reiφ ,
nα ≤ φ ≤ nβ} in the w-plane.
v In particular, the sector z = reiθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ πn is
C2* mapped into the upper half-plane v ≥ 0 in the w-
plane given by
Reiφ , 0 ≤ φ ≤ π and the region

w =
z = reiθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

C1* is mapped into the region
n
w = Reiφ , 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π , which is the entire w-

O u
plane.
A

w-plane

Figure 8.10
θ=π/n
u =x2 − d 2 , v = 2dx O x
⇒x2 = u + d 2 , 4d 2 x2 = v2 z-plane

Eliminating x between these equations, we get v

v2 = 4d 2 (u + d 2 ) φ=π

The vertex of the parabola is at (−d 2 , 0), and the

axis is the positive u-axis.
The region between two horizontal lines y = d1 O u
φ=0
and y = d2 (d2 > d1 ≥ 1) is mapped into the region
between the parabolas v2 = 4d1 2 (u + d1 2 ) and v2 = w-plane
4d2 2 (u + d2 2 ) in the w-plane.
Figure 8.11 Mapping w = z n
8.4.2 Transformation w = z n
(n ∈ N)
Differentiating w = z n w.r.t z, we have 8.4.3 Transformation w = ez
Consider the mapping w = ez . Put z = x+iy, x, y ∈ R
dw dw
= nz n−1 , = 0 ⇒ z = 0. w = Reiφ = R(cos φ + i sin φ)
dz dz
⇒ ez = ex ei y = ex(cos y+i sin y) and
So, the mapping is conformal at all points z except
at the origin z = 0. w = ez ⇒ |w| = R = ex arg w = φ = y.

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8-8 Engineering Mathematics III

y v

D C D´

C´
A´
B´
A B O
u

O x

w-plane
z-plane

Figure 8.12 Mapping of rectangle into sectorial region in the w-plane under w = ez

Vertical lines in the z-plane Horizontal lines in the z-plane

Straight lines x = c (constant), i.e., vertical lines Straight lines y = d (constant), i.e., horizontal lines
are mapped onto the circles |w| = R = ec (constant). are mapped onto the radial lines φ = d (constant) in
If c > 0 then the circles in the w-plane have radius the w-plane.
greater than 1, if c < 0 then the circles have radius
v
less than 1 and if c = 0 (y-axis) then the circle is of y
unit radius.
y=d
φ=d
y O u
O x

Figure 8.14 Horizontal lines mapped into rays

under the mapping w = ez

O x If d > 0 then the ray φ = d in the w-plane makes

a positively oriented angle and if d < 0 it makes a
c< 0 c=0 c>0 negatively oriented angle with the real u-axis.
v If d = 0 then we have the real axis (x-axis) in
the z-plane, and it is mapped onto the real u-axis in
|w| = ec > 1
|w| = 1 the w-plane. The rectangular region ABCD bounded
by the straight lines x = c1 and c2 , and y = d1 and
d2 (c1 < c2 , d1 < d2 ) in the z-plane is mapped onto
O u the sectorial region A′ B′ C ′ D′ given by
|w| = ec < 1
ec1 ≤ |w| ≤ ec2 d1 ≤ φ ≤ d2 in the w-plane.

8.4.4 Transformation w = sin z

Figure 8.13 Vertical lines mapped into Consider the mapping
concentric circles under w = ez w = sin z (8.11)

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Conformal Mapping 8-9

put z = x + iy, w = u + iv where x, y, u, v ∈ R Since cosh y ≥ 1 and − cosh y ≤ −1 ∀y, the

π
vertical line x = − maps onto u ≤ −1, v = 0
w = u + iv = sin z = sin (x + iy) 2
π
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y (8.12) and the vertical line x = maps onto u ≥ 1, v = 0.
2
Horizontal line segments y = ±k (k > 0),
Equating the real and imaginary parts π π
− ≤x≤
2 2
u = sin x cosh y v = cos x sinh y (8.13)
Let y = k > 0.
Since these are periodic functions with period 2π Equation (8.13) ⇒ u = (cosh k) sin x, v =
u v
therefore Eq. (8.11) is periodic with period 2π. Hence (sinh k) cos x or = sin x, = cos x, where
the mapping is not one-to-one if we consider the a b
a = cosh k, b = sinh k.
whole of the xy-plane. Squaring and adding, we get
So, we restrict ourselves to the infinite vertical strip
−π π u2 v2
D∞ defined by ≤x≤ . + =1 (8.14)
2 2 a2 b2
π
Since f ′ (z) = cos z = 0 at z = ± , the mapping y
2
is not conformal at these points. C 1 B
y
D A
–π/2 O π/2 x

E –1 F

z-plane
–π/2 O π/2 x
v

D
z-plane D* A*
C* B*
E* –1 1 F* u
Figure 8.15

Horizontal line y = 0 (the x-axis) w-plane

For y = 0, sinh y = 0; cosh y = 1.

Figure 8.16 Mapping by w = sin z
∴ Equation (8.13) ⇒ u = sin x, v = 0.
Since −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1, u varies from −1 to 1 ∀ x. This equation represents
an ellipse. Thus the line
−π π −π π
Thus the segment ≤x≤ of the x-axis is segment y = k > 0 ≤x≤ is mapped
2 2 2 2
mapped onto the segment −1 ≤ u ≤ 1 of the u-axis. onto the upper half portion of the ellipse showing in
π Fig. 8.16.
Vertical lines x = ± Similarly, the line segment y = −k (k > 0),
2
π −π π
For x = ± , we have sin x = ±1, cos x = 0. ≤ x ≤ maps onto the lower half of the ellipse
2 2 2
Equations (8.13) ⇒ u = ± cosh y, v = 0. shown in Fig. 8.16.

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8-12 Engineering Mathematics III

u2 v2 u2 v2 Case (i) |z| = 1 (Unit circle) As r → 1, v =

+ = 1 or 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b2 r + 1r r − 1r 0, u = 2 cos θ since | cos θ| ≤ 1, −2 ≤ u ≤ 2.

The unit circle |z| = r = 1 is mapped onto the This shows that the unit circle |z| = 1 in the
line segment −2 ≤ u ≤ 2 of the u-axis. (real axis), z-plane is mapped into a degenerated ellipse which
since a = r + 1r = 1 + 1 = 2 and b = 0 yield flattens to the line segment v = 0, −2 ≤ u ≤ 2 on
u = 2 cos θ, v = 0. the real u-axis traversed twice.
y Case (ii) As r → 0 the ellipse is transformed into
a circle of infinitely large radius.To find the image of
the ray arg z = θ0 eliminate the parameter n we get
u 2 v 2 1 2 1 2
− = r+ − r− =4
O x cos θ sin θ r r
u2 v2
or − =1
2
4 cos θ0 4 sin2 θ0
which represents hyperbola with focii at w = ±2.
v
Thus Joukowski’s function defines the transforma-
tion of an orthogonal system of polar coordinates in
the z-plane into an orthogonal curvilinear system of
coordinates, whose coordinate lines are the confo-
–2 0 +2 u cal families of ellipses and hyperbolas in the w-plane.

Example 8.4
1
Show that the transformation w = maps the hyper-
z
2 2
Figure 8.19 Mapping w = z + 1/z (Joukowski bola x − y = 1 to the lemniscate.
Airfoil) [JNTU 1985, 1998]
1
Differentiating w = z + w.r.t z, we get y
z
dw 1 (z + 1)(z − 1) θ = ̟/4
=1− 2 =
dz z z2
dw
Hence = 0 ⇒ z = ±1. These are points at
dz x
which the mapping is not conformal. O
1
Solving the equation w = z + for z, we get θ = 3̟/4
√ z
w ± w2 − 4
z= .
2
So, z is a double-valued function of w. For r = a Figure 8.20
(constant) as mentioned above, this equation repre- Solution The given curve in the z-plane is the
sents ansellipse with focii at hyperbola
1 2 1 2 √ x2 − y2 = 1

(1)
r+ − r− = 4 = ±2
r r
which are independent of r. The given transformation is
1
The Joukowski’s function maps the family of con- w= (2)
centric circles |z| = a of the z-plane onto the fam- z
ily of confocal ellipses in the w-plane with focii at Let z = x + iy, w = u + iv.
w = ±2. In polars z = reiθ , w = Reiφ . By Eq. (2) we get

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Conformal Mapping 8-13

1 −iθ 1 Equation (6) represents a circle in the w-plane.

Reiφ = e ⇒ R = φ = −θ
r r Thus a circle (5) in the z-plane is transformed into a
Now let us put Eq. (1) in polar form by substituting circle (6) in the w-plane. If D = 0 then it represents
a straight line whose equation is
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
Bu − Cv + A = 0.
1
Thus x2 − y2 = 1 gives r 2 =
cos 2θ Example 8.6
1 1 Determine the region in the w-plane corresponding
∴ 2 = or R2 = cos 2φ
R cos(−2φ) to the triangular region bounded by the lines x = 0,
y = 0 and x + y = 1 in the z-plane mapped by the
This is the equation in polar coordinates for the π
transformation w = ei 4 z .
lemniscate.
Example 8.5 Solution The transformation is
1 π π
Show that the transformation w = maps a circle w = u + iv = cos + i sin (x + iy)
z 4 4
to a circle or to a straight line in the w-plane if the 1+i x−y x+y
former goes through the origin. [JNTU 2000] = √ (x + iy) = √ + i √
2 2 2
Solution Let z = x + iy, w = u + iv x−y x+y
⇒ u = √ and v = √
where x, y, u, v ∈ R. Then 2 2
1 1
w = ⇒ u + iv = (1)
z x + iy The line x = 0 maps into
x − iy −y y
= 2 [∵ (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 + y2 ] u = √ and v = √ or v = −u.
x + y2 2 2
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get from The line y = 0 maps into
Eq. (1) x x
u = √ and v = √ or v = u.
x −y 2 2
u= 2 , v= 2 (2) 1
x + y2 x + y2 The line x + y = 1 maps into v = √ .
2
Squaring and adding
x2 + y2 1
u2 + v 2 = 2 = 2 (3) y w = f (z)
(x + y2 )2 x + y2 v
u B v = 1/√2
x = u · (x2 + y2 ) = 2 y B A
u + v2
x
x=0

-u

−v
u
y

= −v(x2 + y2 ) = 2
=

(4)
=

v
1

u + v2
O y=0 A x O u
The general equation of a circle in the z-plane is
A(x2 + y2 ) + Bx + Cy + D = 0, (5)
Figure 8.21 The region in the z-plane and the
π
[where A, B, C, D are constants] w-plane mapped by the transformation w = ei 4 z

1 u
⇒A 2 +B 2 Example 8.7
u + v2 u + v2 1 1

v
Find the image of the infinite ship ≤ y ≤ under
−C +D =0 4 2
u + v2
2 1
the transformation w = and show the regions
⇒ D u2 +v2 +Bu−Cv+A = 0 (D 6 = 0)

(6) z
graphically.

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8-14 Engineering Mathematics III

Solution The transformation is Example 8.8

1 1 Plot the image of the region 1 < |z| < 2 under the
w= ⇒z= transformation w = 2iz + 1. [JNTU 1995]
z w
1 u − iv Solution Let z = x + iy, w = u + iv where
⇒ x + iy = = 2
u + iv u + v2 x, y, u, v ∈ R.
u −v Now, w = 2iz + 1 ⇒ u + iv = 2i(x + iy) + 1
⇒x= 2 2
and y = 2
u +v u + v2
1 −v 1 y
Now, y = ⇒ 2 =
4 u + v2 4
⇒ u2 + v2 + 4v = 0
⇒ u2 + (v + 2)2 = 22
1 −v 1
Also, y = ⇒ 2 = O x
z u + v2 2 C1
⇒ u2 + v2 + 2v = 0
C2
⇒ u2 + (v + 1)2 = 1

y
Figure 8.23
y = 1/2 Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get
v 1−u
u = −2y+1 and v = 2x, i.e., x = and y = .
2 2
y = 1/4 The given region 1 < |z| < 2 is the annulus
bounded by the circles C1 : |z| = 1 and C2 : |z| = 2.

O x |z| =1 ⇒ x2 + y2 = 1 (1)
2 2 2
⇒(u − 1) + v = 1 (2)
v
The unit circle C1 : x2 + y2 = 1 in the z-plane
O u
is mapped to the circle C1∗ : (u − 1)2 + v2 = 4 with
C1 its centre at u = 1, v = 0 and radius = 2 units.
r1 Again
C2
|z| = 2 ⇒ x2 + y2 = 4 (3)
r2 2 2
⇒ (u − 1) + v = 4 (4)
The circle C2 : x2 + y2 = 22 with radius =
2 units in the z-plane is mapped to the circle
Figure 8.22 C2∗ : (u − 1)2 + v2 = 42 with centre at u = 1, v = 0
and radius = 4 units.
1 1 Thus, the annular region 1 < |z| < 2 is mapped
∴ The infinite strip ≤ y ≤ is transformed into to the annular region 2 < |w − 1| < 4.
4 2
the region between the two circles:
u2 + (v + 2)2 = 22 ; centre c2 = (0, −2) and radius Example 8.9
r2 = 2 units. Find the image of the triangle with vertices i, 1 + i,
u2 + (v + 1)2 = 12 ; centre c1 = (0, −1) and radius 1 − i in the z-plane under the transformation w =
r1 = 1 units. 3z + 4 − 2i. [JNTU 2003]

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Conformal Mapping 8-15

Solution Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv where Example 8.10

x, y, u and v ∈ R. 1
Show that the transformation w = z + transforms
z
∴ u + iv = 3(x + iy) + 4 − 2i r = constant in the z-plane into a family of ellipses
in the w-plane.
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have
Solution Let
u = 3x + 4, (1)
iθ
z = re = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and w = u + iv (1)
v = 3y − 2 (2)
This gives
The coordinates of the vertices of the triangle are 1 1
z1 = i = (0, 1), w = u + iv = z + = reiθ + e−iθ
z r
z2 = 1 + i = (1, 1), 1 1
= r+ cos θ + i r − sin θ (2)
z3 = 1 − i = (1, −1) r r

1 1
⇒u= r+ cos θ v = r − sin θ
y r r
Let r = k(constant) 6= 1 so that
u2 v2
A B + =1 (3)
Z1(0, 1) Z2(1, 1) (k + k1 )2 (k − k1 )2
This equation represents a family of ellipses with
O x 1
semi-major axis = a = k + , semi-minor axis
k
C Z3(1, –1) 1
=b=k− .
k
If the eccentricity is e, then
z-plane 1 2 1 2

v e2 = a2 − b2 = k + − k− = 4.
k k
P Q The focii of the ellipses are at
w1 (4, 1) w2 (7, 1) p
u
S = ( a2 − b2 , 0) = (2, 0).
O
The focii of the ellipses are at
p
S ′ = (− a2 − b2 , 0) = (−2, 0).

Example 8.11
1
Under the transformation w = find the image of
w-plane R w3(7, –5) z
|z − 2i| = 2. [JNTU 2001]
Figure 8.24 Solution Let
The images of the points in the w-plane are z = x + iy, w = u + iv where x, y, u, v ∈ R
(0, 1) → (4, 1) 1 1 x − iy x − iy
w = ⇒ u + iv = = 2 (1)
(1, 1) → (7, 1) z x + iy x − iy x + y2
(1, −1) → (7, −5) Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get

△ABC in the z-plane is mapped to the triangle x −y

u= , v= (2)
△PQR in the w-plane. x2 + y2 x2 + y2

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8-16 Engineering Mathematics III

Squaring and adding, a ≤ x ≤ b onto the w-plane.

x2 + y2 1 Solution Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv
u2 + v 2 = = 2 (3)
(x2 + y2 )2 x + y2 where x, y, u, v ∈ R
u
∴ x = u(x2 + y2 ) = 2 ∴ w = cosh z ⇒ u + iv = cosh(u + iv) (1)
u + v2
−v = cosh x cosh y + i sinh x sinh y
y = −v(x2 + y2 ) = 2 by Eq. (3) (4)
u + v2 ⇒ u = cosh x cosh y, v = sinh x sinh y. (2)
The given curve in the z-plane is
Vertical line x = c
|z − 2i| = 2 ⇒ x2 + (y − 2)2 = 4
y
⇒ x2 + y2 − 4y = 0

which is a circle with centre at (0, 2) and radius = 2.

Substituting for x and y, we have
O x
u2 v2 −4v
+ − 2 =0
(u2 + v2 )2 (u2 + v2 )2 u + v2 x=a x=b
1 4v
⇒ 2 2
+ 2 = 0 ⇒ 4v + 1 = 0 v
u +v u + v2
This is a horizontal straight line in the w-plane.

Example 8.12 A΄ B΄ –1 0 +1 B A u
1+iz
If w = , find the image of |z| < 1. [JNTU 2002].
1−iz
Solution
Figure 8.25
1 + iz
w= ⇒ w(1 − iz) = 1 + iz Equation (2) can be written as
1 − iz
1w−1 u v
⇒ iz(1 + w) = w − 1 ⇒ z = = cos y, = sin y
i w+1 a b
1w−1 where a = cosh c, b = sinh c.
Now, |z| < 1 ⇒ <1 Squaring and adding
i w+1
⇒ |w − 1| < |i||w + 1| = |w + 1| u2 v2
+ =1 (3)
Putting w = u + iv, we get a2 b2

(u − 1)2 + v2 < (u + 1)2 + v2 Thus the vertical line x = c is mapped onto

ellipse (3).
⇒ u2 + v2 − 2u + 1 < u2 + v2 + 2u + 1 Hence the given vertical strip a ≤ x ≤ b in the
⇒u>0 z-plane is mapped onto the annular region between
two coaxial confocal ellipses (3) with c = a and
Thus the image of the interior of the circle |z| = 1 c = b and focii at ±1.
is mapped onto the right half of the w-plane.
Example 8.14
Example 8.13 2z + 3
If w = cosh z, find the mapping of the region Show that the transformation w = maps the
z−4

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Conformal Mapping 8-17

circle x2 + y2 − 4x = 0 into the straight line 4u + 3 = y

0. [JNTU 2003] F y=1 E D
Solution Let
A y = 1/2 B C
z = x + iy, z̄ = x − iy
x = –̟ O x=̟ x
x2 + y2 = (x + iy)(x − iy) = zz̄
1 1 z-plane
x = (z + z̄), y = (z − z̄) v
2 2i E*
2z + 3
The given transformation is w = B*
z−4
O u
4w + 3
⇒ z(w − 2) = 4w + 3, or z = . A* C*
w−2
F* D*
The given equation of the circle is

x2 + y2 − 4x = 0 ⇒ zz̄ − 2(z + z̄) = 0 w-plane

Figure 8.26
4w + 3 4w̄ + 3
⇒ u2 v2
w−2 w̄ − 2 + =1
cosh 1 sinh2 1
2
4w + 3 4w̄ + 3
=2 +2 1
w−2 w̄ − 2 and the horizontal line ABC : y = maps onto
the inner ellipse 2
⇒ (4w + 3) (4w̄ + 3) 2 2
u v
= 2(4w + 3)(w̄ − 2) + 2(w − 2)(4w̄ + 3) 2 1
+ =1
cosh 2 sinh2 21
⇒ 16ww̄ + 12(w + w̄) + 9
= 2[4ww̄ − 8w + 3w̄ − 6] Also, the vertical
line segment CD given by
x = π 12 < y < 1 maps onto C ∗ D∗ given by u = 0
+ 2[4ww̄ − 8w̄ + 3w − 6]
and − sinh 12 < v < − sinh 1.
⇒ 22(w + w̄) + 33 = 0 The vertical line segment A∗ F ∗ given by
⇒ 4u + 3 = 0 x = −π, 12 < y < 1 maps onto A∗ F ∗ given by
u = 0 and − sinh 12 < v < − sinh 12 .
This represents a straight line in the w-plane. Thus both C ∗ D∗ and A∗ F ∗ map onto the same line
in the w-plane given by the cut A∗ F ∗ or C ∗ D∗ along
Example 8.15 the imaginary axis Ov.
Find the image of the rectangle R; −π < x < π,
1
< y < 1 under the transformation w = sin z. 8.5 Bilinear or Mobius2 or Linear
2 Fractional Transformations
[JNTU 2003S].
Introduction
Solution Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv, then
Conformal mappings are useful in solving boundary
w = u + iv = sin(x + iy) value problems. This is done by mapping compli-
cated regions conformally onto standard regions like
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
2 Mobius, August Ferdinand (1790–1868) German mathemati-
⇒ u = sin x cosh y, v = cos x sinh y
cian, student of Gauss known for his work in the theory of surfaces,
The horizontal line FED : y = 1 maps onto the projective geometry and mechanics. He showed that the Mobius
outer ellipse strip is an example of a non-orientable surface.

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8-18 Engineering Mathematics III

circular disks, half-planes, strips. We have already a =0, b = 1, c = 1, d = 0

considered many conformal transformations and 1
studied their properties. Here, we discuss an impor- w = (inversion) (8.23)
z
tant class of transformations called linear fractional
transformations. So, the general LFT is composed of all the above
types of transformation, which we have already dis-
Linear fractional transformation (LFT) or Mobius or cussed above.
Bilinear transformation Also, corresponding to each z, Eq. (8.16) gives a
A transformation of the form unique value of w except when cz + d = 0.
(1) c 6= 0. In this case, there does not correspond
az + b d
w = f (z) = (ad − bc 6 = 0) (8.16) a number w to the value − of z.
cz + d c
To get over this situation, we attach the number
where a, b, c and d are complex or real constants ‘∞’ which we call ‘the point at infinity’. The com-
is called a linear fractional transformation (LFT) or plex plane then is called the extended complex plane.
Mobius transformation. It is sometimes called sim-
ply as linear transformation or linear map. (2) c = 0. In this case, a 6= 0 and d 6= 0 in view
Cross-multiplying, we can write Eq. (8.16) in the of the fact that ad − bc 6= 0. In this case, w = ∞ is
form the image of the point z = ∞.

az + b
Awz + Bz + Cw + D = 0 (8.17) Inverse mapping of w =
cz + d
which is linear in z as well as in w. So, it is also called az + b
a bilinear transformation. w= ⇒ w(cz + d) = az + b or
cz + d
Differentiating Eq. (8.16) w.r.t z, we have
(−d)w + b
z(wc − a) = b − wd ⇒ z = (8.24)
dw (cz + d)a−(az + b)c (ad − bc) cw + (−a)
= = (8.18)
dz (cz + d)2 (cz + d)2
This is the inverse of the transformation (8.16)
a
dw (i) c 6= 0. cw − a = 0 ⇒ w = . This point
If (ad − bc) = 0 then = 0. So, the transfor- c
dz corresponds to z = ∞.
mation is not conformal at any z if ad − bc = 0.
(ii) c = 0. In view of ad − bc 6= 0 we get a 6= 0 and
Hence we assume that the constants a, b, c, d are
d 6= 0. Therefore, w = ∞ corresponds to z = ∞.
such that ad − bc 6 = 0 in which case we have con-
Hence the mapping is bijective.
formal transformation for all z.
The transformation at Eq. (8.16) is very interest-
ing. First of all, for different choices of the constants 8.6 Fixed Points of the
a, b, c, d we get the following special cases of LFTs: az + b
Transformation w =
cz + d
a =1, c = 0, d = 1 A point z is called a fixed point of the transformation
⇒ w = z + b (translation) (8.19) if it is such that f (z) = z (not an identity mapping).
b =0, c = 0, d = 1 ⇒ w = az (8.20) So, fixed points of Eq. (8.16) are obtained from
Simply rotation if |a| = |eiθ | = 1 az + b
z= or cz 2 − (a − d)z − b = 0 (8.25)
Magnification or dimination if cz + d
a = |a|eiθ (|a| = 1) (8.21) This being a quadratic in z has, in general, two
c =0, d = 1 w = az + b (linear transformation) values for z. Thus an LFT has two fixed points if it is
(8.22) not an identity.

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Conformal Mapping 8-19

If an LFT has more than two fixed points, then it z1 − z3

= if z4 is ∞
must be an identity mapping w = z. z2 − z3

An LFT maps the totality of circles and straight
 
z − z 1 − zz2
lines in the z-plane into the totality of circles and ∵ 2 4
= 4 → 1 as z4 → ∞
straight lines in the w-plane. z1 − z4 1 − zz1
4
Though there are four constants in Eq. (8.16), on z2 − z4
dividing three of them by the fourth non-zero con- = if z1 is ∞
z2 − z3
stant we see that the effective constants are three  
and the mapping can be determined uniquely through z − z 1 − zz3
three conditions. ∵ 1 3
= 1 → 1 as z1 → ∞
z1 − z4 1 − zz4
Suppose for example d 6 = 0. Then w = f (z) = 1
a
z + db

az + b d
can be written as w = c .
cz + d z+1 Theorem 8.2 Prove that any bilinear transforma-
d
Hence bilinear transformation consists of three tion is the product of basic transformation namely
independent constants translation, rotation, magnification or contraction
and inversion.
a b c
, , . Proof: Let
d d d az + b
w = f (z) = (ad − bc 6= 0) (8.26)
So, three conditions are required to determine the cz + d
transformation. That is to say, three distinct points Eq. (1) be the given bilinear transformation.
z1 , z2 , z3 in the z-plane can be mapped into three
Case (i) Let c = 0 so that ad − bc = ad 6= 0 this
distinct points w1 , w2 , w3 in the w-plane.
implies that d 6= 0.
From Eq. (8.26) we get
Cross-ratio of four points
az + b a b
Let z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 be four distinct points in the w= = z+
extended complex plane. d d d
Then the cross-ratio of these points denoted by a
b
(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) is defined as Let f1 (z) = z and f2 (z) = z +
d d
Then f1 and f2 are elementary transformations and
(z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = a
(z1 − z4 )(z2 − z3 ) (f1 f2 )(2) = f2 (f1 (z)) = f2 z
d
a b
if none of z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 are ∞.
= z+ = f (z).
d d
z1 − z3
= if z2 is ∞ Case (ii) Let c 6= 0. Equation (8.26) gives
z1 − z4
 
a z + dc + b − ad
z4

1 − az + b
z 2 − z4 z2 w = f (z) = = c
∵ = → 1 as z2 → ∞ cz + d c z + dc

z2 − z3 1 − zz3
2 a b − ad
c
z2 − z4 = +
= if z3 is ∞ c cz + d
z1 − z4

z1
 1
z − z 1 − z Let f1 (z) = cz + d, f2 (z) = ,
∵ 1 3
= 3 → 1 as z3 → ∞ z
z2 − z3 ad a
1 − zz2 f3 (z) = b − z, f4 (z) = + z; then
3
c c

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8-20 Engineering Mathematics III

Similarly, w2 − w4 = k2 (z2 − z4 )
ad − bc
(f4 f3 f2 f1 )(z) = (f4 f3 f2 )(cz + d) where k2 =
! (cz2 + d)(cz4 + d)
b − adc

1
= (f4 f3 ) = f4 ∴ (w1 − w3 )(w2 − w4 ) = k1 k2 (z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
cz + d cz + d
= k(z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
a b − adc
= + = f (z)
c cz + d (ad − bc)2
where k = k1 k2 = 4
Thus f (z) is the product of f1 , f2 , f3 and f4 . πi=1 (czi + d)
Hence the theorem. Similarly, we can derive the result
Corollary Each elementary transformation as
seen earlier, transforms circles and straight lines (w1 − w4 )(w2 − w3 ) = k(z1 − z4 )(z2 − z3 )
into circles and straight lines. It may be noted that (w1 − w3 )(w2 − w4 ) (z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
⇒ =
a bilinear transformation maps circles and straight (w1 − w4 )(w2 − w3 ) (z1 − z4 )(z2 − z3 )
lines onto circles and straight lines. ⇒ (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = (w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 )
If we observe that straight lines are linearising
cases of circles with infinite radius we may conclude Hence the theorem. The proof when one of zi or
that a bilinear transformation maps circles into wi is ∞ is similar.
circles.
Note
Theorem 8.3 Any bilinear transformation Four distinct points zi (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) are collinear or
preserves the cross-ratio. concyclic ⇔ (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) is real. Also any bilinear
transformation preserves a cross-ratio. Hence it
Proof: Let
follows that circles and straight lines are mapped
az + b onto circles and straight lines. This gives another
w = f (z) = (ad − bc 6 = 0) (8.27) proof for the corollary of the above theorem.
cz + d
be the given bilinear transformation. Theorem 8.4 The transformation (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 )
Let z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 be four distinct points of the = (w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 ) is a bilinear transformation that
z-plane and w1 , w2 , w3 and w4 be then correspond- maps three distinct points z1 , z2 and z3 onto three
ing images in the w-plane under the transformation specified distinct points w1 , w2 and w3 , respectively.
(8.27). Suppose all these points are different from
∞. Now, we have to prove that (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = Proof: Let
(w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 ).
From Eq. (8.27), we have (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = (w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 ) (8.28)
(w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
azi + b ⇒ =
wi = (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) (w − w3 )(w1 − w2 ) (z − z3 )(z1 − z2 )
czi + d
⇒ (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 )(z − z3 )(z1 − z2 )
az1 + b az3 + b = (w − w3 )(w1 − w2 )(z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
w1 − w3 = − (8.29)
cz1 + d cz3 + d
(ad − bc)(z1 − z3 )
= = k1 (z1 − z3 ) z = z1 ⇒ w = w1 and
(cz1 + d)(cz3 + d)
z = z3 ⇒ w = w3 from Eq. (8.29).
ad − bc
where k1 = Also z = z2
(cz1 + d)(cz3 + d)

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Conformal Mapping 8-21

⇒ (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 )(z2 − z3 )(z1 − z2 ) Example 8.17

= (w − w3 )(w1 − w2 )(z2 − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points
∞, i, 0 into the points 0, i, ∞ respectively.
⇒ (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) = −(w − w3 )(w1 − w2 ).
[JNTU 2003S]
Cancelling out non-zero factors (z2 − z3 ), (z1 − z2 ), Solution By the invariance of cross-ratios, we
we get can write
w(w2 − w3 + w1 − w2 ) (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 )
= w2 w1 − w3 w2 + w1 w2 − w1 w3 =
(z − z3 )(z2 − z1 ) (w − w3 )(w2 − w1 )
⇒w(w1 − w3 ) = w2 (w1 − w3 ) Here z1 = ∞, z2 = i, z3 = 0; w1 = 0, w2 =
⇒w = w2 ∵ w1 6 = w3 i, w3 = 0
Hence, the required transformation is given by Eq. (z − ∞)(i − 0) (w − 0)(i − ∞) i w
∴ = ⇒ = .
(8.28). (z − 0)(i − ∞) (w − ∞)(i − 0) z i
z−∞ i−∞
Example 8.16 Replacing and by 1, according to
5 − 4z i−∞ w−∞
Show that the relation w = transforms the 1
4z − 2 the convention, we get w = − as the required
circle |z| = 1 into a circle of unit radius in the w- z
bilinear transformation.
plane. [JNTU 2003]

Solution Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv so that Example 8.18

z̄ = x − iy, w̄ = u − iv. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the
The given transformation is points z = 1, i, −1 into the points w = 0, 1, ∞.

5 − 4z Solution By the invariance of cross ratios, we

w= ⇒ w(4z − 2) = 5 − 4z
4z − 2 have
⇒ z(4w + 4) = 2w + 5 (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 )
=
(z − z3 )(z2 − z1 ) (w − w3 )(w2 − w1 )
2w + 5 2w + 5 2w̄ + 5 (z − 1)(i + 1) (w − 0)(1 − ∞)
⇒z= and z̄ = = ⇒ =
4w + 4 4(w + 1) 4(w̄ + 1) (z + 1)(i − 1) (w − ∞)(−0)
The given circle is 1 z−1
⇒w= ·
2w + 5 2w̄ + 5 i z+1
|z| = 1 ⇒ zz̄ = 1 ⇒ =1 1−∞ i+1 1
4(w + 1) 4(w̄ + 1) ∵ = 1 and = .
w−∞ i−1 i
⇒ (2w + 5)(2w̄ + 5) − (4w + 4)(4w̄ + 4) = 0
⇒ 4ww̄ + 10(w + w̄) + 25 − 16ww̄ Example 8.19
− 16(w + w̄) − 16 = 0 2z + 3
Show that the transformation w = maps
⇒ 12ww̄ + 6(w + w̄) − 9 = 0 z−4
2 2
the circle x + y − 4x = 0 into the straight line
w+ w̄ 3 3 4u+3 = 0. [JNTU 2003]
⇒ ww̄+ − = 0 ⇒ u2 +v2 +u− = 0
2 4 4
1 2 Solution Let z = x + iy, w = u + iv so that

3 1
⇒ u+ + v2 = + = 1 z̄ = x − iy, w̄ = u − iv.
2 4 4

1
Now x2 + y2 = (x + iy)(x − iy) = zz̄ and
This is the circle with centre at − , 0 and 1 1
2 x = (z + z̄), y = (z − z̄)
radius = 1 in the w-plane. 2 2i

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8-22 Engineering Mathematics III

The given transformation is, (w − 4)(z − 1 + 2i) = (−3w + 6 + 3i)(z − 2 − 3i),

2z + 3 on cross-multiplication
w= ⇒ w(z − 4) = 2z + 3 w(z − 1 + 2i + 3z − 6 − 9i) = (6z − 12 − 18i) +
z−4
(4z − 4 + 8i) + (3iz + 9 − 6i)
4w + 3
⇒ z(w − 2) = 4w + 3 ⇒ z =
w−2 z(10 + 3i) − 7 − 16i
w= . (3)

4w̄ + 3 4w̄ + 3
Also z̄ = = . 4z − 7 − 7i
w−2 w̄ − 2
The given equation of the circle is Example 8.21
Find the LFT that maps the points −i, 0, i onto the
x2 + y2 − 4x = 0 ⇒ zz̄ − 2(z + z̄) = 0 points −1, i, 1, respectively. [JNTU 1996, 2003S]

4w + 3 4w̄ + 3
⇒ Solution Let the transformation be
w−2 w̄ − 2

4w + 3 4w̄ + 3
−2 + =0 (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 )
w−2 w̄ − 2 = (1)
(z − z3 )(z2 − z1 ) (w − w3 )(w2 − w1 )
⇒ (4w + 3)(4w̄ + 3) − 2[(4w + 3)(w̄ − 2)
+ (4w̄ + 3)(w − 2)] = 0 Here z1 = −i, z2 = 0, z3 = i
⇒ 16ww̄ + 12(w + w̄) + 9 − 2[4ww̄ − 8w w1 = −1, w2 = i, w3 = 1
Substituting in Eq. (1), we get
+ 3w̄ − 6 + 4ww̄ − 8w̄ + 3w − 6] = 0
⇒ 22(w + w̄) + 33 = 0 (z + i)(0 − i) (w + 1)(i − 1)
=
w + w̄ (z − i)(0 + i) (w − 1)(i + 1)
⇒ 4u + 3 = 0 ∵ u =
2 z+i w+1 i−1
⇒− =i (∵ = i)
which is the equation of a straight line in the w-plane. z−i w−1 i+1
w+1 iz − 1
⇒ =
Example 8.20 w−1 z−i
Determine the bilinear transformation that maps the iz − 1 + z − i
points (1-2i, 2+i, 2+3i) into the points (2+i, 1+3i, 4). ⇒w=
iz − 1 − z + i
[JNTU 2003, 2004(Set 4), 2004S (Set 2)] (by componendo–dividendo).
Solution Let the required bilinear transformation (1 + i)(z − 1)
⇒w=
be (i − 1)(z + 1)
(z − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) 1z−1 1−z
= (1) = =i .
(z − z3 )(z2 − z1 ) (w − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) i z+1 1+z

Example 8.22

Here z1 = 1 − 2i, z2 = 2 + i, z3 = 2 + 3i.
(2) Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points
w1 = 2 + i, w2 = 1 + 3i, w3 = 4;
2, i, −2 onto 1, i, −1, respectively. [JNTU 1985S]
Equation (1) now becomes
(z − 1 + 2i)(−2i) (w − 2 − i)(−3 + 3i) Solution Let the transformation be
=
(z − 2 − 3i)(1 + 3i) (w − 4)(−1 + 2i) (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 )
(z − 1 + 2i) (w − 2 − i) (−3 + 3i)(1 + 3i) = (1)
= · (z − z3 )(z2 − z1 ) (w − w3 )(w2 − w1 )
(z − 2 − 3i) (w − 4) (−1 + 2i)(−2i)
−3w + 6 + 3i 1 + 3i Here z1 = 2, z2 = i, z3 = −2
= (on multiplying by )
w−4 −2i w1 = 1, w2 = i, w3 = −1

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“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ8” — 2010/7/8 — 16:28 — page 8-23 — #23

Conformal Mapping 8-25

Substituting these values in Eq. (1) Example 8.31

(z − 0)(1 − ∞) (w + 1)(−2 + i) Find the bilinear transformation which maps vertices
= (1+i, −i, 2−i) of the triangle T of the z-plane into the
(z − ∞)(1 − 0) (w + i)(−2 + 1)
points (0, 1, i) of the w-plane. [JNTU 2005S(2)]
w+1
⇒z= (2 − i),
w+i Solution Let the transformation be
1−∞ (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 ) (z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
replacing by 1 = (1)
z−∞ (w − w3 )(w2 − w1 ) (z − z3 )(z2 − z1 )
⇒ (w + i)z − w(2 − i) = 2 − i Here z1 = 1 + i, z2 = −i, z3 = 2 − i
⇒ w[z − 2 + i] = 2 − i − iz w1 = 0, w2 = 1, w3 = i
2 − i − iz Substituting these values in Eq. (1), we get
⇒w= (3)
i−2+z
(w−0)(1−i) (z − 1 − i)(−i − 2 + i)
which is the required transformation. =
(w−i)(1−0) (z − 2 + i)(−i − 1 − i)
Example 8.30 w (z − 1 − i) [+(1 + i)(1 − i)]
⇒ (1−i) =
Find the fixed points of the transformation w−i (z − 2 + i) 1 + 2i
2i − 6z 3iz + 1 (1+i)z−2i
(i) w = , (ii) w = , = (inverting).
iz − 3 z+i (1+2i)z−(4+3i)
2z + 3
(iii) w = .
z+4 1 (1 + 2i)z − (4 + 3i)
⇒1− =
Solution The fixed points of the transformation w (1 + i)z − 2i
w = f (z) are such that f (z) = z. i (1 + i)z − 2i − (1 + 2i)z + 4 + 3i
⇒ =
(i) Putting w = f (z) = z, we obtain w (1 + i)z − 2i
2i − 6z −iz + 4 + i
z= ⇒ iz 2 − 3z = 2i − 6z =
iz − 3 (1 + i)z − 2i
[(1 + i)z − 2i]
⇒ iz 2 + 3z − 2i = 0; ⇒w=i
(−iz + 4 + i)
Solving, we get (−1 + i)z + 2
= .
√ (−i)z + 4 + i
−3 ± 9 − 4(i)(−2i) −3 ± 1
z= = = i, 2i Example 8.32
2i 2i
Determine Mobius transformation having α, β as
(ii) Putting w = f (z) = z, we obtain fixed points and mapping 0 to −1.
3iz + 1
z= ⇒ z 2 + iz = 3iz + 1 Solution The quadratic equation with α, β as
z+i
roots is
⇒ z 2 − 21z − 1 = 0 z 2 − (α + β)z + αβ = 0
2
⇒ (z − i) = 0 ⇒ z = i, i For any γ ∈ C, we have

(iii) Putting w = f (z) = z, we obtain z 2 (α + β)z + γz − γz + αβ = 0

2z + 3 Adding and subtracting γz

z= ⇒ z 2 + 4z = 2z + 3
z+4 or z[z − (α + β − γ)] = γz − αβ
⇒ z 2 + 2z − 3 = 0 ⇒ (z + 1)2 − 22 = 0 γz − αβ
or z = .
⇒ z + 1 = ±2 ⇒ z = −1 ± 2 = 1, −3. z − (α + β) + γ

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8-26 Engineering Mathematics III

Hence the Mobius transformation with fixed (a) w = (z − 1)/(z + 1).

γz − αβ Ans: w = ±i
points α, β is given by w = .
z − (α + β) + γ
(b) w = (2z − 5)/(z + 4).
Example 8.33
Ans: −1 ± 2i
Find the linear fractional transformation with fixed
points 1 and i and mapping 0 to −1. 3. Find the bilinear transformation whose fixed
points are
Solution Take z = 0; w = −1; α = 1, β = i in
γz − αβ (a) i, −i.
the transformation w = , we have cz − 1
z − (α + β) + γ Ans: w =
z+c
γ ·0−1·i (b) 1, −1.
−1= cz + 1
0 − (1 + i) + γ Ans: w =
⇒ −γ + 1 + i = −i z+c
⇒ γ = 1 + 2i 4. Determine the bilinear transformation which
maps the points 0, 1, ∞ in the z-plane into
∴ The required transformation is −5, −1, 3, respectively, in the w-plane. Find the
invariant points.
(2i + 1)z − i
w= . Ans: w = (3z − 5)/(z + 1), z = 1 ± 2i
z+i
5. Determine the region into which the rectangular
region in the z-plane bounded by x = 0, y = 0,
EXERCISE 8.1 x = 2 and y = 1 is mapped under the transfor-
1. Find the bilinear transformation that maps mation w = z + (1 − 2i).
z1 , z2 , z3 onto w1 , w2 , w3 , respectively. Ans: Rectangular bounded by u = 1, u = 3,
(a) z = −1, 0, 1; w = 0, i, 3i. v = −1, v = −2
Ans: w = −3i(z + 1)/(z − 3)
6. Find the bilinear transformation which maps
(b) z = 0, −i, −1; w = i, 1, 0. the points −1, 0, 1 into the points 0, −1, ∞,
Ans: w = −i(z + 1)/(z − 1) respectively.
z+1
(c) z = ∞, i, 0; w = 0, i, ∞. Ans: w =
1 z−1
Ans: w = −
z 7. Find the bilinear transformation which maps
(d) z = 1, 0, −1; w = i, 1, ∞. the points (−1, 0, 1) into the points (0, i, 3i).
Ans: w = [(−1 + 2i)z + 1]/(z + 1)
[JNTU 2005]
3i(z + 1)
Ans: w =
2. Find the fixed points of the transformation. (3 − z)

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Question Bank

Mulitple Choice Questions

Z ∞
Chapter 1 Special Functions 9. e−ax xn−1 dx =
A. Beta and Gamma 0
Functions (a) Ŵ(n)/an (b) Ŵ(n)/a
(c) Ŵ(n + 1)/an (d) Ŵ(n)/an−1 Ans: (a)
1. If Ŵ(x) = 1, then x =
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) −1/2 (d) 1/2 Ans: (a) Z ∞
√
10. exp (− x) dx =
√ =
2. Ŵ(1/2) √
0

(a) √π/2 (b) π/2 (a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) π/2 Ans: (a)
√
(c) π (d) 2/ π Ans: (c) Z ∞
p
11. p e−x dx =
3. If p√= 1/4, then Ŵ(p)√ Ŵ(1 − p) = 0
(a) π (b) √2 π (a) Ŵ(p) (b) Ŵ(1/p)
√
(c) (2π) (d) 2π Ans: (d) (c) Ŵ(p2 ) (d) Ŵ(1 − p) Ans: (b)
Z π/2
4. sin θ cos2 θ dθ = Z π/2 √ dθ
Z π/2
0 12. sin θ dθ ×
√
(a) 2/3 (b) 1/3 (c) 3/2 (d) 3 Ans: (b) 0 0 sin θ
Z π/2 √ (a) 3π/2 (b) π/2 (c) π (d) 0 Ans: (c)
5. cot θ dθ =
0
Z π/2 √
√ 13. tan θdθ =
(a) √π/ 2 (b) √ π/2 0
(c) π/2 (d) (π)/2 Ans: (a) √
(a) π (b) π √
√ (c) π/2 (d) π/ 2 Ans: (d)
6. If π Ŵ(2p) = aŴ(p) Ŵ(p + 1/2), then a =
(a) 22p−1 (b) 22p+1
(c) 22p (d) 2p−1 Ans: (a) ∞
x2 dx
Z
14. 4 =
0 1 + x4
7. B(m + 1, n)/B(m, n) = √
(a) n/(m + n) (b) (m + n)/m (a) 2π (b) π √2
(c) m/(m + n) (d) (m + n)/n Ans: (c) (c) π/2 (d) π/ 2 Ans: (b)

8. Ŵ(p) Ŵ(1 − p) √
=π⇒p= Z ∞
2
(a) 1/4 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 1/2 Ans: (d) 15. e−x dx =
0

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A-2 Engineering Mathematics I

√ √
(a) π/2 (b) π 11. (3x2 − 1) when expressed in Legendre polyno-
(c) π/2 (d) π Ans: (a) mials
(a) P2 + 2P1 (b) 3P2 − P1
B. Legendre Functions (c) 2P2 (d) 3P2 − P1 Ans: (c)
Z 1
1
Pn2 (x)dx =
Z
1.
−1 12. P0 (x)dx
−1
(a) 2/(2n − 1) (b) 2/(2n + 1) (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 0 (d) 3 Ans: (b)
(c) 1/(2n + 1) (d) 1/(2n − 1) Ans: (b)
Z 1
13. Pm (x)Pn (x)dx (m 6= n) =
2. The generating function for Pn (x) is −1
(a) (1 − 2xt − t 2 )−1/2 (a) 2/(2n + 1) (b) 0
(b) (1 − 2xt + t 2 )1/2
(c) (1 − 2xt + t 2 )−1/2
(c) 2/(2m + n) (d) 2/(m + n) Ans: (b)
(d) (1+2xt +t 2 )−1/2 Ans: (c)
14. P0 (x)
3. 1/(1+ i) =a + bi ⇒
(a, b) =
1 1 1 1 (a) 1 (b) 3/2 (c) 0 (d) 2/3 Ans: (a)
(a) ,− (b) ,
2 2 2 2 d
1 1 15. (P1 (−x))=
(c) (1, −1) (d) − , Ans: (a) dx
2 2 (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) −1 (d) 1/2 Ans: (c)
4. P0 (x)
16. By Rodrigue’s formula Pn (x) = CDn {(x2 − 1)n }
(a) 1 (b) 3/2 (c) 0 (d) 2/3 Ans: (a)
where the constant C =
d (a) 1/(2n (2n)!) (b) 1/n!
5. (P1 (−x))=
dx (c) 1/2n (d) 1/(2n n!) Ans: (d)
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) −1 (d) 1/2 Ans: (c)
Z 1
6. By Rodrigue’s formula, Pn (x) = CDn {(x2 −1)n } 17. Pn2 (x)dx =
where the constant C = −1
(a) 1/[2n (2n)!] (b) 1/n! (a) 2/(2n − 1) (b) 2/(2n + 1)
(c) 1/2n (d) 1/(2n n!) Ans: (d) (c) 1/(2n + 1) (d) 1/(2n − 1) Ans: (b)

7. (1 + x) when expressed in terms of Legendre 18. The generating function of Legendre function
polynomials Pn (x) is
(a) P0 (x) − P1 (x) (b) P0 (x) + P1 (x) (a) (1 − 2xt − t 2 )−1/2 (b) (1 − 2xt − t 2 )1/2
(c) 2P0 (x) − P1 (x) (d) P0 (x) + 2P1 (x) (c) (1 − 2xt + t 2 )−1/2 (d) (1 − 2xt + t 2 )1/2
Ans: (b) Ans: (c)
′
8. xPn−1 (x) + n Pn−1 (x) =
′
(a) Pn−1 (x) (b) Pn (x) C. Bessel Functions
(c) Pn′ (x) (d) Pn+1 (x) Ans: (c) d
1. (xn Jn (x)) =
dx
9. The degree of the polynomial P4 (x) is (a) xn−1 Jn−1 (x) (b) xn Jn−1 (x)
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 1 Ans: (c) (c) xn+1 Jn (x) (d) xn−1 Jn (x) Ans: (b)

10. Pn (−x) = an Pn (x) where a = d

(a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) −1 Ans: (d) 2. (x−n Jn (x)) =
dx

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Question Bank A-3

√ √
(a) −x−n Jm (x) (b) −x−n+1 Jn (x) (a) √(πx) (b) √(πx/2)
(c) −x−n Jn+1 (x) (d) x−n Jn+1 (x) Ans: (c) (c) (2/πx) (d) (2πx) Ans: (c)

3. J−1/2 (x) = 13. [xn Jn (x)]′ =

r r
2 2 (a) xn Jn+1 (x) (b) x−n Jn−1 (x)
(a) cos x (b) cos x (c) xn Jn−1 (x) (d) Jn−1 (x) Ans: (c)
πx π
r r
4 1 2 2
(c) cos x (d) cos x Ans: (a) 14. J1/2 (x) + J−1/2 (x) =
πx 2πx
(a) 1/(πx) (b) πx/2
4. Jn−1 (x) − Jn+1 (x) = (c) 2πx (d) 2/(πx) Ans: (d)
(a) Jn (x) (b) 2Jn (x)
(c) 2Jn′ (x) (d) Jn′ (x)
Z
Ans: (c)
15. xJ0 (x)dx =

d (a) xJ1 (x) − J0 (x) (b) xJ1 (x)

5. (xJ1 (x)) = (c) J1 (x) (d) x2 Jn (x) Ans: (b)
dx
(a) xn Jn+1 (x) (b) x−n Jn−1 (x) Z
(c) xn Jn−1 (x) (d) Jn−1 (x) Ans: (d) 1
16. J3 (x)dx =
x2
6. Jn (−x) = 1
(a) 2 J2 (x) (b) x2 J2 (x)
(a) (−1)n Jn (x) (b) Jn (x) x −2
(c) −x J3 (x) (d) −x−1 J3 (x) Ans: (a)
(c) (−1)n−1 Jn (x) (d) (−1)n Jn−1 (x) Ans: (a)
Z 17. J0′ (x) =
7. J0 (x)J1 (x)dx =
(a) J1 (x) (b) −J1 (x)
1 (c) (−1)n Jn (x) (d) xJ1 (x) Ans: (b)
(a) − J02 (x) (b) 2J02 (x)
2
1 18. [xJ1 (x)]′ =
(c) −2J02 (x) (d) − J02 (x) Ans: (a)
3 (a) 2J2 (x) (b) (−1)J1 (x)
h i−1 (c) xJ0 (x) (d) J1 (x) Ans: (c)
8. J− 1 (x) J 1 (x) =
2 2

(a) cosec x (b) cot x 19. Jn (−x) =

(c) cos x (d) sec x Ans: (b) (a) Jn (x) (b) (−1)n Jn (x)
(c) 2Jn (x) (d) J−n (x) Ans: (b)
9. J1 (0) =
1 π
Z
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) −1 (d) 2 Ans: (a)
20. cos(nθ − x sin θ)dθ =
n 0
10. J0 (0) = (a) Jn (x) (b) J−n (x)
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) −1 (d) x Ans: (b) (c) (−1)n Jn (x) (d) Jn (−x) Ans: (a)

11. J0 (x) is a solution of

Chapter 2 Functions of a
(a) (xy′ )′ + xy = 0 (b) (y′ /x)′ + y = 0 Complex Variable
(c) (x2 y′ ) + xy = 0 (d) x(y′ /x)′ + y = 0
1. f (z) = (z + i)/(z − i) is analytic
Ans: (a)
(a) for all z (b) for all z 6= i
12. J1/2 (x) = p(x) sin x where p(x) = (c) for all z 6= −i (d) for no z Ans: (b)

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A-4 Engineering Mathematics I

2. f (z) = z̄ is analytic (b) continuous for all z

(a) at z = 0 only (b) everywhere (c) discontinuous for all z
(c) nowhere (d) if z 6 = 0 Ans: (c) (d) discontinuous at z = 0 only Ans: (d)

3. f (z) = |z|2 is analytic 12. If u(x, y) = 2x − x2 + my2 is harmonic in D,

(a) at z = 0 only (b) everywhere then m =
(c) nowhere (d) if z 6 = 0 Ans: (a) (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3 Ans: (b)

4. The harmonic conjugate of u(x, y) = x2 − y2 is 13. If f (z) = zz̄, then f ′ (z) exists
v= (a) for all z (b) nowhere
(a) x3 − y3 (b) x2 + y2 (c) at z = 0 only (d) at z = 1 only Ans: (c)
(c) 2xy (d) x2 y2 Ans: (c)
14. A function u(x, y) having continuous second
5. The analytic function whose real part is partial derivatives and satisfying ∇ 2 u = 0 is
u(x, y) = x2 − y2 is f (z) = called a
(a) |z|2 (b) z 3 (a) harmonious function
(c) z 2 (d) z̄ 2 Ans: (c) (b) harmonic function
(c) holomorphic function
6. The analytic function whose imaginary part is (d) regular function Ans: (b)
y
is f (z) =
x + y2
2
15. The analytic function whose imaginary part is
1 1 v(x, y) = 2xy is
(a) 2 + c (b) + c
z z (a) |z|2 (b) z (c) 1/z 2 (d) z 2 Ans: (d)
(c) z 2 + c (d) z 3 + c Ans: (b)

7. Cauchy–Riemann equation in polar coordinates 16. The harmonic conjugate of v(x, y) = 2xy is
(a) x2 − y2 (b) x − y
1 1 (c) x2 + y2 (d) x3 − y3 Ans: (a)
(a) ur = vθ , vr = uθ
r r
1 1 17. 1/(1 + i) = a + bi ⇒ (a, b) =
(b) ur = − vθ , vr = uθ
r r (a) (1/2, −1/2) (b) (−1, 1)
1 1
(c) ur = vθ , vr = − uθ (c) (1, −1) (d) (−1/2, 1/2) Ans: (a)
r r
1 1
(d) ur = − vθ , vr = − uθ Ans: (c) 18. (1 + i)/(1 − i) = a + bi ⇒ (a, b) =
r r
(a) (1, −1) (b) (−1, 1)
8. Singularity is a point where f (z) is not
(c) (0,1) (d) (1,0) Ans: (c)
(a) defined (b) having the limit
(c) continuous (d) differentiable Ans: (d) 19. Re (ez ) =
(a) ex (b) e−x
9. The singularities of cosec z are at z =
(c) ex cos y (d) e−x cos y Ans: (c)
(a) (n + 1/2)π (b) (2n − 1)π
(c) 2nπ (d) nπ Ans: (d)
20. The complex conjugate of (1 + i)2 is
z
10. f (z) = e has a singularity at (a) i (b) 2/i (c) 2i (d) 2 + i Ans: (b)
(a) the origin (b) z = πi
(c) z = nπi (d) no point Ans: (d)
21. A function u(x, y) having continuous second
partial derivatives and satisfying ∇ 2 u = 0 is
called a
11. If f (z) = z/|z| (z 6 = 0) and f (0) = 1, then f is
(a) harmonious function
(a) continuous of z = 0 only (b) harmonic function

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Question Bank A-5

(c) holomorphic function Chapter 4 Complex Integration

(d) regular function Ans: (b) 1. A line integral of any complex function depends
(a) only on the initial point of the path
22. The analytic function whose imaginary part is (b) only on the terminal point of the path
v(x, y) = 2xy is (c) only on the end points of the path
(a) |z|2 (b) z (c) 1/z 2 (d) z 2 Ans: (b) (d) on the end points as well as the choice of
the path Ans: (d)
23. The harmonic conjugate of v(x, y) = 2xy is
(a) x2 − y2 (b) x − y 2. The line integral of a complex function is inde-
(c) x2 + y2 (d) x3 − y3 Ans: (a) pendent of path if
(a) the function is analytic in a domain
24. Re (ez ) = containing the path
(a) ex (b) e−x (b) the domain is simply-connected
(c) ex cos y (d) e−x cos y Ans: (c) (c) the function is analytic in a simply-
connected domain containing the path
(d) the function is continuous in a domain
25. If f (z) = z/|z| (z 6 = 0), then f is containing the path Ans: (c)
(a) continuous at z = 0 only
(b) continuous for all z 3. The integral of a complex function f (z) vanishes
(c) discontinuous for all z over a path C if f (z) is
(d) discontinuous at z = 0 only Ans: (d) (a) analytic and C is any curve in domain D
(b) any complex function and C is any curve in
26. If u(x, y) = 2x − x2 + my2 is harmonic in D, domain D
then m= (c) non-analytic but C is any closed path
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3 Ans: (b) (d) analytic and C is a closed path in a simply-
connected domain D Ans: (d)
27. If f (z) = zz̄, then f ′ (z) exists
(a) for all z (b) nowhere 4. A bounded domain D is one which lies
(c) at z = 0 only (d) at z = 1 only Ans: (c) (a) between two parallel lines
(b) in some circle about the origin
28. The complex conjugate of (1 + i)2 is (c) outside the unit circle |z| = 1
(a) i (b) 2/i (c) 2i (d) 2 + i Ans: (b) (d) between a pair of intersecting lines
Ans: (b)
5. Among the following results, the one that does
29. If f (z) = z(2 − z), then f (1 + i) =
not Zfollow from Cauchy’s Integral Z Theorem is
(a) 0 (b) i (c) −i (d) 2 Ans: (b)
z
(a) e dz = 0 (b) sin z dz = 0
ZC ZC
30. If f (z) = |z| then f (3 − 4i) = dz
(a) 0 (b) 5 (c) −5 (d) 12 Ans: (b)
(c) (z 3 + 3z 2 ) dz = 0 (d) 2
=0
C C z
Ans: (d)
Z
31. e2nπi = dz
6. = 2πi where C lies in
(a) 0 (b) −1 (c) 1 (d) i Ans: (b) C z
1 3
D= z < |z| < . Cauchy’s Theorem is
32. If f (z) = u + iv is analytic then 2 2
(a) ux = vy , uy = vx (b) ux = vy , uy = −vx not applicable because
(c) ux = −vy , uy = vx (d) ux = vx , uy = −vy (a) f (z) ∈ / H (D)
(b) D is not simply-connected though f (z) ∈
Ans: (b) H (D)

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A-6 Engineering Mathematics I

(c) f (z) ∈ H (d) but f (z) is not single-valued (a) |z| = 2 (b) |z| = π
(d) f (z) ∈
/ H (nbd of zero) Ans: (b) x2 y2
(c) + = 1 (d) |z| = 1 Ans: (d)
Z 4 2
cos zdz Z
7. The value of over a simple closed 16. [ez /(z−1)2 (z 2 +4)] dz, where C : |z| = 1.5, is
C (z − πi)2
C
curve C enclosing πi is
(a) −2iπ sinh π (b) π sinh π 6eπ 6eπ
(a) i (b)
(c) 2 π sinh π (d) 2 πi sinh π Ans: (c) 25 25
6π 6e
(c) i (d) i Ans: (a)
8. If C is the circle |z| = 4, then the value of 25 25
cos z Z 1+i
the integral of f (z) = over C (counter-
z−π 17. z 2 dz=
clockwise) is 0
(a) 0 (b) −2πi (c) 2πi (d) 1 Ans: (b) 1 i 2 2i
(a) + (b) − +
Z 3 3 3 3
2 2i 2 2i
9. If (z−a)m dz = 2πi over positively-oriented (c) − (d) − − Ans: (b)
C 3 3 3 3
simple closed curve C about ‘a’, then m = Z πi
(a) −1 (b) 0 (c) 6 = −1 (d) 1 Ans: (a)
18. cos z dz =
−πi
10. If C is the st. line segment from 0 to 1 + i, (a) 2i sinh π (b) 2 sinh π
then an upper bound (by ML-inequality) for the 2
(c) 2i sin π (d) sinh π Ans: (a)
absolute value of the integral of f (z) = z 2 over i
C is √ Z 8−3πi
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 2 2 (d) ∞ Ans: (c) 19. ez/2 dz=
8+πi
(a) 1 (b) 2πi (c) −i (d) 0 Ans: (d)
11. If C is a simple
Z az closed curve enclosing the
e Z i
dz
origin, then 2
= dz 20. =
C z −i z
1 π
(a) πia (b) 2πia (c) 2πa (d) πia Ans: (b) (a) i (b) 2πi (c) πi (d) 4πi Ans: (c)
2 2
iπ iπ
12. If C is a simple Hint: ln i − ln (−i) = − − = πi
Z iz closed curve enclosing the 2 2
e Z
origin, then 2
dz 21. [(z 2 + 4)/(z − 3)] dz = 0 is true if C is the
C z C
(a) 2π (b) π (c) −2πi (d) 2πi Ans: (c) circle
Z (a) |z| = 1 (b) |z| = 2
13. zdz, where C is a closed path, is (c) |z| = 4 (d) none of these Ans: (a) or (b)
C
(a) 0 (b) πi (c) 2πi (d) 2π Ans: (c) If C is the straight line from z = 0 to z = i, then
22. Z
Z (y − x − 3x2 i) dz
14. If C is any simple closed path f (z) dz = 0 is C
C (a) i/2 (b) 1/2 (c) i (d) −i/2 Ans: (a)
true for f (z)=
1 23. By ML-inequality, ifZC is the straight line from
(a) sec z (b) z (c) ez (d) Ans: (c)
z
Z 0 to 1 + i we have | z 2 dz| ≤
15. sec z dz = 0 is true if C is √ √C
C
(a) 2 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 4 Ans: (a)

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Question Bank A-7

Z πi
Z
24. (1 + cos z)dz counter-clockwise direction, then [z 3 /(2z −
−πi C
(a) 2 sinh πi + 2πi (b) zi sinh πi + π i)] dz =
(a) πi (b) 2πi (c) π/4 (d) π/8 Ans: (d)
(c) 2 sinh π + πi (d) 2i(sinh π + π) Ans: (d)
Z πi 35. If C is the circle |z| = 2 Zdescribed in the anti-
25. ez dz = clockwise direction, then [ez /(z−πi)2 ] dz =
0 C
√ 2πia where a =
(a) 2 (b) −2 (c) 2 (d) π Ans: (b)
(a) 1 (b) −1 (c) 0 (d) 2 Ans: (b)
Z i
26. If C is the unit circle C : Z|z−i| = 1 touching the 36. (1/z) dz =
z-axis at the origin, then (z 2 +1)/(z 2 −1)dz = −i
(a) π (b) i π/2 (c) i π (d) 0 Ans: (c)
C
(a) 0 (b) 2πi (c) πi (d) πi/2 Ans: (a)
37. The order of the pole of (ez − 1)/z 4 is
27. Among the following, which one is an entire (a) 3 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4 Ans: (a)
function?
(a) ez /z (b) z ez 38. The residue of f (z) = z 2 /(z − 1)2 (z + 2) at the
(c) sec z (d) z cosec z Ans: (b) simple pole z = −2 is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2/9 (d) 4/9 Ans: (d)
28. The singularities of (z 2 + 1)/(z 2 − 1) are at z = Z 8−3πi
(a) ±1 (b) ±i (c) 1, i (d) −1, −i Ans: (a) 39. ez/2 dz=
8+πi
Z (a) 2πi (b) 0 (c) 2π (d) 4πi Ans: (b)
29. If f (a) = (3z 2 + 7z + 1)/(z − a) where C is Z
C
the circle |z| = 2, then f (3) = 40. If C is the unit circle |z| = 1, then dz=
C
(a) πi (b) 2πi (c) −1 (d) 0 Ans: (d) (a) 2π (b) π (c) −π (d) −2π Ans: (a)
Z Z i
30. If f (a) = (z 2 + 1)/(z − a) dz where C is dz
41. =
−i z
C
the circle |z| = 2, then f (1) = πi
(a) 2πi (b) πi (c) (d) −πi Ans: (b)
(a) 2πi (b) πi (c) 4πi (d) 0 Ans: (c) 2
I
31. If C is the circle |z|Z = π traced in counter- 42. ez dz =
C
clockwise direction 1/(z − 3i)dz = (a) π (b) −1 (c) 0
(d) 1 Ans: (c)
C Z
(a) 2π (b) 2πi (c) πi (d) 4πi Ans: (b) 43. Along AB: y = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, (x2 + y2 )
Z AB
32. If C is the unit circle |z| = 1, then sec z dz = (dx + idy) =
C (a) 1/3 (b) 1/2 (c) 2/3 (d) 1 Ans: (a)

(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2πi (d) 4πi Ans: (a)

44. The set {z ∈ C/1 < |z| < 2} is a
(a) domain (b) closed region
Z
33. If C is the unit circle |z| = 1, then z dz = (c) simply-connected (d) none of these
C
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2πi (d) 4πi Ans: (c) Ans: (a)
Z πi

34. If C is the unit circle |z| = 1 described in the 45. cos z dz=
0

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A-8 Engineering Mathematics I

(a) sin πi (b) i sinh π (a) 1 (b) −1 (c) 0 (d) 2 Ans: (b)
(c) i sin π (d) sin hπ Ans: (a) or (b)
Z 1+i 57. If C is the unit circle C : Z|z−i| = 1 touching the
46. z 2 dz =
0 2 2 2 2 x-axis at the origin, then (z 2 +1)/(z 2 −1) dz =
(a) − + i (b) + i C
3 3 3 3 (a) 0 (b) 2πi (c) πi (d) πi/2 Ans: (a)
2 2 2 2
(c) − − i (d) − i Ans: (a)
58. Among the following, which one is an entire
3 3 3 3
Z i function?
47. (1/z) dz = (a) ez /z (b) zez
−i
(a) π (b) i π/2 (c) i π (d) 0 Ans: (b) (c) sec z (d) zcosec z Ans: (b)

48. The order of the pole of (ez − 1)/z 4 is 59. The singularities of (z 2 + 1)/(z 2 − 1) are at z =
(a) 3 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4 Ans: (a)
(a) ±1 (b) ±i
49. The residue of f (z) = z 2 /(z − 1)2 (z + 2) at the
(c) 1, i (d) −1, −i Ans: (a)
simple pole z = −2 is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2/9 (d) 4/9 Ans: (d) Z
Z 8−3πi 60. If f (a) = (3z 2 + 7z + 1)/(z − a) where C is
C
50. ez/2 dz= the circle |z| = 2, then f (3) =
8+πi
(a) 2πi (b) 0 (c) 2π (d) 4πi Ans: (b) (a) πi (b) 2πi (c) −1 (d) 0 Ans: (d)
Z
Z
51. If C is the unit circle |z| = 1, then dz=
C 61. If f (a) = (z 2 + 1)/(z − a) dz where C is
(a) 2π (b) π (c) −π (d) −2π Ans: (b) C
the circle |z| = 2, then f (1) =
52. If C is the circleZ|z| = π traced in counter clock- (a) 2πi (b) πi (c) 4πi (d) 0 Ans: (c)

wise direction 1/(z − 3i)dz =

Z
C 62. [(z 2 + 4)/(z − 3)] dz = 0 is true if C is the
(a) 2π (b) 2πi (c) πi (d) 4πi Ans: (b) C
Z circle
53. If C is the unit circle |z| = 1, then sec z dz (a) |z| = 1 (b) |z| = 2
C (c) |z| = 4 (d) none of these Ans: (b)
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2πi (d) 4πi Ans: (a)
Z
If C is the straight line from z = 0 to z = i, then
63. Z
54. If C is the unit circle |z| = 1, then z dz
C (y − x − 3x2 i) dz
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2πi (d) 4πi Ans: (c) C
(a) i/2 (b) 1/2 (c) i (d) −i/2 Ans: (a)
55. If C is the unit circle |z| = 1 described
in
Z the 3 counter-clockwise direction, then 64. By ML-inequality, ifZ C is the straight line from
z
dz = 0 to 1 + i we have z 2 dz ≤
C (2z − i)
(a) πi (b) 2πi (c) π/4 (d) π/8 Ans: (d) √ C√
(a) 2 2 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 4 Ans: (a)

56. If C is the circle |z| = 2 Zdescribed in the anti- Z πi

65. cos zdz
clockwise direction, then [ez /(z−πi)2 ] dz = −πi
C
2πia where a = (a) 2 sinh πi (b) zi sinh πi

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Question Bank A-9

(c) 2 sinh π (d) 2i sinh π Ans: (d) 1

6. Laurent’s series expansion of f (z) = −
Z πi z−1
1
66. ez dz = in the region 1 < |z| < 2 is
0 √ z−2
∞ ∞
(a) 2 (b) −2 (c) 2 (d) π Ans: (b) 1 + zn zn

X X 1
(a) (b) + n+1
n=0
zn n=0
z n+1 2
Chapter 5 Complex Power Series ∞
X 1
zn
X∞
1 z n−1

1 z−i (z − i)2 (c) + (d) +
1. The power series − 2 + − n=0
zn 2n n=0
z n+1 2n+1
i i i3
(z − i)3 Ans: (b)
+ · · · represents the function ∞ ∞
i4 1 X X
(a) e(z−i) 7. = z n (Taylor’s) = − z −n−1
(b) log(z − i) 1−z n=0 n=0
1 1
(c) log +z (d) Ans: (d) (Laurent’s). Give the regions of convergence of
i z the two series respectively:
(a) |z| ≤ 1, |z| ≥ 1 (b) |z| < 1, |z| > 1
−(z − π/2) (z − π/2)3 (c) |z| ≤ 1, |z| > 1 (d) |z| < 1, |z| ≥ 1
2. The series + +
1! 3! Ans: (b)
(z − π/2)5
+ · · · represents the function sinh 3z
5! 8. Laurent series of f (z) = for 0 < |z| < ∞
z3
(a) sin z (b) cos z
9 9 81
(c) tan z (d) sinh z Ans: (b) (a) 2 + + z 2 + · · ·
z 4 40
3. Taylor’s series expansion for f (z) = (z−1)/(z+1) 3 9 81
(b) 2 + + z 2 + · · ·
about z = 0 is z 2 40
(a) 1 + 2z + 2z 2 + 2z 3 + · · · 1 1 9
(c) 2 + + z 2 + · · ·
(b) −1 + z − z 2 + z 3 − · · · z 2 40
(c) −1 + 2z − 2z 2 + 2z 3 − · · · 3 9 81 2
(d) 1−z +z 2 −z 3 +· · · Ans: (b) (d) 2 − + z − ··· Ans: (b)
z 2 40

4. The region of convergence of the power series Zeros and Singularities

1 1 1
(z − 1) − 2 (z − 1)2 + 3 (z − 1)3 − · · · is 1. z = nπ (n: integer) are the zeros of the function
z z z
2 1 (a) cos z (b) sinh z
(a) |z − 1| < (b) |z − 1| < (c) sin z (d) cosh z Ans: (c)
3 2
(c) |z − 1| < 2 (d) |z − 1| < 1 Ans: (c)
π
2. z = (2n + 1) (n: integer) are the zeros of the
5. Laurent’s series expansion of f (z) = z 2 e1/z at 2
function
z = 0 is (a) cos z (b) sinh z
1 1 1 (c) sin z (d) sinh z Ans: (a)
(a) z 2 + + + + ···
2 3!z 4!z 2
1 1 1 3. The singularities of coth z are the zeros of
(b) z + + + + ···
2 3!z 4!z 2 (a) tan z (b) sinh z
1 1 1 (c) coth z (d) cosh z Ans: (b)
(c) z 2 + z + + + + ···
2 3!z 4!z 2
1 1 1 4. The singularities of e−z are the zeros of
(d) z 2 − z + − + 2 −· · · Ans: (c) (a) ez (b) e−z (c) log z (d) tan z Ans: (a)
2 3!z 4!z

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A-10 Engineering Mathematics I

5. The singularity of ez /z 2 (1 − z)3 at z = 0 is a/an 13. The simple poles of f (z) = (tan z)/z, which lie
(a) simple pole inside the circle |z| = 2, are
(b) pole of order two π π
(a) 0, − (b) 0,
(c) essential singularity 2 2
(d) non-isolated singularity Ans: (b) π π
(c) 0, ± (d) ± Ans: (c)
2 2
sin2 z
6. The function f (z) = has at z = 0 a/an 14. The number of singularities of f (z) = e−z is
z
(a) essential singularity (a) one (b) two
(b) removable singularity (c) infinity (d) zero Ans: (d)
(c) pole of order two
(d) a point of continuity Ans: (b) 15. The simple poles of the function f (z) =
(z + 1)/z 3 (z 2 + 1) are
7. Among the following, the function which has (a) 0, −1 (b) ±i
simple pole at z = 0 is f (z) = (c) −1, ±i (d) ±1 Ans: (b)
(a) (z + 1)/z(z + 2)
(b) e−z 16. The number of simple poles of f (z) =
(c) sin z/ cos z z 4 /(1 + z 4 ) is
(d) (z 2 − 1)/z 2 (1 + z 2 ) Ans: (a) (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 Ans: (d)

1
8. Among the following, the function which has a 17. The zeros of sin are at z =
removable singularity at z = 0 is z
(a) nπ (n ∈ z)
1 1 (b) ±nπ (n = 1, 2, 3, · · · )
(a) e z (b) sin
z (c) nπ (n = 1, 3, 5, · · · )
1
(c) (1 − cos z)/z (d) tanh Ans: (c) (d) ±nπ (n = 1, 3, 5, · · · ) Ans: (b)
z
9. Among the following, the function which has 18. z = 0 is a zero of
1 1
an essential singularity at z = ∞ is (a) sin (b) cos
1 1 z z
(a) sin (b) cos (c) sin z (d) cos z Ans: (c)
z z
1 19. The function f (z) = z k sin z has a zero of second
(c) ez (d) sinh Ans: (c)
z order if k =
10. Among the following, the function which has a (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) −1 Ans: (b)
pole of order 3 at z = ∞ is Hint: for k = 1, f (0) = 0,
(a) sin z (b) z + ez f ′ (0) = (sin z + 2 cos z)z=0 = 0,
2 z
(c) z + 2e (d) z 3 Ans: (d) f "(0) = (2 cos z − sin z)z=0 6= 0
11. If the principal part of Laurent’s expansion of 1
20. The function f (z) = z 4 sin2 has a pole of
f (z) contains no term, then the singularity z = a z
of f (z) is called ____ singularity. order at z = 0
(a) one (b) two (c) three (d) four Ans: (b)
(a) essential (b) isolated
(c) removable (d) non-essential Ans: (c) Hint: !
2 sin2 1z

4 4 2
12. The singularity of f (z) = (sin z − cos z)−1 is z = z 1 − cos
2 z
at z = 2 4

π π π π 2 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) Ans: (d) = z 4 1 − 1− 2 + 4 −· · ·
6 3 2 4 z z

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Question Bank A-11

64 (a) ez /(z 2 + 1) (b) (sin z)−1

= 4z 2 − 16 + − ··· 1
z2 (c) e z (d) e−z Ans: (b)
21. The type of singularity that f (z) = (1−cos z)/z
has at z = 0 is a/an ____ singularity. Chapter 6 Calculus of Residues
(a) essential (b) irremovable ez
(c) removable (d) non-isolated Ans: (c) 1. Resz=0 2 =
z
(a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) 3 Ans: (c)
1
22. The zeros of sin are at z =
z 2. If z = a is a simple pole of f (z), then Res [f (z) :
−1
(a) (nπ) (n ∈ Z)) a]=
(b) (2n + 1)π (n ∈ Z) (a) [(z − a)2 f (z)]z=a
(c) (nπ)−1 (n = 1, 2, 3, · · · ) d
(d) ±(nπ)−1 (n = 1, 2, 3, · · · ) Ans: (d) (b) lim [(z − a)f (z)]
z→a dx

1 (c) limf (z)

23. The singularity of f (z) = (z + 2) sin is at z→a
z−3 (d) lim(z − a)f (z) Ans: (d)
z= z→a

(a) −2 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 0 Ans: (a) p(z)

3. If z = a is a simple pole of f (z) = where
q(z)
24. The type of singularity at z = 3 for f (z) = p(z) is analytic at a and p(a) 6= 0 and q(a) 6= 0,
(z + 2) sin[(z − 3)−1 ] is ____ singularity. then Res {f (z) : a}=
(a) removable (b) essential (a) p′ (a)/q(a) (b) p(a)/q(a)
(c) pole of order m (d) non isolated Ans: (b) (c) p(a)/q′ (a) (d) p′ (a)/q′ (a) Ans: (c)

25. The type of singularity at z = 0 for f (z) = 4. If z = a is a pole of order m > 1 of

(z − sin z)/z 2 is ____ singularity. g(z)
f (z) = where g(z) is analytic at a and
(a) removable (b) essential (z − a)m
(c) pole of order m (d) non isolated Ans: (b) g(a) 6= 0, then Res {f (z) : a}=

26. The circle inside which all the zeros of sin 1z lie (a) g (m) (a)/(m − 1)! (b) g (m)(a) /m!
is |z| = (c) g (m−1) (a)/(m − 1)! (d) g (m−1) (a)
Ans: (c)
1 1 1 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) Ans: (d) 5. Res {(z + 1)/(z − 2z) : 0} =
4π 3π 2π π 1 1
(a) − (b) (c) −1 (d) 1 Ans: (a)
27. The circle inside which all the zeros of cos 1z lie 2 2
is |z| = 6. If f (z) = (1 + ez )/(z cos z + sin z), then
2 2 1 1 Res {f (z) : 0} =
(a) (b) (c) (d) Ans: (b)
3π π 2π 3π (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) −1 (d) 2 Ans: (a)
28. z = 0 is a removable singularity for the function
f (z) = 7. The residue of cot z at z = 0 is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) −1 (d) 2 Ans: (b)
1 1 sin z cos z
(a) e z (b) sin (c) (d) Ans: (c)
z z z e2z
8. If f (z) = then, Res {f (z) : 1} =
29. z = 0 is an essential singularity for the function (z − 1)2
f (z) = (a) 2 (b) e (c) 1 (d) 2e2
z
Ans: (d)
1 1 sin z cos z
(a) e z (b) sin (c) (d) Ans: (a)
g ′ (1)
2
2e z
z z z Hint: Res {f (z) : 1} = = = 2ez ;
30. Among the following, the function which has 1! 1! z=1
infinite number of isolated singularities is g(z) = e2z

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“Fillÿups_20-07-09” — 2009/11/13 — 10:50 — page A-20 — #4

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A-20 Engineering Mathematics III

2 2 −y2 cos 2xy Z 1

8. Re ez = _______. Ans: ex 1 1
6. (t − it)2 dt = _______. − iAns:
2 3
9. Im ez
2
= _______. Ans: ex
2 −y2 sin 2xy Z0 1
1 1
7. (t−i)−1 dt = _______. Ans: log 2 + πi
0 2 4
10. The solutions of cos z = 0 are z = _______. Z 1
Ans: (2n + 1) π2 2 1
8. t e−t dt = _______. Ans: (1 − e−1 )
11. When expressed in terms of natural logarithm, 0 2
sin−1 z = _______. √ 9. If C is the arc of Zthe circle |z| = 2 from θ = 0
Ans: [−i ln (iz + 1 − z 2 )]
to θ = π/3, then z 2 dz = _______.
12. When expressed in terms of natural logarithm, C
p 16
cos−1 z = _______. Ans: [ln (z + z 2 − 1)] Ans: −
3
13. All the roots of cos z = 2 are given by √
z = 10. If C is the left half of the unit
Z circle in
_______. Ans: [2nπ ± i log(2 + 3)] the clockwise direction, then |z|dz =
C
_______. Ans: 2i
14. All the roots of sinh z = i are given
πi
by z = _______. Ans: ± 2nπi Z the ML-inequality, an upper bound for
11. By
2 π
e2z dz where C : y = x, x = 0 to x = 1
15. When expressed in terms of logarithm, C 6
√
−1
1 1 + iz is _______. Ans: e 3
tan z = _______. Ans: ln
2i 1 − iz
16. When expressed in terms of logarithm, 12. Z
By the Cauchy’s Integral Theorem,
sec−1 z = _______. dz
√ !
z 3
= _______ (C : |z| = 1). Ans: 0
1 1 + 1 − z2 C e −e
Ans: ln Z
i z 13. By the Cauchy’s Integral Theorem, sec zdz =
C
_______(C : |z| = 1). Ans: 0
Chapter 4 Complex Integration
Z 1+i
14. By the Extended Cauchy Integral
Z Theorem for
1. (y − x − 3ix2 )dz = _______. Ans: 1 − i 2z − 1
Zz=0 multiply-connected domains, 2
dz;
C z −z
2. z̄ dz where C is the upper half of the (C : |z| = 2) = _______. Ans: 4πi
C
unit circle taken in the clockwise direction, is Z
dz
_______. 15. By the Cauchy’s Integral Theorem, 2
Ans: −πi c z +4
Z (c : |z − i| = 2) = _______ (C : |z| = 1).
dz π
3. If C is the circle |z − a| = r, then = Ans:
C z−a 2
_______. Ans: 2πi
Z
e2z
16. If C is the circle |z| = 2, 4
dz =
C (z + 1)
4. If C Zis the circle |z − a| = r and n 6= −1, 8πi
_______. Ans:
then (z − a)n dz = _______. Ans: 0 2e2
C

5. If C is the Zstraight path y = x from z = 0 to Chapter 5 Complex Power Series

1 + i, then (x2 + iy)dz = _______. 1. For |z| > 1, (1 + z)−1 = _______.
C ∞
1 Ans:
X
(−1)n z −n−1
Ans: (−1 + 5i)
6 n=0

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Question Bank A-21

z−1 4. If C is theZ circle |z| = 2, then by the Residue

2. Taylor’s series about z = 0 of f (z) =
z+1 zdz
∞ Theorem 2
= _______. Ans: 2πi
C z +1
X
is _______. Ans: −1 + 2 (−1)n−1 z n
zez
n=1 5. The pole of f (z) = is z = _______.
3. The region of convergence of the series in Qn. (z − 1)3
Ans: 1
2 is _______. Ans: R : |z| < 1
6. The order of the pole in Qn. 5 is _______.
4. Laurent’s series expansion about z = 1 of Ans: 3
z
f (z) = is _______. 7. The Residue at z = 1 of f (z) =
(z − 1)(z − 3)
1
∞
3 X z − 1 n zez 3e
Ans: − − is _______. Ans:
2(z − 1) 4 n=0 2 (z − 1)3 2
zez
Z
5. The region of convergence of the series in Qn. 8. By the Residue Theorem, dz where
c (z − 1)3
4 is _______. Ans: R : 0 < |z − 1| < 2 C : |z| = 2 is _______. Ans: 3πie
1
6. Taylor’s series for f (z) = about cos πz 2
(z − 1)(z − 2) 9. The poles of f (z) = are
z = 0 is _______. (z − 1)(z − 2)
1 3 7 15 3 z = _______. Ans: 1, 2
Ans: + z + z2 + z + ···
2 4 8 6 10. The Residue of f (z) at z = 1 in Qn.
7. The region of convergence of the series in Qn. 6 9 is _______. Ans: 1
is _______. Ans: R : 0 < |z| < 1
πz 2 dz
Z
8. Laurent’s series expansion for |z| > 1 of f (z) = 11. If C : |z| = 3/2, then =
∞ C (z − 1)(z − 2)
z+1 X 1 _______. Ans: 2πi
is _______. Ans: 1 + 2 n
z−1 n=1
z
zez dz
Z
9. Laurent’s series expansion for |z − 1| > 1 of 12. If C : |z| = 5, then = _______.
z−1 C z2 + 9
f (z) = is _______. Ans: 2πi cos 3
z P∞ 2π
Ans: n=0 (−1)n (z − 1)−n
Z
dθ
13. = _______.
10. Laurent’s series expansion for |z| > 2 of f (z) = 0 a + b cos θ √
1 Ans: 2π/ a2 − b2
is _______.
z2 − z − 2 ∞
Z ∞
dx
1 X 2n − 1 14. 2 + 1)(x 2 + 4)
= _______. Ans: π/12
Ans: (x
3z n=0 zn Z0 ∞
x2 dx
15. = _______. Ans: π/6
0 (x + 1)(x2 + 4)
2
Chapter 6 Calculus of Residues
z
1. The poles of f (z) = are z = _______. Chapter 7 Argument Principle
z2 + 1
Ans: ±i and Rouche’s Theorem
z
2. The Residues of f (z) = 2 at z = i 1. A complex function f (z) which is differentiable
z +1
1 for all z in a domain D is called a/an _______
is _______. Ans: in D. Ans: analytic or holomorphic or regular
2
z
3. The Residues of f (z) = 2 at z = −i 2. A point z = a where f (z) is not differentiable
z +1
1 is called a/an _______ of f (z).
is _______. Ans:
2 Ans: singularity

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A-22 Engineering Mathematics III

3. A point z = a at which f (z) is not analytic z−1

4. The fixed points of w = are
but there exists a nbd of ‘a’ such that at each z+1
point of it except z = a, f (z) is analytic is called z = _______. Ans: ±i
a/an _______ of ‘a’. Ans: isolated singularity 3(z − 3)
5. The fixed points of w = are z =
z
4. If z = a is an isolated singularity for f (z) such _______. Ans: [3, 3]
that (z − a)m f (z) = φ(D) ∈ H (D) for some (2z − 5)
positive integer m and φ(a) 6 = 0 is called a 6. The fixed points of w = are
z+4
_______. Ans: pole of order m z = _______. Ans: −1 ± 2i

5. If m = 1 in Qn. 4, then it is called a _______. 7. The critical points of the mapping w = z 2

Ans: simple pole is z = _______. Ans: 0
6. A complex function in a domain D whose sin-
gularities are only poles is called _______ func- 8. The critical points of the mapping w = z +
tion. Ans: meromorphic 1
are z = _______. Ans: ±1
z
7. The change in the number of radius in the argu- 9. The invariant points of the transformation w =
ment of f (z) as the point z makes a cycle in the 1+z
are z = _______. Ans: ±i
positive direction is given by _______. 1−z
1
Ans: δc [arg f ] 10. The invariant points of the transformation w =
2π 3iz + 13
8. By Argument Principle, if f (z) is meromorphic are z = _______. Ans: 3i ± 2
z − 3i
in a domain D and
Z C′ is any simple closed curve
1 f (z)dz 11. The transformation w = sin z maps st. lines
in D, then dz = _______. x = c into the family of _______.
2πi C f (z)
Ans: [N − P] Ans: confocal hyperbolas
9. Rouche’s theorem states that if f , g ∈ H (D) and 12. For the transformation w = f (z), the point
C is a closed curve in D and |g(z)| < |f (z)| on where f ′ (z) = 0 is called a _______ point.
C then _______ and _______ have the same Ans: critical
number of zeros in C. Ans: f (z), f (z) + g(z) 13. The transformation w = cosh z maps horizontal
lines y = c into the family of _______.
10. Let D be a bounded domain f (z) ∈ H (D) and
Ans: confocal hyperbolas
nonconstant in D. Then max |f (z)| occurs on
the boundary of D. This is the statement of the 14. The transformation w = cosh z is not confor-
_______ Theorem. Ans: Maximum modulus mal at points where z = _______. Ans: nπi

15. The image of |z − 1| = 1 under the mapping

Chapter 8 Conformal Mapping 1 1
w = is u = _______. Ans:
1. A mapping that preserves the angles between z 2
oriented curves in magnitude and sense is 16. Under the bilinear transformation maps circles
called a _______. Ans: conformal mapping into _______ or ______. Ans: circles, st. lines

17. Under the transformation w = z 2 , the image of

2. The points which are mapped onto them-
the line z = 4 is a _______ whose equation is
selves under a conformal mapping are called
_______. Ans: parabola, v 2 = −64(u−16)
_______ points. Ans: fixed invariant
z 18. The Linear Fractional Transformation that maps
3. The fixed points of w = are z = −1, i, 1 into 0, 1, ∞ is w = _______.
2−z
_______. Ans: [0, 1] Ans: (z + 1)/(z − 1)

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Question Bank A-23

Match the Following

Chapter 1 Special Functions A. Beta and Gamma Functions

A B

1. B (p, q) a. Ŵ(p + 1)

2. p Ŵ(p) b. π sin π/4

3. Ŵ(p) Ŵ(1 − p) c. 22p−1 Ŵ(p) Ŵ(p + 1/2)

Z π/2 √
4. cot θ dθ d. π cosec pπ
0
√
5. π Ŵ(2p) e. Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q)/ Ŵ(p + q)

f. π sin pπ
Ans: 1. c 2. a 3. d 4. b 5. c

B. Legendre Functions
A (Function) B (Value)

1. P2n+1 (0) a. (−1)n (2n)!/22n (n!)2

2. P2n (0) b. (−1)n

2
3. Pn (−x)/Pn (x) c. δm n
2n + 1
2n
4. Pn1 (1) d.
2n + 1
Z 1
5. Pm (x)Pn (x)dx e. 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n
−1
f. 0

Ans: 1. f 2. a 3. b 4. e 5. c

C. Bessel Functions
A B

1. (Jn2 + Jn+1
2
)′ a. x(Jn2 − Jn+1
2
)
1 2
2. (xJn Jn+1 )′ b. Jn+1 (α)δαβ
2

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A-24 Engineering Mathematics III

Z 1
2
3. xJn (dx)Jn (βx)dx c. [nJ 2 − (n + 1)Jn+1
2
]
0 x n
4. J02 + 2(J12 + J22 + · · · ) d. 2/πx
2 2
5. J1/2 + J−1/2 e. (2/pix)2

f. 1

Ans: 1. c 2. a 3. b 4. f 5. d

Chapter 2 Functions of a Complex Variable

A B
2
1. ∇ 2 u = 0 a. f (z) = e−z + c
2
2. f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) ∈ H (D) b. f (z) = ez + c

3. u(x, y) = 2 log(x2 + y2 ) + k c. ux = vy ; uy = −vx

4. u(r, θ) = r 2 cos 2θ = c d. u is a harmonic function

2 −y2
5. u(x, y) = ex cos 2xy e. v(r, θ) = r 2 sin 2θ = k
y
f. v(x, y) = 4 tan−1 +c
x

Ans: 1. d 2. c 3. f 4. e 5. b

Chapter 3 Elementary Functions

A (Function/Equation) B (General value)

√
2−( π4 +2nπ)
1. sin z = cosh 4 a. ei log
1
2. log(1 + i) b. e2n+ 2 π
√
3. (1 + i)i c. log 2 + i(2nπ + π/4)
π
4. ii d. z = nπ + (−1)n − 4i
2
p
5. sin−1 z 2
e. − ln (iz + 1 − z )
p
f. −i ln (iz + 1 − z 2 )

Ans: 1. d 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. f

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Question Bank A-25

Chapter 4 Complex Integration

A (Integral) B (Value)
Z
dz
1. 2
(C : |z| = 2) a. 0
ZC z (z − 3)
8−3πi
2. ez/2 dz b. −π
Z8+πi 3
z
3. (C : |z| = 1) c. 2πi/9
ZC 2z − i
dz
4. 2 +1
(C : |z + i| = 1) d. π/8
ZCi z
dz
5. e. 2πi
−i z
f. πi
Ans: 1. c 2. a 3. d 4. b 5. f

Chapter 5 Complex Power Series

A (Function) B (Type of Singularity)
sin z
1. f (z) = 2 a. Removable singularity
z +1
1
2. f (z) = b. Simple pole
sin z
1 − cos z
3. f (z) = c. Infinite number of isolated singularities
z
4. f (z) = ez d. Pole of higher order
3
z
5. f (z) = e. Essential singularities at z = ∞
z−1
f. Finite number of isolated singularities
Ans: 1. f 2. c 3. a 4. e 5. b

Chapter 6 Calculus of Residues

A (Function/Point) B (Residue)
2
z 1
1. Resz=−2 a. −
(z − 1)2 (z + 2) 2
1 − e2z
2. Resz=0 b. −4/3
z4
z 2 − 2z
3. Resz=−1 c. −1
(z + 1)2 (z 2 + 1)
4. Resz=π/2 tan z d. 4/9
1
5. Resz=i 2 e. (10i)−1
(z + 1)(z 2 − 4)
i
f.
10
Ans: 1. d 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. f

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A-26 Engineering Mathematics III

Chapter 7 Argument Principle and Rouche’s Theorem

A (Equation) B (Location of Roots)

1. z 5 + 15z + 1 = 0 a. 1 root in each quadrant

2. ez = az 4 (a > e) b. 1 root in the first quadrant

3
3. z 4 + z + 1 = 0 c. 4 roots in < |z| < 2
2
4. z 4 + 4(1 + i) + 1 = 0 d. 4 roots lie in the first quadrant

5. z 4 + z 3 + 1 = 0 e. 4 roots in |z| ≤ 1

f. 1 complex root in the first quadrant

Ans: 1. e 2. c 3. b 4. a 5. f

Chapter 8 Conformal Mapping

A (Mapping of points) B (Bilinear transformation)
1. (−1, i, 1) → (0, i, ∞) a. (1 + iz)/(1 − iz)
2. (∞, i, 0) → (−1, −i, 1) b. w = 3i(z + 1)/(3 − z)
3. (−1, 0, 1) → (0, i, 3i) c. w = −1/z
4. (∞, i, 0) → (0, i, ∞) d. w = (1 − z)/1(1 + z)
5. (1, i, −1) → (i, 0, −i) e. w = −(z + 1)/(z − 1)
f. w = (−6z + 2i)/(iz − 3)

Ans: 1. e 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. a

A (Transformation) B (Fixed points)

1. w = (z − 2i)−1 a. i

2. w = (6z − 9)/z b. ±1

3. w = (z − 1 + i)/(z + 2) c. (3, 3)
1
4. w = d. 1, 2
z
1 2
5. w = (z + 2) e. 2, 2
3
f. i

Ans: 1. f 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. d

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Question Bank A-27

True or False Statements

Chapter 1 Special Functions

A. Beta and Gamma 5. J0′ (x) = J1 (x) F
Functions
Z π/2 √ 6. cos x = J0 − 2J2 + 2J4 T
n π n+1 . n+2
1. sin xdx = Ŵ Ŵ
0 2 2 2
T Chapter 2 Functions of a
Z 1
1
−1/2
√ Complex Variable
2. log dy = π/2 F 1. f (z) = z̄/z is not continuous at z = 0 T
0 y
Z π/2
3. B(p, q) = 2 sin2p−1 θ cos2q−1 θdθ T 2. If a complex function is derivable at a point
0 then it is continuous there. T
Z 1 p−1
x + xq−1
4. p+q−2
dx = B(p − 1, q − 1) F 3. If a function f (z) = u + iv satisfies Cauchy–
0 (1 + x)
Riemann equations, then f (z) is analytic F
5. Ŵ(p)Ŵ(1 + p) = π cosec pπ F
4. Laplace equation in polar coordinates
q
6. B(p, q + 1) = B(p, q) T ∂2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂2 u
p+q + + = 0 T
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2
B. Legendre Functions 5. f (x + iy) = 2xy + i(x2 − y2 ) is analytic F
1 1 x
1. x3 =[2P3 (x) + 3P1 (x)] T 6. f (x+iy) = log(x2 +y2 )+i tan−1 is analytic
5 2 y
1 F
2. Rodrigues’ Formula is Pn (x) = n Dn (x2 −1)n
2 n! Chapter 3 Elementary Functions
T
Z 1 1. sin(iz) = i sinh z T
3. xPn (x)Pn−1 (x)dx = n/(2n − 1)(2n + 1) F
−1 2. (coth z)′ = cosech2 z F
Z 1
4. Pn (x)dx = 0 if n is odd F 3. Principal value of ii is eπ/2 F
0

5. Pn (1) = 1 T 4. A solution of ez = 1 + 2i is z =
1
log 5 + i tan−1 2 T
6. Pn (−x) = (−1)n Pn (x) T 2
5. The principal value of log(1 + i) +
log(1 − i) is log 2 T
C. Bessel Functions
1 i+z
1. The differential equation satisfied by J0 (x) is 6. tan−1 z = ln F
xy′′ + y′ + xy = 0 T 2 i−z

n Chapter 4 Complex Integration

2. Jn (x) + Jn′ (x) = Jn (x) F
x If C is the line segment from z = 0 to z = i,
1. Z
n
3. J−n (x) = (−1) Jn (x) T (y − x − 3ix2 )dz = i F
2 ZCπi
2 2
4. J1/2 + J−1/2 = T 2. z cos zdz = −π sinh π +cosh π −1 T
πx 0

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A-28 Engineering Mathematics III

sin z
Z C 2 is the unit circle |z|
3. If = 1 then 4. Resz=0 = 1 F
(z + 1)dz z
= −2πi F
z2 1
ZC1−iz(2z + 1) 5. Resz=1 =− T
1 1−z 4 4
4. z 2 dz = (1 − i)3 T
Z0 3 If C is |z| = 2, then
6. Z
5. f (z)dz is independent of path c z 3 dz
2
= −3.5πi T
C (z − 1) (z − 3)
C
of integration F
z 3 + z 2 + 2z − 1 Chapter 7 Argument Principle
Z
6. If C is |z| = 3 then dz = and Rouche’s Theorem
C (z − 1)3
8πi T 1. Liouville’s Theorem states that if
f (z) ∈ H (D) and |f (z)| is bounded in D
Chapter 5 Complex Power Series then f (z) is constant in D T
∞
X
1. A series of the form an (z − a)n is called 2. Every polynomial of degree n has n roots T
n=0
a power series T 3. If f (z) ∈ H (D) then min |f (z)| or max |f (z)|
P can occur at any point of D F
2. If a series un (x) converges for every z
in C : |z − a| = R, then C is called 4. z 5 + 15z + 1 = 0 has all its 5 roots
the circle of convergence T in the unit circle |z| = 1 F

3. Taylor’s series expansion of a function 5. ez = z n has n roots inside the unit circle F
f (z) consists of both positive and neg-
ative powers of (z − a) F 6. One root of z 4 + z 3 + 1 = 0 lies
1 in the first quadrant T
4. If f (z) = is expanded in the
z2
− 3z + 2
annular region 1 < |z| < 2 the series Chapter 8 Conformal Mapping
we obtain is Taylor’s series F 1
1. The fixed points of the mapping w = is
5. Taylor’s series is a particular case of z − 2i
z = i T
Laurent’s series T
2. The mapping w = z 1/n maps sectors into
6. If f (z) has a Taylor’s series expansion valid in a half planes T
region D, then f (z) ∈ H (D) T
3. The image of the circle |z + 1| = 1 under the
1 1
Chapter 6 Calculus of Residues mapping w = u + iv = is the circle |z| =
z 2
1. By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem, real inte- F
grals can be evaluated. T
4. A bilinear transformation preserves the
∞
X cross-ratio of four points T
2. If f (z) = an (z − a)n , then b1 is called
n=0 5. The critical points of w = cos z are at z = nπ
the residue of f (z) at z = a T F
p(z) p′ (a) 6. If the mapping w = f (z) is conformal in
3. Res {f (z) : z = a} where f (z) = is
q(z) q(a) D, then f (z) ∈ H (D) T
F

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Question Papers

Code No. R059210201 Set No.1

II Year B.Tech. I Semester Supplementary Examinations, February 2008

Engineering Mathematics-III

Time: 3 hours Max Marks: 80

Answer any FIVE Questions

All questions carry equal marks

1 3
Z 1 Z ∞ Z 0 1
xdx t6 1 1
1. (a) Evaluate x4 log dx using β − γ ∴ = · t 6 −1 dt
0 x 0 (1 + x6 ) ∞ 1+t 6
functionsZ ∞ 1
∞
t 3 −1
Z
xdx 1
(b) Evaluate 6
using β − γ functions = 1 2
dt
Z0 a p+ x )
(1 6
(1 + t) 3 + 3
0

(c) Evaluate x4 a4 − x2 dx using B, Ŵ 1 1 2 1 1 2
0 = B , = Ŵ Ŵ
functions. [5+6+5] 6 3 3 6 3 3
1 π π 2 π
= = ·√ = √
Solution 6 sin π3 6 3 3 3
1
(a) Put log = t ⇒ x = e−t , dx = e−t dt π
x ∵ Ŵ(p)Ŵ(1 − p) =
The limits for t are ∞, 0. sin pπ
1 3 Note
Z 1 Z 0
∴ 4
x log dx = e−4t t 3 (−et )dt The upper limit should be ‘a’ and not −1 as printed.
0 x ∞
Z ∞ Z a
= e−5t t 3 dt (c) x4 (a2 − x2 )1/2 dx
0
0
Ŵ(4) 6 Put x = a sin θ, dx = a cos θ dθ
4
= =
5 625 p p
a2 − x2 = a2 − a2 sin2 θ = a cos θ
Z ∞
Ŵ(P)
∵ e−at t p−1 dt = P , p = 4, a = 5
0 a The limits for θ are 0, π/2.
1 1 1 −1 Z π/2
Ŵ( p+1 )Ŵ( q+1 )
(b) Put x6 = t ⇒ x = t 6 , dx = t 6 dt sinp θ cosq θ = 2 2
6 p+q+2
2Ŵ( 2 )
The limits for t are 0, ∞. 0

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A-30 Engineering Mathematics III

0
[(1 − x2 )y′ ]′ + n(n + 1)y = 0
Z
(1)
= a4 sin4 θa cos θa cos θdθ
π/2 ⇒ n(n + 1)Pn (x) = −[(1 − x 2
)Pn′ (x)]′ (2)
Z 0
6 4 2
=a sin θ cos θdθ Multiplying both sides by Pn (x) and integrating by
π/2 parts w.r.t x from −1 to 1
4+1 3 1√ √
6
Ŵ( 2
) 6 2
· 2
π · 21 π πa6 Z 1
=a =a = .
2Ŵ(4) 2 · 3! 16 n(n + 1) Pn2 (x)dx (3)
−1
2. (a) Show that Z 1
48 8 24 =− [(1 − x2 )Pn′ (x)]′ Pn (x)
J4 (x) = − J1 (x) + 1 − J0 (x) −1
x3 x x2
Z 1 1
2n(n + 1)
(b) (1 − x2 )(Pn′ (x))2 dx = . [8 + 8] = −Pn (x)[(1 − x2 )Pn′ (x)]
0 (2n + 1) −1
Z 1
Solution + P ′ n(x)(1 − x2 )Pn′ (x)dx
n −1
(a) RR6: 2 Jn (x) = Jn−1 (x) + Jn+1 (x) Z 1
x
n =0+ (1 − x2 )[Pn′ (x)]2 dx (4)
⇒ Jn+1 (x) = 2 Jn (x) − Jn−1 (x) (1) −1
x Z 1
2
Putting n =1, 2, 3, we get from Eq. (1) ⇒ (1 − x2 )[Pn′ (x)]2 dx = n(n + 1) ·
−1 2n + 1
2
J2 (x) = J1 (x) − J0 (x) (2) Z 1
2
x Pn2 (x)dx =

∵ by orthogonality property
4 −1 2n+1
J3 (x) = J2 (x) − J1 (x) (3) 2n(n + 1)
x = .
6 2n + 1
J4 (x) = J3 (x) − J2 (x) (4)
x 3. (a) If w = u + iv is an analytic function of z and
Substituting for J2 (x) from Eq. (2) into Eq. (3), we sin 2x
u+v = , then find f (z)
get cosh 2y − cos 2x
(b) If sin(θ+iα) = cos α+i sin α, then prove that
4 2 cos4 θ = sin2 α. [8+8]
J3 (x) = J1 (x) − J0 (x) − J1 (x)
x x
Solution
8 4 (a) Please refer to Ex. 2.45 in Ch. 2 on p. 21.
= 2 J1 (x) − J0 (x) (5)
x −1 x
(b) sin(θ + iα) = sin θ cosh α + i cos θ sinh α
Substituting for J3 (x) from Eq. (5) and J2 (x) from
Eq. (2) into Eq. (4), we get = cos α + i sin α (1)

6

8 6
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have
J4 (x) = J1 (x) − J 0 (x)
x x2 − 1 x sin θ cosh α = cos α, cos θ sinh α = sin α

2 cos α sin α
− J1 (x) − J0 (x) ⇒ = cosh α, = sinh α (2)
x sin θ cos θ

48 8 24 Squaring and adding, we get
= − J1 (x) + 1 − J0 (x) (6)
x3 x x
cos2 α sin2 α
(b) Pn (x) is a solution of Legendre’s equation − = 1 (∵ cosh2 α − sinh2 α = 1)
sin2 θ cos2 θ
(1 − x2 )y′′ − 2xy′ + n(n + 1)y = 0 or ⇒ cos2 α − cos2 θ − sin2 α sin2 θ = sin2 θ cos2 θ

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Question Papers A-31

⇒ (1 − sin2 α) cos2 θ − sin2 α(1 − cos2 θ) 1 1 1 1 1

= · − ·
z 2 − 4z + 3 2 z−3 2 z−1
= (1 − cos2 θ) cos2 θ ⇒ cos4 θ = sin2 α.
1 −1 1
= · z
+
2z 1 − 1z

(2z 2 −z−2) 2 3 1− 3
Z
4. (a) Find f (2) and f (3) if f (a) = dz
z−a 1 −1

C 1 z −1 1
where C is the circle |z| = 2.5 using Cauchy’s =− 1− + 1−
6 3 2z z
integral formula
z2 z3

1 z
Z
(b) Evaluate log zdz where C is the circle =− 1+ + + + ···
C 6 3 9 27
|z| = 1 using Cauchy’s integral formula. 1

1 1 1

+ 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
Solution
2z z z z
z2 z3

(a) a = 2 lies inside C: |z| = 2.5, circle of radius 1 z
=− 1+ + + + ···
2.5. By Cauchy’s integral formula, 6 3 9 27

1 1 1 1
(2z 2 − z − 2)
Z
+ + 2 + 3 + ···
f (a) = dz 2 z z z
C z−a
= 2πi[2z 2 − z − 2]z=2 = 8πi z2 − 1
(b) Let f (z) =
(z + 2)(z + 3)
a = 3 lies outside C: |z| = 2.5, circle of radius 5z + 7
2.5. By Cauchy’s integral theorem, =1− 2 , by actual division
z + 5z + 6
(2z 2 − z − 2) 3 8
Z
f (3) = dz = 0 = 1+ − , putting into partial fraction
C z−3 z+2 z+3
3 8
since the integrand is analytic inside C. =1+ 2
− , ∵ |z| > 3
z 1+ z z 1 + 3z
Z
2 −1 8 3 −1

(b) log z dz C : |z| = 1; 3
=1+ 1+ − 1+
C z z z z
Put x = eiθ log z = log eiθ = iθ; dz = ieiθ dθ " 2 3 #
The limits for θ are 0 to 2π 3 2 2 2
=1+ 1− + − + ···
Z 2π Z 2π z z z z
iθ iθ
= log(e )ie dθ = − θeiθ dθ " 2 3 #
0 0 8 3 3 3
2π − 1− + −

eiθ eiθ 2π z z z z
= (1 − iθ)eiθ 0

= θ· − 2 ∞ n ∞ n
i i 0 3X

2

8X 3
=1+ (−1)n − (−1)n .
= (1 − 2πi)e2πi − (1 − 0)1 = −2πi. z n=0 z z n=0 z
1
5. (a) Find the Laurent expansion of 6. (a) Find the poles and the residues at the poles of
z 2 − 4z + 3 z
for 1 < |z| < 3 f (z) = 2
z Z+ 1 z
z2 − 1 ze
(b) Expand in a Laurent series (b) Evaluate where C is |z| = 5 by
(z + 2)(z + 3) 2
C (z + 9)
for |z| < 3. [8+8] residue theorem. [8+8]

Solution Solution
1 z
(a) Putting into partial fraction, we have (a) The poles of f (z) = are the zeros of the
2
z − 4z + 3 z+1
for 1 < |z| < 3 the Laurent series expansion is denominator z 2 + 1 = 0

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A-32 Engineering Mathematics III

⇒ x = i, −i, which are simple poles of f (z) f (z) has double poles at z = ±ai of which z = ai
alone is inside C. By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
Resz=i f (z) = lim(z − i)f (z)
z→i R
eim x
Z Z Z
z i 1 f (z)dz = 2 2 2
dx + f (z)dz
= lim = = c −R (x + a ) SR
z→i z + i 2i 2 X
= 2πi Res f (Zj poles inside C). (1)
z=zj
Resz=−i f (z) = lim (z + i)f (z)
z→−i
eimz

d 2
z −i 1 Resz=ai f = lim (z − ai)
= lim = = z→ai dz (z − ai)2 (z + ai)2
z→−i z−i −2i 2
imz im 2
= lim e −
zez z→ai (z + ai)2 (z + ai)3
(b) The poles of f (z) = are the zeros of the
z2 + 9 −ma im 2
2
denominator z + 9 = 0, i.e., z = 3i, −3i which are =e −
(2azi)2 (2ai)3
simple poles of f (z) lying inside |z| = 5 −ma
−ie (1 + ma)
= (2)
4a3
Resz=3i f (z) = lim (z − 3i)f (z) Z
z→3i
AsR →∞, →0 (3)
zez 3ie3i 1 SR
= lim = = e3i
z→3i z + 3i 3i + 3i 2
zez Therefore from (1) − (3), as R → ∞, we obtain
Resz=−3i f (z) = lim (z + 3i)f (z) = lim
z→−3i z→−3i z − 3i ∞
eimx e−ma (1 + ma)
Z
−3i
−3ie 1 dx =
= = e−3i 2
−∞ (x + a )
2 2 2a3
−3i + −3i 2 Z ∞
cos mx e−ma (1 + ma)
⇒ 2 2 2
dx = (4)
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, −∞ (x + a ) 2a3
(on equating the real parts)
zez dz
Z X
2
= 2πi Resf (z)zj : Poles inside C
C z +9 z=zj Since the integrand is an even function of x in
(−∞, ∞), we have
e + e−3i
3i
= 2πi = 2πi cos 3. Z ∞
2 cos mx e−ma (1 + ma)
dx = . (5)
0 (x2 + a2 )2 4a3
π
πa2
Z
cos 2θ
7. (a) Show that 2
= 8. (a) Show that the image of the hyperbola
0 1 − 2a cos θ + a 1 − a2
2
(a < 1) using Residue Theorem x2 −y2 = 1 under the transformation w = 1/z
(b)Z Show by the method of contour integration that is r 2 = cos 2θ
∞
cos mx π 2z + 3
= 3 (1+ma)e−ma . [8+8] (b) Show that the transformation w =
2 2 2 z−4
0 (a +x ) 4a
changes the circle x2 +y2 −4x = 0. [8+8]
Solution
(a) Please refer Ex. 6.28 in Ch. 6 on p. 12. Solution
(b) Let C be the closed contour consisting of (a) Let z = reiθ , w = Reiφ . The transformation w =
1
(i) Line Segment L = [−R, R] along the real axis becomes
(ii) Semicircle SR : z = Reiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π) in the z
eim z 1 1
upper half plane and let f (z) = 2 . Then Reiφ = e−iθ ⇒ R = and φ = −θ (1)
(z + a2 )2 r r

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Question Papers A-33

The hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1 becomes 3 + 4w̄

⇒ z̄ = (2)
2 2 2 2
w̄ − 2
r cos θ − r sin θ = 1
Now the equation of the circle x2 + y2 − 4x = 0 is
⇒ r 2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 1or r 2 cos 2θ = 1
1 zz̄ − 2(z + z̄) = 0 (3)
⇒ 2 cos(−2φ) = 1 by Eq. (1)
R
⇒ R2 = cos 2φ Thus the image of the circle is obtained by
substituting Eqs. (1) and (2) into Eq. (3)
Thus the hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1 under the
3 + 4w 3 + 4w̄ 3 + 4w 3 + 4w̄
transformation becomes lemniscate R2 = cos 2φ. · =2 +
w − 2 w̄ − 2 w−2 w̄ − 2
2z + 3 ⇒ 9 + 12(w + w̄) + 16ww̄
(b) Solving w = for z, we have
z−4 − 2[3w̄ − 6 + 4ww̄ − 8w
w(z − 4) = 2z + 3 + 3w − 6 + 4ww̄ − 8w̄] = 0
⇒ z(w − 2) = 3 + 4w ⇒ 22(w + w̄) + 33 = 0
3 + 4w ⇒ 2(w + w̄) + 3 = 0
⇒z= (1)
w−2 ⇒ 4u + 3 = 0 (straight line) .

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Code No. R059210201 Set No.2

II Year B.Tech. I Semester Supplementary Examinations, February 2008

Engineering Mathematics-III

Time: 3 hours Max Marks: 80

Answer any FIVE Questions

All questions carry equal marks

1. (a) Show that β(m, n) = γ(m)γ(n)/γ(m + n)

Z π/2 √ Z π/2
Z 1 (c) tan θdθ = sin1/2 θ cos−1/2 θdθ
xn 2·4·6· · ·(n−1) 0 0
(b) Show that √ dx =
0 1−x 2 1·3·5· · ·n 1
2 +1 − 12 +1
where n is an odd integer Ŵ 2 Ŵ 2
Z π/2 √
=

1 1 3
1 − 1 +2

(c) Show that tan θdθ = Ŵ Ŵ .
0 2 4 4 2Ŵ 2 22
[6+5+5]
Ŵ 34 Ŵ 14

Solution = .
2
(a) Please refer Theorem 6.1 in Ch.√6 on p. 5. ′ ′
2. (a) Establish the formula Pn+1 (x) − Pn−1 (x) =
(b) Put x = sin θ, dx = cos θdθ, 1 − x2 = cos θ.
(2n + 1)Pn (x)
The limits for θ are 0 and π/2. d
sinn θ (b) Prove that [x−n Jn (x)] = −x−n Jn+1 (x)
Z 1 Z π/2
xn
∴ √ dx = cos θdθ dx
0 1 − x2 0 cos θ (c) When n is an integer, show that
√ J−n (x) = (−1)n Jn (x). [6+5+5]
γ( n+1
Z π/2
n 2
) π
= sin θdθ =
0 2γ( n+2
2
) Solution
since n is odd put n = 2m + 1 (a) Please refer to RR1 on p. 21 (Legendre polyno-
Z 1 √ mials) Ch.l.
xn π γ(m + 1)
∴ √ dx = (b) Please refer to RR2 on p. 33 (Bessel functions)
γ m + 23

0 1 − x 2 2 Ch.1.
m(m − 1)(m − 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1 (c) Please refer to the proof of Ex. 1.57(i) in Ch. 1
= √
m + 2 m − 12 m − 23 · · · 32 12 γ 12 ·
1
π on p. 38 (Bessel functions).
2
2m(2m − 2) · · · 6 · 4 · 2
= 3. (a) Find the analytic function whose imaginary
(2m + 1)(2m − 1) · · · 5 · 3 · 1 part is f (x, y) = x3 y − xy3 + xy + x + y
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 6 · 4 · 2 where z =x + iy
=
∂2 ∂2

n(n − 2)(n − 4) · · · 5 · 3 · 1
(b) Prove that + |Re f (z)|2 = 2|f ′ (z)|2
2 · 4 · 6 · · · (n − 1) ∂x2 ∂y2
= (n is odd)
1 · 3 · 5···n where w = f (z) is analytic. [8+8]

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Question Papers A-35

Solution (b) Let f (z) = u + iv ∈ H (D).

(a) Let
Then Re f (z) = u (1)
φ(z) = g(x, y) + if (x, y) ∈ H (D) (1)
∂u ∂v
whose imaginary part is ⇒ f ′ (z) = + i = ux + ivx , (2)
∂x ∂x
p
′
f (x, y) = x3 y − xy3 + xy + x + y (2) |f (z)| = (ux ) + (vx )2
2

f is harmonic function in D ⇒ fxx + fyy = 0. We ∂

Also (u2 ) = 2u · ux ,
have, ∂x
fx = 3x2 y − y3 + y + 1 and ∂2 2
(u ) = 2[(ux )2 + u · uxx ] (3)
fy = x3 − 3xy2 + x + 1 ∂x2
∂2
fxx = 6xy and fyy = −6xy Similarly 2 (u2 ) = 2[(uy )2 + u · uyy ] (4)
∂y
⇒ fxx + fyy = 0 (3)
Adding Eqs. (3) and (4), we get
Also, f , g satisfy CREs:
gx = fy and gy = −fx (4) ∇ 2 (u2 ) = ∇ 2 |Re f (z)|2 = 2 (ux )2 + (uy )2 + ∇ 2 u

∂g ∂g ∂f ∂f = 2(ux2 + uy2 ) = 2|f ′ (z)|2 . [by Eq. (2)] (5)
dg = dx + dy = dx − dy
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
= (x3 −3xy2 +x+1)dx−(3x2 y−y3 +y+1)dy 4. (a), (b) Please refer to Question 4(a), (b) and its
4 Solution in JNTU-Regular Exam Nov. 2008 (Set 1).
x + y4
2
x − y2

=d +d
4 2 5. (a) State and prove Laurent’s theorem.
3 (b) Obtain all the Laurent series of the function
+ d(x − y) − d(x2 y2 ) (5)
2 7z − 2
1 1 about z = −2. [8 + 8]
⇒ g = (x4 + y4 − 6x2 y2 ) + (x2 − y2 ) (z + 1)z(z + 2)
4 2
+ x − y + c (c1 : real constant) (6) Solution
(a) Please refer to p. 9 in Ch. 5.
(b) Please refer to Ex. 5.30 in Ch. 5 on p. 16.
φ(z) = g + if
1 1 6. (a) Find the poles and residue at each pole of
= (x4 +y4 −6x2 y2 )+ (x2 −y2 )+x−y+c1
4 2 sin2 z
+i(x3 y−xy3 +xy+x+y) (7) f (z) =
(z = π/6)2
∂g ∂f ∂f ∂f (b) Find the poles and residue at each pole of
φ′ (z) = +i = +i zez
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x f (z) =
(zZ − 1)3
= x3 − 3xy2 + x + 1 + i(3x2 y − y3 + y + 1) cos πz 2
= z 3 + z + 1 + i(0 − 0 + 0 + 1) (c) Evaluate dz where C is
C (z − 1)(z − 2)
= z3 + z + 1 + i (8) |z| = 3/2. [5+5+6]

by Milne–Thomson’s rule of replacing x by z and y Solution

by 0. sin2 z
(a) The poles of f (z) = are the zeros of
Integrating Eq. (8) w.r.t z, we get (z = π/6)2
the denominator
1 4 1 2
φ(z) = z + z + (1 + i)z + c (9) 2−1 h
4 2 1 d π i2
Res2z=π/6 f (z) = lim z− f (z)
(c : arbitrary complex constant) (2−1)! z→π/6 dz 2−1 6

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A-36 Engineering Mathematics III

d 1 1
= lim (sin z 2 ) = lim (sin 2z) sin θ = z−
z→π/6 dz z→π/6 2i z
√
3
= sin π/3 =
Z
1 dz
2 ∴I = b 1
C a + 2i (z − z ) iz
zez Z Z
(b) The poles of f (z) = are the zeros of 2 dz 2
(z − 1)3 = = f (z)dz
the denominator (z − 1)3 = 0 ⇒ z = 1 is a pole of b C z 2 + 2iaz
b
−1 b C
order 3. The formula for finding residue is 1 1
where f (z) = 2 2ia = (say)
z + b z − 1 (z − α)(z − β)
1 d m−1
Resz=a f (z) = lim m−1 [(z − a)m f (z)] −2ia
(m − 1)! z→a dz Then α + β = and αβ = −1
b
Here a = 1, m = 3
1 d2 The poles are simple and are at α and β (α < β)
Resz=1 f (z) = lim 2 (z − 1)3 f (z) −1

2! z→1 dz of which α lies inside C while β = lies outside C.
α
1 d2
= lim 2 (zez ) 1
2 z→1 dz Resz=α f (z) = lim[(z − α)f (z)] =
1 3 z→α α−β
= lim[(z + 2)ez ] = e 1
2 z→1 2 =p
cos πz 2 (α + β)2 − 4αβ
(c) The poles of f (z) = are the zeros 1 b
(z − 1)(z − 2) =q = √
of (z − 1)(z − 2) = 0, i.e., z = 1, 2, which are −2ia 2

− 4(−1) 2i a2 − b2
b
simple poles of f (z) of which z = 1 lies inside C,
circle of radius 3/2. By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
cos πz 2
Resz=1 f (z) = lim[(z − 1)f (z)] = lim Z 2π
dθ 2
Z
z→1 z→1 (z − 2)
I= = f (z)dz
cos π (−1) 0 a + b sin θ b C
= = =1 2 b 2π
1−2 −1 = · 2πi · √ =√
b 2i a2 − b2 a2 − b2
cos πz 2
Z X
∴ dz = 2πi Resf (z) = 2πi Z
1
C (z − 1)(z − 2) z=z (b) Consider f (z)dz where f (z) = 2 where
j
C z +1
(zj poles inside C). C consists of the line segment [−R, R] along the real
axis and the semicircle CR : |z| = R in the upper half-
Z 2π
dθ 2π 1
7. (a) Show that =√ plane. f (z) = 2 has simple poles at z = ±i of
0 a + b sin θ a − b2
2 z +1
(a > b > 0) using residue theorem. which z = i lies inside C and z = −i outside.
Z ∞
dx
(b) Evaluate, by contour integration, . 1 1
0 1 + x2 Resz=i f (z) = lim(z − 1) =
z→i z2 +1 2i
[8+8]
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
Solution Z
Z 2π
dθ dz 1
(a) We evaluate I = by convert- 2 +1
= 2πi · =π
0 a + b sin θ C z 2i
ing it into a contour integral taken over the unit Z R
dx
Z
dz
dz ⇒ + =π
circle |z| = 1 by putting z = eiθ , dθ = and −R x 2 +1
CR z 2 +1
iz

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Question Papers A-37

since z = x, dz = dx along the real axis Also |z| = | (the unit circle) can be defined by
Also, on CR : z = Reiθ , dz = iReiθ dθ and the z = eiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π)
limits for θ are 0, π. Therefore we have, The transformation (1) gives
Z R Z π
dx iReiθdθ i(1 − eiθ ) −2i(e−iθ/2 − eiθ/2 )
2
+ 2 2iθ + 1
=π w= =
−R x + 1 0 R e 1 + eiθ 2(e−iθ/2 + eiθ/2 )
Z π
iReiθdθ πR on multiplying the numerator and denominator by
But 2 2iθ
< 2 → 0 as R → ∞ 2e−iθ/2
0 R e +1 R −1 sin θ/2
i.e., w = u + iv = = tan θ/2
Letting R → ∞, we have, cos θ/2
Z ∞ Z ∞ Equating the real and imaginary parts, we
dx dx obtain u = tan θ/2, v = 0
2 +1
= 2 2 +1
=π
−∞ x 0 x u ≥ 0, v = 0 for 0 ≤ θ, 2 ≤ π/2 or 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
Z ∞
dx π (upper semicircle in the z-plane)
⇒ = . u ≤ 0, v = 0 for +π/2 ≤ θ, 2 ≤ π or π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
0 x2 + 1 2
(lower semicircle in the z-plane)
Thus, the transformation (1) maps the upper

1−z
8. (a) Show that the transformation w = i semicircle in the z-plane into the positive half of the
i+z
maps the interior of the circle |z| = 1 into the real axis (u ≥ 0, v = 0) and the lower semicircle
upper-half of the w-plane, the upper semicircle in the z-plane into the negative half of the real axis
into the positive half of the real axis and the (u ≤ 0, v = 0).
lower semicircle into the negative half of the
real axis. (b) The equation of the circle |z − a| = c may be
written as z − a = ceiθ ⇒ z = a + ceiθ
(b) By the transformation w = z 2 , show that the The mapping w = z 2 becomes
circle |z −a| = c (a and c are real) in the z-plane
corresponds to the binacon in the w-plane. w − a2 = (z − a)(z + a)
Solution = ceiθ (2a + ceiθ )
(a) The given transformation is ∴ w − a2 + c2 = ceiθ (2a + ceiθ ) + c2

1−z
= ceiθ (2a + ceiθ + ce−iθ )
w=i (1)
1+z = 2ceiθ (a + c cos θ)
w 1−z [∵ eiθ + e−iθ = 2 cos θ]
This can be written as = . By Componendo-
i 1+z By taking the pole (origin) in the w-plane at w =
w+i 1 i−w
dividendo this gives = or z = . a2 − c2 , we put w − (a2 − c2 ) = Reiφ , we have
w−i −z i+w
Writing w = u + iv and taking modulus, we have
Reiφ = 2ceiθ (a + c cos θ)

Equating the modulus and amplitude of the com-

s
i − u − iv u2 + (1 − v)2
|z| = = ≤1 plex quantity on either side
i + u + iv u2 + (1 + v)2
⇔ u2 + 1 + v2 − 2v ≤ u2 + 1 + v2 + 2v R = 2c(a + c cos θ) and φ = 0
⇔ 4v ≥ 0 (upper half w-plane) (2) so that R = 2c(a + c cos φ). This equation represents
This show that the mapping transforms the interior a binacon in the w-plane. Thus the circle |z − a| = c
of the unit circle |z| ≤ | into the upper half w-plane. in the z-plane corresponds to binacon in the w-plane.

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Code No. 2059210201 Set No.3

II Year B.Tech. I Semester Supplementary Examinations, February 2008

Engineering Mathematics-III

Time: 3 hours Max Marks: 80

Answer any FIVE Questions

All questions carry equal marks

Z π/2 Z π/2
1. (a) Show that n
Z π/2 sin θdθ = cosn θdθ
2m−1 2n−1 0 0
β(m, n) = 2 sin θ · cos θdθ
0 1 n+1 1
= B ,
and deduce that 2 2 2
1 n+1
Ŵ 12
π/2 Z π/2
Ŵ
Z
1 1 n+1
sinn θdθ = cosn θdθ = 2 2
n+2
= B , (4)
0 0 Ŵ 2 2 2 2
π (by symmetry property)
(b) Prove that Ŵ(n)Ŵ(1 − n) =
sin nπ
Z ∞
1 m+1
But we know that
m −axn
(c) Show that x e dx = m+1 Ŵ
0 na n n Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q)
B(p, q) = (5)
[5+5+6] Ŵ(p + q)
Solution From Eqs. (4) and (5) the result follows.
a) By definition,
Z 1
(b) We know that,
B(, n) = xm−1 (1 − x)n−1 dx (1) Z ∞
xp−1
0 B(p, q) = dx (6)
2 0 (1 + x)p+q
Put x = sin θ ⇒ dx = 2 sin θ cos θdθ. The limits
for θ are 0 and π/2. Now, Eq. (1) becomes
Ŵ(p)Ŵ(q)
Z π/2 = (5)
B(m, n) = 2 sin2m−2 θ cos2n−2 θ(2 sin θ cos θ)dθ Ŵ(p + q)
0
Z π/2 Taking q = 1 − p we get from (5) and (6)
=2 sin2m−1 θ cos2n−1 θdθ (2) Z ∞ p−1
0
x
dx = B(p, 1 − p)
Z π/2
1 0 1+x
or sin2p−1 θ cos2q−1 θdθ = B(p, q) (3) Ŵ(p)Ŵ(1 − p)
0 2 =
Ŵ(1)
n+1 1 1 n+1
Taking p = , V = and p = , q = = Ŵ(p)Ŵ(1 − p) (7)
2 2 2 2
in turn, we obtain from (3) ∵ Ŵ(1) = 1

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Question Papers A-39

From calculus of residues, we have the result Integrating w.r.t z, f (z) = 14 z 4 + 12 z 2 +z+iz+c, where
Z ∞ p−1 c is a complex constant, is the required function.
x π ∂2
dx = (0 < p < 1) (8) ∂2 ∂2
0 1 + x sin pπ (b) We have 2
+ 2
=4
∂x ∂y ∂z∂z̄
From (7) and (8) the result follows.
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 f (z)+f (z̄) 2

2
(c) ∴ + |Re f (z)| = 4
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z∂z̄ 2
∞ 2
∂
Z
n
I = xm eax dx Put axn = u = |f (z) + f (z̄)|2
Z0 ∞ ∂z∂z̄
n ∂
xm−n+1 e−ax · xn−1 dx naxn−1 dx = du |f (z)+f (z̄)| f ′ (z̄)

= =2
Z0 ∞ m−n+1 ∂z
u n du = 2f ′ (z) · f ′ (z̄) = 2|f ′ (z)|2
= e−u The limits for u
0 aZ ∞ na
1 m+1 −1 −u (z 3 − sin 3z)dz
Z
= m+1
u n e du are 0 and ∞ 4. (a) Evaluate with C : |z| = 2
na n 0 C (z − π/2)3
1 m+1 using Cauchy’s integral formula.
= m+1
Ŵ Z 1,1
na n n
(b) Evaluate (3x2 +4xy+ix2 )dz along y = x2
Z 0,0
dz
2. (a) Prove that [16] (c) Evaluate where C : |z| = 2
z 3

Z 1  0 if m 6 = n C e (z − 1)
Pm (x)Pn (x)dx = 2 using Cauchy’s integral theorem. [5+5+6]
−1  if m = n.
2n + 1 Solution
Solution Please refer to the orthogonal property (a) f (z) = (z 3 − sin 3z) is analytic inside the circle
of Legendre polynomials in Ch. 1 on p. 23. C : |z| = 2 and the singular point a = π/2 of the
integrand lies inside C.
3. (a) Find the analytic function whose imaginary
(z 3 − sin 3z)dz
Z
part is f (x, y) = x3 y − xy3 + xy + x + y where dz = πif ′′ (π/2)
z = x + iy C (z − π/2)3
∂2 ∂2 = πi z 3 − sin 3z z=π/2

(b) Prove that + |Re f (z)|2 = 2|f ′ (z)|2
∂x2 ∂y2
where f (z) is analytic. [8+8] = πi(6z + 9 sin 3z)z=π/2
= πi[3π + 9(−1)]
Solution = 3πi(π − 3)2
(a) Let f (z) = u+iv where v = x3 y−xy3 +xy+x+y
Differentiating v w.r.t x and y, we get Z 1,1
vx = 3x2 y − y3 + y + 1; vy = x3 − 3xy2 + x + 1 (b) (3x2 + 4xy + ix2 )dz
0,0
f ′ (z) =ux + ivx = vy + ivx
Along y = x2 , z = x + iy = x + ix2
3 2 2 3
= (x − 3xy + x + 1) + i(3x y − y + y + 1) ⇒ dz = (1 + 2ix)dx
(by Cauchy-Riemann Equations) Z 1
= (z 3 − 0 + z + 1) + i(0 − 0 + 0 + 1), = (3x2 + 4xy + ix2 )(1 + 2ix)dx
0
replacing x by z and y by 0, Z 1
= [3x2 + 4x3 + i(x2 + 6x3 + 8x4 )
according to Milne Thomson’s method 0
= z3 + z + 1 + i − 2x3 ]dx

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“EngÿMathÿIIIÿsetsremaining” — 2010/7/9 — 11:51 — page A-40 — #9

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A-40 Engineering Mathematics III

z−1 −1
3 1
1 x 3 8 2 2
= x3 + x4 + i + x4 + x5 = 1− = 1− 1+
2 3 2 5 0
(z−1)+3 3 3
" 2 #
z−1 3

1 1 3 8 3 103

2 z−1 z−1
=1+ +i + + = +i = 1− 1− + − +· · · .
2 3 2 5 2 30 3 3 3 3

e−z dz
Z Z
dz 2πi ′′ πi 6. (a) Find the poles and the residue at each pole of
(c) = = f (1) = z
C e (z − 1)3
z
C (z − 1) 3 2! e f (z) = 2
z Z+ 1
zez dz
C is the circle |z| = 2. The singularity z = 1 lies inside (b) Evaluate where C is |z| = 5, by
2
C. f (z) = e−z is analytic f ′′ (z) = e−z ⇒ f ′′ (1) = e−1 . C (z + 9)
residue theorem. [8+8]
e2z
5. (a) Expand f (z) = about z = 1 as a Solution
(z − 1)3
Laurent series. Also find the region of (a) Please refer to the Solution of 6(a) in JNTU Feb
convergence. 2008 (Set 1).
z (b) Please refer to Solution of 6(b) in JNTU Feb
(b) Find Taylor series for about z = 1; also
z+2 2008 (Set 1).
find the region of convergence.
Z 2π
cos 2θ
Solution 7. (a) Evaluate dθ using residue
(a) Put z − 1 = w or z = w + 1. Then 0 5 + 4 cos θ
theorem. Z
∞
e2(1+w) 1 x2 dx
f (z) = = e2 · 3 · e2w (b) Evaluate 2 2
using residue
w3 w −∞ (x + 1)(x + 4)
e2 (2w)2 (2w)3 theorem.

⇒ f (z) = 3 1+(2w)+ + +· · ·
w n! 3!
∞
X 2n Solution We convert the integral into a contour
= e2 (wn−3 ) integral taken around the unit circle C : |z| = 1 by
n=0
n! putting z = eiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π),
∞
2n
z2 + 1
X
=e 2
(z − 1)n−3 if z 6 = 1 dz
n! dθ = ; cos θ = = Re e2iθ
n=0 iz 2 cos 2θ
∞ Z 2π Z 2π
X 2n cos 2θ e2iθdθ
= e2 (z − 1)n−3 if |z − 1| > 0 ∴I= dθ = Re
n=0
n! 0 5+4 cos θ 0 5+2(eiθ +e−iθ )
z2 z 2 dz
Z Z
which is the region of convergence. dz 1
= Re −1
= Re 2
C 5+2(z+z ) iz i C 2z +5z+2
z Z 2 Z 2π
(b) z = −2 is the singularity of f (z) = . If the 1 z dz cos 2θ
z+2 = Re ⇒ dθ
centre of the circle is at z = 1, then the distance of 2i C (z+ 12 )(z+2) 0 5+4 cos θ

the singularity z = −2 from the centre is 3 units. If a 1 1 π
= Re 2πi · · = by residue theorem.
circle of radius 3 units is drawn with its centre at z = 2i 6 6
1, then f (z) is analytic within the circle |z − 1| = 3
and therefore we can expand f (z) in a Taylor’s series. z2
Poles of the integrand f (z) = are
The region is the interior of the circle |z − 1| = 3 (z + 12 )(z + 2)
and therefore we can expand f (z) in a Taylor’s series. 1 1
z = − , −2 of which z = − lies inside C
The region is the interior of the circle |z − 1| = 3. 2 2
z 2 z2 (1/2)2
∴ f (z) = =1− , by actual division, Resz=− 1 = lim = = 1/6
z+2 z+2 2 z→− 21 z+2 3/2

x2 y2 x y
+ =1 Also, = cosh β, = sinh β (5)
cosh β sinh2 β
2 sin α cos α
x2 y2 Squaring and subtracting,
+ = 1. [8 + 8] x2 y2
cosh2 α sinh2 α − = cosh2 β − sinh2 β = 1. (6)
2
Solution sin α cos2 α
(a) 3u + 2v = y2 − x2 + 16x (1)
Z
log zdz 1
4. (a) Evaluate 3
where C : |z − 1| =
Differentiating w.r.t x and y, we get C (z − 1) 2
using Cauchy’s integral formula
3ux + 2vx = −2x + 16 (2) (b) State & prove Cauchy’s theorem.
3uy + 2vy = −2y
Solution
⇒ 1ux − 3vx = 2y (by CREs) (3)
(a) f (z) = log z is analytic within C and the singular
Eliminating vx and ux from Eqs. (2) and (3), we log z
point of the integrand is a = 1 (pole of
obtain (z − 1)3
1 order 3) lies inside C. By Cauchy’s integral formula,
(2) × 3 + (3) × 2 ⇒ ux = (−6x + 4y + 48) Z
13 f (z)dz 2πi ′′
1 n+1
= f (a). Here a = 1, n = 2
(2) × 2 + (3) × 3 ⇒ vx = (−4x − 6y + 32) C (z − a) n!
13 Z
log zdz 2πi ′′ 1
∴ f ′ (z) = ux + ivx ∴ = f (1) = πi − 2 = −πi
3 2! 2 z=1
C (z−1)
1
= [(−6x+4y+48)+i(−4x−6y+32)
13 (b) Please refer Theorem 6.1 in Ch. 6 on p. 5.

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Question Papers A-45

5. (a) Expand log z by Taylor’s series about z = 1 |z| = 4 using residue theorem. [8+8]
1
(b) Expand 2 in positive and
(z + 1)(z 2 + 2) Solution
√
negative powers of z if 1 < |z| < 2. [8+8] (a) The poles of f (z) are at z = 0 (double pole) and
z = 2 (simple pole)
Solution 1 d 2−1
Resz=0 f (z) = lim 2−1 [z 2 f (z)]
(a) Put z − 1 = w ⇒ z = 1 + w (2 − 1)! z→0 dz

d z+1
∴ log z = log(1 + w) = lim
z→0 dz z−2
w2 w3 w4 wn
(z − 2) · 1 − (z + 1) · 1

3
= w− + − +· · ·+(−1)n−1 = =−
2 3 4 n (z − 2) 2 4
z=0
+ · · · for |w| = |z − 1| < 1 z+1
1 1 1 Resz=2 f (z) = lim(z − 2) 2
= (z − 1) − (z − 1)2 + (z − 1)3 − z→2 z (z − 2)
2 3 4 2+1 3
(−1)n = =
(z − 1)4 + · · · + (z − 1)n + · · · 22 4
n
φ(z) 1
1 (b) Let f (z) = = .
(b) Let f (z) = ψ(z) sinh z
(z 2
+ 1)(z 2 + 2) The poles of f (z) are given by
1 1 sinh z = 0 ⇒ z = ±iπ (n : integer, since sin hz =
= 2 − 2 1
z +1 z +2 sin iz) of which z = 0, z = ±iπ lie inside C : |z| = 4.
i
Putting into partial fractions φ(0) 1
Resz=0 f (z) = = = 1;
ψ(0) cosh 0
1 1 1 φ(±π) 1
= · − Resz=±π f (z) = = = −1, 1;
z 2 1 + z12

2
2 1 + z2 ψ(±π) cosh(±π)
1

1 −1 1

z2
−1 By residue
Z theorem,
= 2 1+ 2 − 1+ dz X
z z 2 2 = 2πi Res f (z)
√ C sin hz z=z
2 j
∵ 1 < |z| < 2 ↔ 1 < |z| < 2
= 2πi(1 − 1 − 1) = −2πi.
1 |z|2
⇒ < 1, <1 Z 2π
|z|2 2 dθ
7. (a) Evaluate by residue theorem
2 + cos θ

1 1 1 0
= 2 1 − 2 + 4 + ··· (b) Use the method of contour integration to
z z z Z ∞
x2 dx
2
z4 evaluate . [8+8]

1 z 2 2 3
− 1 − + + ··· −∞ (x + x )
2 2 4
∞
X 1 ∞ 2n Solution
n z
X
= − (−1) , (a) Please refer to Ex. 6.20 in Ch. 6 on p. 9;
z 2n+2 2n+1 Z 2π
n=1 n=0 dθ 2π
= √ (put a = 2, b = 1) ch.6
which is the required Laurent’s expansion. 0 2+cos θ a2 −b2
or Sol. to Qn. 7 (a) Nov. 2006 Set 2.
6. (a) Determine the poles and the corresponding (b) Please refer to the Solution of 7(b) in JNTU Nov.
z+1 2006 (Set 2) (Take a = π).
residues of f (z) = 2
z (z − 2)
Z
dz 8. (a) (b) Please refer to Question 8 (a), (b) and its
(b) Evaluate where C is the circle Solution in JNTU Nov. 2006 (Set 3).
C sinh z

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Code No. 43088 R07 Set No. 1

II Year B.Tech. I Semester Regular Examinations November 2009

Engineering Mathematics – III

(Common to EEE, ECE, EIE, E CON. E, ETM, ICE)

Time: 3 hours Max Marks 80

Answer any FIVE questions

All questions carry equal marks

Γ( m )Γ( n ) −2 xy 2 xy
1. (a) Show that B ( m, n ) = . uy = 2 2 2
; vx = 2
Γ( m + n ) (x + y ) ( x + y 2 )2
∞ x m−1 ux = vy and uy = –vx
(b) Show that B ( m, n ) = ∫ dx .
0 (1 + x )m+ n CREs are satisfied at all points except at the origin
Solution
(a) Please refer to Section 1.7 in Ch. 1 on p. 9. Þ f (z) Î H(D–{0}).
(b) Please refer to Subsection 1.6.1 in Ch. 1 on p. 7.
3. (a) Separate the real and imaginary parts of
2. (a) Find the polar form of Cauchy-Riemann cot z.
equations. (b) Prove that ez is analytic.
x − iy
(b) Find whether f ( z ) = 2 is analytic or (c) Find ez and ½ez½ if z = 4p(2+i)
not. x + y2
Solution
Solution (a) Please refer to Ex. 3.8 in Ch. 3 on p. 13.
(a) Please refer to Subsection 2.2.8 in Ch. 2 on (b) Please refer to definition and properties of ez
pp. 10–11. in Ch. 3 on pp. 1–3.
x − iy (c) e z = e8p + 4 pi = e8p ⋅ e 4 pi
(b) Let f ( z ) = u + iv =
x 2 + y2
= e8p  e 4 pi = cos 4p + i sin 4p = 1
x −y
⇒ u= 2 2
, v= 2 e z = e8p
x +y x + y2
Suppose (x, y) ≠ (0, 0) 4. (a) State and prove Cauchy’s integral theorem.
1 2x 2 y2 − x 2 (b) Prove that
ux = 2 − 2 = 2 ;
x +y 2
( x + y ) ( x + y 2 )2
2 dz
(i) ∫C z −a
= 2pi and
−1 2 y2 y2 − x 2
vy = + 2 = 2
2 2
(x + y ) (x + y )2 2
( x + y 2 )2 (ii) ∫C
( z − a )n dz = 0 ( n ≠ −1) .
Question Papers A-47

Solution Solution
(a) Please refer to Cauchy–Goursat theorem in (a) Please refer to Subsection 6.1.5 in Ch. 6 on
Ch. 4 on p. 13. p. 5.
1 (b) (i) and (ii) Please refer to Subsections 4.5.1 (b) Res of f (z) at z = 0 is
and 4.5.2 in Ch. 4 on p. 15. z (1 + e z )
lim{zf ( z )} = lim .
z→0 z → 0 z (cos z + 1 sin z )
5. (a) Obtain the Laurent’s series expansion of 2

ez
f (z) = about z = 1 . 1+ ez
z (1− 3z ) = lim =1
z→0 sin z
1 cos z +
(b) Expand in the region z
z 2 − 3z + 2 sin z
0 1 < |z| < 2. lim = 1, lim cos z = 1
z→0 z z→0

Solution
7. (a) State and prove the fundamental theorem
(a) Put z –1 = t Þ z = 1 + t.
of Algebra.
Then
(b) Show that one root of the equation
ez e1+t z 4 + z 3 + 1 = 0 lies in the first quadrant.
=
z (1− 3z ) (1 + t )(−2 − 3t )
Solution
 i 3  (a) Please refer to Section 7.7 in Ch. 7 on p. 4.
=e 1+t  −
1 + t 2 + 3t  (b) Please refer to Ex. 7.10 in Ch. 7 on p. 8.
 
  8. (a) Under the transformation w = 1/z find the
 1 3 
= e1+t  −  image of the circle z − 2i = 2 .
1 + t  3   (b) Find and plot the image of the triangular
 
2 1 + t 
  2   region with vertices at (0, 0) (1, 0) and (0, 1)

 under the transformation w = (1–i)z + 3.
 3  
n
3
= e1+t ∑ (−t )n − ∑ − t 
 2  2   Solution
(a) Please refer to Ex. 8.11 in Ch. 8 on p. 15.
  3 
n +1

= e1+t (−1)n + −   t n (b) Let z = x + iy, w = u +iv; O = (0, 0), A = (1,
 2  0), B = (0, 1) be the vertices of the triangle in the
 
z-plane. Suppose P, Q and R the images of O, A
 1 5 19 65 
= e1+t − + t − t 2 + t3 − and B respectively in the w-plane.
 2 4 8 16  w = u + iv = (1–i)(x + iy) + 3
 1 5 19 65  = (x + y+ 3)+i(–x + y)
= e − + ( z −1) − ( z −1)2 + ( z −1)3 −
 2 4 8 16  (x, y) = (0, 0) Þ (u, v) = (3, 0)
 2  (x, y) = (1, 0) Þ (u, v) = (4, –1)
1 + z −1 + ( z −1) +  for z −1 < 2 . (x, y) = (0, 1) Þ (u, v) = (4, 1)
 1! 2!  3
  v
y
(b) Please refer to Ex. 34 in Ch. 5 on p. 17.
B (0, 1)
6. (a) S tate and prove Cauchy’s Residue R (4, 1)
t heorem.
(b) Find the residue of z = 0 of the function
o A (0, 0) o P
1+ ez u
f (z) = . (0, 0) z-plane w-plane (3, 0)
sin z + z cos z Q (4, –1)
Code No. 43088 R07 Set No. 2

II Year B.Tech. I Semester Regular Examinations November 2009

Engineering Mathematics – III

(Common to EEE, ECE, EIE, E CON. E, ETM, ICE)

Time: 3 hours Max Marks 80

Answer any FIVE questions

All questions carry equal marks

1. (a) Show that d n


p−1 Hence f '( z ) = ( z ) exists for all z and is equal
1
q −1  1  Γ( p ) dz
∫0  y  dy = q p ( p > 0, q > 0 ).
y log 
to nzn–1.
(b) Some information is missing.
 1 p
(b) Prove that Γ( m ) Γ  m +  = 2 m−1 Γ( 2 m ).
 2 2 3. (a) Separate the real and imaginary parts of
Solution sinh(x +iy).
(a) Please refer to Subsection 1.4.4 in Ch. 1 on (b) Find the general value of
p. 4. (i) log(1 + i 3 ) ; (ii) log (-1) .
(b) Please refer to Section 1.9 in Ch. 1 on p. 10.
Solution
2. (a) Show that zn is analytic and hence find its (a) Please refer to “Formulas of Hyperbolic
derivative. Functions” in Ch. 3 on pp. 6–7.
2 2 (b) Please refer to Ex. 3.12 (i) and (iii) in Ch. 3 on
(b) Prove that u = e x − y is a harmonic func-
p. 14.
tion and find its harmonic conjugate.
1+i 1+i

∫ (x + iy) dz ∫ (x − iy) dz
2 2
Solution 4. (a) Evaluate
0 0
(a) By the definition of the derivative along the path y = x and y = x2.
f ( z + ∆z ) − f ( z ) (b) Evaluate using Cauchy’s integral formula
f ’( z ) = lim
∆z → 0 ∆z e 2 z dz
( z + ∆z )n − z n ∫C ( z −1)( z − 2 ) where C is the circle.
= lim
∆z → 0 ∆z Solution
(a) Please refer to Ex. 4.15 in Ch. 4 on p. 8.
 n n( n −1) n−2 
z + nz n−1∆z + z (∆z )2  (b) Incomplete. Please refer to Ex. 4.49 in Ch. 4
= lim  2  ∆z on p. 48. Here Cauchy’s integral theorem (not in-
∆z → 0  
+ + (∆z )n − z n 
 tegral formula) is applicable.

 n( n −1) n−2  ez
= lim  nz n−1 + z (∆z ) +  + (∆z )n−1  5. (a) Obtain Taylor’s expansion of
∆z → 0 
 2  about z = 2. z ( z +1)
= nz n−1 (b) State and prove Laurent’s theorem.
Question Papers A-49

Solution 6. Prove that

(a) Put z–2 = t Þ z = t + 2. Now 2π sin2 θ 2π
∫0 a + b cos θ d θ = b2 (a − a − b )
2 2

ez 1 1  z
=  − e
z ( z −1)  z z + 1
 where a > b > 0.
 1 1  t
= e z  − e Solution
 2 + t 3 + t 
Please refer to Ex. 6.25 in Ch. 6 on p. 11.
 1   1 −1 1   1 −1 
= e 2  1− − t − 1− − t  et 7. State and prove Rouche’s theorem.
 2   2  3   3  

Solution
  1 n+1  1
n +1  Please refer to Theorem 7.3 in Ch. 7 on p. 3.
= e z  ∑ −  t n − ∑ −  t n  et
  3 
  2  
8. (a) State that the transformation w = e z trans-
 1 5 19  forms the region between the real axis and
= e z − + t − t 2 +  et
 6 36 216  the line parallel to the real axis at y = p into
upper half of the w-plane
 1 5 19 
= e z − + ( z − 2 ) − ( z − 2 )2 +  (b) F ind the bilinear transformation which
 6 36 216  maps z = –1, i, 1 into the points w =

 2 3  –i, 0, i.
1 + ( z − 2 ) + ( z − 2 ) + ( z − 2 ) + 
 2 6 
  Solution
 1 1 7  (a) Please refer to Subsection 8.4.3 in Ch. 8 on
= e z − − ( z − 2 ) − ( z − 2 )2 − p. 7.
 6 36 216 
(b) Please refer to Ex. 8.21 in Ch. 8 on p. 22 (in-
(b) Please refer to Section 5.8 in Ch. 5 on p. 9. terchange z and w).
Code No. 43088 R07 Set No. 3

II Year B.Tech. I Semester Regular Examinations November 2009

Engineering Mathematics – III

(Common to EEE, ECE, EIE, E CON. E, ETM, ICE)

Time: 3 hours Max Marks 80

Answer any FIVE questions

All questions carry equal marks

1 = e 2 x ( 2 x cos 2 y − 2 y sin 2 y + cos 2 y )

1. (a) Show that Γ   = p .
 2 
+ ie 2 x ( x sin 2 y + sin 2 y + 2 y cos 2 y )
n−1
 1
∞

(b) Prove that Γ( n ) = ∫ log  dy (n > 0). eplace x by z and y by 0 to obtain f'(z) by Milne
R
0
 y  Thomson’s method
(c) Prove that f '( z ) = e 2 z ( 2 z ⋅1 + 0 + 1) + ie 2 z ( 0 + 0 + 0 )
b

∫ a
( x − a )m ( b − x )n dx = ( 2 z + 1)e 2 z
Integrating we get
= ( b − a )m+ n+1 b ( m + 1, n + 1).
e2z e2z
Solution f ( z ) = ( 2 z + 1) − 2 ⋅ 2 + c = ze 2 z + c
2 2
(a) Please refer to Subsection 1.3.2 in Ch. 1 on p. 2.
(b) Please refer to Subsection 1.4.1 in Ch. 1 on p. 3. which is the required analytic function.
(c) Please refer to Subsection 1.6.5 in Ch. 1 on p. 8. (b) Let f (z) = u + iv = sin x sin y – i cos x cos y
Þ u = sin x sin y v = –cos x cos y
2. (a) Find the analytic function whose real part we have
is u = e 2 x ( x cos 2 y − y sin 2 y ) . ux = cos x sin y uy = sin x cos y
vx = sin x cos y vy = cos x sin y
(b) Find whether of f (z) = sin x sin y – i cos x
CREs are ux = vy and uy = –vx. Clearly, the sec-
cos y is analytic or not.
ond equation is not satisfied. Hence f(z) is not
Solution analytic.
(a) Let f (z) = u + iv be the analytic function where
3. (a) Find the modulus and argument of i log(1+i ) .
u = e 2 x ( x cos 2 y − y sin 2 y ) (1) (b) If tan (x + iy) = A + iB prove that A2 + B2–
Differentiating (1) w.r.t x and y 2B coth 2y +1 = 0.

ux = 2e 2 x ( x cos 2 y − y sin 2 y ) + e 2 x cos 2 y Solution

(a) Let x + iy = i log(1+i ) = e (1+i ) log i , by def.
uy = e 2 x (−x sin 2 y − sin 2 y − 2 y cos 2 y )
Let O = r cos θ, 1 = r sin θ
We know that
π
f '( z ) = ux + ivx = ux − iuy  vx = −uy ⇒ r = 1, θ =
2
Question Papers A-51

log i = log r + i θ + i ( 2 nπ ) (1− cos2 2x)+ (cosh2 2 y −1)

π = 2
= log 1 + i + 2 nπi (cos 2x + cosh 2 y)
2
2 cosh 2 y
p − 2
Principle value = log1 + i (cos 2x + cosh 2 y)
Now 2
 p  cosh 2 y − cos 2 x − 2 cosh 2 y
(1+i )  log 1+i  + 2 np
  2 
= = −1
x + iy = e 
(cos 2x + cosh 2 y)
p   p 
log 1− + 2 np  i log 1+ + 2 np 
 2  
=e .e 2 
(1,1)

p 
4. (a) Evaluate ∫ (3x 2 + 4 xy + ix 2 )dz along
log 1− + 2 np    p  y = x2.
( 0 ,0 )
=e 2 
 cos log 1 + + 2 np 
  2  (b) Evaluate using Cauchy’s integral formula
 p  z 3 e− z 1
+i sin log 1 + + 2 np 
 
∫C ( z −1)3 where C : z −1 = 2 .
2
p 
log1− + 2 np
 2
Solution

Modulus = e (a) z = x + iy = x + ix 2 ⇒ dz = (1 + 2 xi )dx
 p  (1,1)
Argument = tan−1 log 1 + + 2 np  ∫ (3x 2 + 4 xy + ix 2 )dz
 2  ( 0 ,0 )
1
sin( x + iy ) = ∫ (3x 2 + 4 x3 + ix 2 )(1 + 2ix ) dx
(b) A + iB = tan (x + iy) = 0
cos( x + iy ) 1
= ∫ (3x 2 + 4 x3 − 2 x3 ) + i (6 x3 + 8x 4 + x 2 ) dx
2 sin( x + iy ) cos( x − iy ) 0  
= 1
2 cos( x + iy ) cos( x − iy )  1 3 8 1 
=  x3 + x 4 + i  x 4 + x5 + x3 
 2 
 2 5 3 
sin 2 x + sin 2iy 0
= 1  3 8 1
cos 2 x + cos 2iy = 1 + + i  + + 
sin 2 x + i sinh 2 y 2  2 5 3 
= 3 103
cos 2 x + i cosh 2 y = +i
2 30
(to make the denominator real) (b) Please refer to Ex. 4.45 in Ch. 4 on p. 25.
 sin it = i sinh t, cos it = cos ht
1+ 2z
sin 2 x 5. (a) Expand f ( z ) = in a series of posi-
A= z 2 + z3
cos 2 x + cosh 2 y tive and negative power of z.
sinh 2 y (b) Expand e z as Taylor’s series about z = 1.
B=
cos 2 x + cosh 2 y
Solution
Now 1+ 2z 1 2
(a) = +
2 2
A + B − 2 B coth 2 y z (1 + z ) z (1 + z ) 1 + z 2
2 2

sin2 2 x + sinh 2 2 y 1 z 2
= = − 2
+
(cos 2 x + cosh 2 y ) z 1+ z 1+ z2
2 sinh 2 y cosh 2 y 1 2−z
− = +
(cos 2 x + cosh 2 y ) sinh 2 y z 1+ z2
A-52 Engineering Mathematics III

1 19 z − 30 A B
= + ( 2 − z ) ∑(−1)n z 2 n = +
2 ( z − 2 )( z − 3) z − 2 z − 3
1 −1
= 1− (−z 2 ) = ∑(−1)n z 2 n 19 z − 30
2
1− (−z ) A= = −8
z − 3 z =2
(b) e z = e ⋅ e z −1
 ( z −1) ( z −1)2 ( z −1)3  19 z − 30
B= = 27
= e 1 + + + +  . z − 2 z =3
 1! 2! 3! 
 
Now
6. (a) Find the residues of
z3 z3
f (z) = f( z ) =
4
( z −1) ( z − 2 )( z − 3) ( z − 2 )( z − 3)
2π dθ 2π 8 27
(b) Show that ∫ = . = z +5− +
0 2 + cos θ 3 z − 2 z −3
Solution
(a) Singularities of f (z) 8 27
f'( z ) = 1 + 2
−
Pole of order 4 at z = 1 and simple poles are at ( z − 2) ( z − 3)2
z = 2 and z = 3
−16 54
Res f ( z ) = lim( z − 2 ) f ( z ) f''( z ) = 3
+
z =2 z→2 ( z − 2) ( z − 3)3
z3
= = −8
( z −1)4 ( z − 3) 48 162
f'''( z ) = −
Res f ( z ) = lim( z − 3) f ( z ) ( z − 2 ) 4 ( z − 3) 4
z =3 z →3

33 162 303
= f ( 3 ) (1) = 48 − =
(3 −1)4 (3 − 2 ) 16 8
27
= f ( 3 ) (1) 303 101
16 ∴ Res f ( z ) = = =
z =1 3! 8×6 16
f( z )
Let f ( z ) =
( z −1)4 (b) Please refer to Ex. 6.20 in Ch. 6 on p. 9.
z3
where f( z ) = 7. State and prove argument principle.
( z − 2 )( z − 3)
Solution
f ( 3 ) (1)
Res f ( z ) = , by Formula IV in Ch. 6 on p. 8 Please refer to Section 7.3 in Ch. 7 on pp. 1–2.
z =1 3!
z 2 − 5 z + 6) z3 (z + 5 8. Define conformal mapping. State and prove
sufficient conditions for w = f ( z ) to represent
z 3 − 5z 2 + 6 z a conformal mapping.
5z 2 − 6 z
Solution
5 z 2 − 25 z + 30 Please refer to Sections 8.1 and 8.2 in Ch. 8 on
19 z − 30 pp. 1–3.
Code No. 43088 R07 Set No. 4

II Year B.Tech. I Semester Regular Examinations November 2009

Engineering Mathematics – III

(Common to EEE, ECE, EIE, E CON. E, ETM, ICE)

Time: 3 hours Max Marks 80

Answer any FIVE questions

All questions carry equal marks

1. (a) Evaluate π 1
=∫
2
1 a a 4 sin 4 θ ⋅ ( a 2 cos 2 θ ) 2 ⋅ a cos θd θ
∫ ∫
4 2 4 2 2
(i) x (1− x ) dx ; (ii) x a − x dx ; 0
0 0 π
= a6 ∫
2
2 1 sin 4 θ cos 2 θ d θ
∫
3
(iii) x(8 − x ) dx . 3 0
0
a 6  4 + 1 2 + 1
 1 = B , 
(b) Show that 2 Γ n +  = 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5  ( 2 n −1) p .
n
2  2 2 
 2
1 2−z
Solution = +
Put x = sin2 θ, dx = 2 sin θ cos θ d θ z 1+ z2
5 3 3 1 1
x = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, x = 1 ⇒ θ =
π 6 Γ   Γ   ⋅ p⋅ p
a  2   2  a6 2 2 2 pa 6
2 = = =
1 2 2Γ( 4 ) 2 2 ⋅ 3! 64
(a) (i) I1 = ∫ x 4 (1− x )2 dx
0 (iii) Put x3 = 8 sin2 θ, 3x 2 dx = 16 sin θ cos θ d θ
π
=∫
2
sin 4 θ cos 4 θ 2 sin θ cos θ d θ (8 − x3 )1 / 3 = (8 cos 2 θ )1 / 3 = 2 cos 2 / 3 θ
0
x = 0 ⇒ θ = 0;
π
= 2∫
2
sin5 θ cos5 θ d θ x = 2 ⇒θ = π/2
0
2
 5 + 1 5 + 1 I 3 = ∫ x−1 (8 − x3 )1 / 3 x 2 dx
= B  , 
 2 2 
0

Γ (3) Γ (3) 16 π / 2 1
3 ∫0 2 sin2 / 3 θ
= 4 sin2 / 3 θ cos5 / 3 θ d θ
= B (3, 3) =
2Γ (6)
8  1 + 1 53 + 1 8  2 4 
1 (2 !)
2
= B  3 ,  = B , 
= = 3  2 2  3  3 3 
2 ⋅ 5 ! 60
2 4
(ii) x = a sin θ, dx = a cos d θ Γ  Γ  
8  3   3  4  2  1  1 
π = = Γ   Γ  
x = 0, ⇒ θ = 0, x = a ⇒ θ = 3 2 Γ (2 ) 3  3  3  3 
2
a 1 4  1   1 
I 2 = ∫ x 4 (a 2 − x 2 ) 2 dx = Γ   Γ 1− 
0 9  3   3 
A-54 Engineering Mathematics III

4 p 4p 2 8 3p f ( z ) = K Þ u2 + v2 = K2
= p cosec = ⋅ =
9 3 9 3 27 Differentiating we get
(b) Please refer to Ex. 1.10 in Ch. 1 on p. 6. uux + vvx = 0 (1)
Similarly
2. (a) Prove that the function f ( z ) = xy is not uuy + vvy = 0 (2)
analytic at the origin, although the CR Using CREs ux = vy; uy = -vx, we get
equations are satisfied.
(b) Show that an analytic function of constant uux - vuy = 0 (3)
modulus is constant. uuy + vux = 0 (4)

Solution Eliminating uy between Eqs. (3) and (4) we get

(a) Let f (z) = u (x, y) + i v (x, y) where u = xy (u2 + v2) ux = 0
and v = 0. Then at the origin and eliminating ux between Eqs. (3) and (4)
∂u u( x, 0 ) − u( 0, 0 ) 0−0 (u2 + v2) uy = 0
= lim = lim =0
∂x x → 0 x x → 0 x
I f k2 = u2 + v2 = 0 then u = 0, v = 0 Þ f (z) = 0
Similarly If k ¹ 0 then ux = uy = 0 Þ vx = vy = 0 by CREs
∂u u( 0, y ) − u( 0, 0 ) 0−0 \ u, v are constant Þ f (z) is constant.
= lim = lim =0
∂x y → 0 y y → 0 y
3. (a) Separate the real and imaginary parts of
∂v ∂v tanh z.
= 0, =0 (b) Find all the roots of tanh z + 2 = 0.
∂x ∂y
ence at the origin C.R.Es ux = vy, uy = –vx are
H Solution
satisfied. (a) Please refer to Ex. 3.9 in Ch. 3 on p. 13.
Now e z − e − z −2 e 2 z − 1 −2
(b) tanh z = = Þ =
f ( z ) − f (0) e z + e− z 1 e2 z +1 1
f ′( 0 ) = lim
z→0 z e2 z +1 1
Þ =
xy − 0 e 2 z − 1 −2
= lim By componendo-dividendo
( x , y )→ ( 0 , 0 ) x + iy
1 − 2 −1
Let z = (x, y) ® (0, 0) along y = mx, we get e2z = =
1+ 2 3
 −1
mx 2 m ⇒ 2 z = log  
f ′( 0 ) = lim =  3 
x→0 x (1 + im ) 1 + im
1
⇒ z = log −1 − log 3
he limit depends upon m and hence it is not
T 2
unique.
1
\ f ¢( 0 ) does not exist. z = log ei p / 2 − log 3 + 2ixp
2
ux, vx, uy, vx all exist at (0, 0) and CREs are
p  1
satisfied. = i  + 2 xp  − log 3
 2  2
Since the partial derivatives are not continuous at
(0, 0), f ¢( 0 ) does not exist. 3+i
(b) Let f (z) Î H (D) and f ( z ) = K in D; 4. (a) Evaluate ∫ 0
z 2 dz along the line x = 2y.
Question Papers A-55

(b) Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate In I3, a = -2, n = 0

ez 2pi −2
∫C ( z + 2 ) ( z +1)2 dz where C is the circle I3 = e
0!
z =3. Now I = I1 - I2 + I3 where
Solution ez 2pi −1
I1 = ∫ dz = e = 2pie−1
x = 2 y ⇒ z 2 = ( x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy C ( z + 1)2 1!
= 4 y 2 − y 2 + 4iy 2 = 3 y 2 + 4iy 2 ez 2pi −1
I2 = ∫ dz = e = 2pie−1
C z +1 0!
dz = d (x + iy) = d (2y + iy)
= (2 + i) dy ez 2pi −2
z2 dz = (3y2 + 4iy2) (2 + i) dy I3 = ∫ dz = e = 2pie−2
C z +2 0!
= (2y2 + 11iy2) dy
3 +i ∴ I = 2pi ( 2e−1 + e−2 )
(a) I = ∫ z 2 dz
0

1 5 (a) Find the Taylor’s series to represent the

= ∫ (2y 2 + 11iy 2 ) dy z 2 −1
0
function in the region
( z + 2 ) ( z + 3)
2 11  2 11
1 z <2 .
=  y3 + iy3  = + i 1
 3 3  0 3 3 (b) Expand f ( z ) = 2 about (i) z = -1
z − z −6
(b) we can put into partial fractions as and (ii) z = 1.
1 1 1
= − Solution
( z + 2 ) ( z + 1) ( z + 1) ( z + 2 )
(a) (i) Put z + 1 = t Þ z = t–1
1 1 1
2
= 2
− z 2 + 5 z + 6 ) z 2 −1 (1
( z + 2 ) ( z + 1) ( z + 1) ( z + 2 ) ( z + 1)
z 2 + 5z + 6
1 1 1 −5 z − 7
= − +
( z + 1)2 ( z + 1) ( z + 2 )
5z + 7
ez A= = −3
I= ∫ dz z + 3 z =−2
C ( z + 2 ) ( z + 1)2

5z + 7
The singularities a = -1, -2 lie inside C B= =8
z + 2 z =−3
By Cauchy’s generalized formula
f ( z ) dz 2pi ( n ) 5z + 7 A B
= +
∫ C ( z − a ) n +1
=
n!
f (a )
( z + 2 ) ( z + 3) z + 2 z + 3
In I1, a = -1, n = 1 z 2 −1 5z + 7
= 1−
2pi −1 ( z + 2 ) ( z + 3) ( z + 2 ) ( z + 3)
∴ I1 = e
1! 3 8
= 1+ −
In I2, a = -1, n = 0 z +2 z +3
−1 −1
2pi −1 3 z 8 z
I2 = e = 1 + 1 +  − 1 + 
0! 2  2  3  3 
A-56 Engineering Mathematics III

3  z z 2 z3  dz
= 1 + 1− + − +  (b) Evaluate ∫ where C: z − i = 2.
(z + 4)
2
2 2 4 8  C 2

Solution
8 z z 2
z 3 
− 1− + − +  (a) f (z) has simple poles at z = -1 and z = -3
3  3 9 27 
Re s f ( z ) = lim ( z + 1) f ( z )
z =−1 z →−1
1 5 17 2
=− + z+ z + 1 1
6 36 216 = lim =
z →−1 z +3 2
(b) (ii) Put z = t + 1
1 1 1 1  Re s f ( z ) = lim ( z + 3) f ( z )
f (z) = 2 =  −  z =−3 z →−3
z − z − 6 5 z − 3 z + 2 

 1 1
= lim =−
1 1 1 1 z →−3 z +1 2
= ⋅ − ⋅
5 t − 4 5 t +1
(b) By Cauchy’s generalized integral formula
−1
1 1 t  1
= −  1−  − (1− (−t ))
−1
f (z) 2pi ( n )
5  4   4  5 ∫ C (z − a) n +1
dz =
n!
f (a )

1  t t2 t3 
=− 1 + + + +  Here a = 2i, n = 1
20  4 16 64 
f (z) 2pi
−
1
(1− t + t2 − t3 + ) ∫ C ( z − 2i )2
dz =
1!
f’( 2i )
5 \
−2
1 3 13 = 2pi
= − + ( z + 1) − ( z + 1)2 +  ( z + 2i )3 z =2i
4 16 64
−2
z +1 < 1 = 2pi ⋅
( 4i )3
1 1 1 1 −4pi p
f (z) = − = =
5 t−2 5 t +3 −64i 16
−1 −1 1 1 ( z + 2i )2
1  1   t  1 1   −t  he integrand
T = has a
= −  1−  − ⋅ 1−  
(z 2 + 4) ( z − 2i )
2 2
5 2
  
 2  5 3   3 
double pole of z = xi which lies inside C.
1  t t 2 t3 
= − 1 + + + + 
10  2 4 8  C: x2 + (y – 2)2 = 4
1  t t 2 t3  1 1 ( z + 2i )2
− 1− + − +  ∫ dz = ∫ dz
15  3 9 27  C
( z 2 + 4)
2 C ( z − 2i )2

1 1 7
= − − ( z −1) − ( z −1)2 −
6 36 216 7. Prove that all the roots of
(a) 16z5 - z + 8 = 0 lie between the circles
z −1 < 1
1
z = and z = 1;
1 2
6 (a) Find the poles of f (z) =
( z + 1) ( z + 3) (b) z6 - 9z2 + 11 = 0 lie between the circles
and residues at the poles. z = 1 and z = 3 .
Question Papers A-57

Solution
Also, let f (z) = 11, g (z) = z6 - 9z2 f, g Î H ( z ≤ 1)
(a) Let f (z) = 16z5, g (z) = -z + 8
f, g Î H ( z ≤ 1)
6 2
g (z) z +9 z 10
g (z) −z + 8 1 + 8 9 ≤ = < 1; f (z) has no zeros
≤ 5
= = < 1. f (z) 11 11
f (z) 16 z 16 16
inside z = 1
Also, f (z) has 5 zeros By Rouche’s theorem,
By Rouche’s theorem, f (z) = 11, f (z) + g (z) = z6 - 9z2 + 11 have the
f (z) = 16z5 and f (z) + g (z) = 16z5 - z + 8 have the same number of zeros inside the circle z = 1
same number of zeros inside the circle z = 1. But i.e. no zeros inside z = 1
f (z) has 5 zeros.
Hence 16z5 - z + 8 has 5 zeros within the circle All the 6 zeros of z6 - 9z2 + 11 lie between the
\
z = 1. circles z = 1 and z = 3 .
Again f (z) = 8, g (z) = 16z5 - z and f (z) has no
zero 8 (a) Find the image of the region in the z plane
p
1 1 between the lines y = 0 and y = under
5 16 ⋅ 5 + transform w = ez. 2
g ( z ) 16 z + z 2 2 = 1 <1
≤ = (b) Find the bilinear transformation which
f (z) 8 8 8
maps the points (-1, 0, 1) into the points
By Rouche’s theorem, (0, i, 3i).
Solution
f (z) = 8 and f (z) + g (z) = 16z5 - z + 8 have the (a) Please refer to Subsection 8.4.3 in Ch. 8 on
1 pp. 7–8.
same number of zeros inside the circle z =
2 (b) Let the required bilinear transformation be
1
i.e. no zeros inside z =
2 (w − w1 ) (w2 − w3 ) ( z − z1 ) ( z2 − z3 )
= (1)
\ All the 5 zeros of 16z5 - z + 8 = 0 lie between (w − w3 ) (w2 − w1 ) ( z − z3 ) ( z2 − z1 )
1
the circles z = and z = 1. Here w1 = 0; w2 = i; w3 = 3i
2
z1 = -1; z2 = 0; z3 = 1
(b) Let f(z) = z6, g(z) = - 9z2 + 11 Eq. (1) now becomes
where f, g Î H ( z ≤ 3) (w − 0 ) (i − 3i ) ( z + 1) ( 0 −1)
=
2 (w − 3i ) (i − 0 ) ( z −1) ( 0 + 1)
g (z) 9 z + 11 9 ⋅ 32 + 11 92
≤ = = <1
f (z) z
6
36 729 2w z +1
⇒ =
w − 3i z −1
f (z) = z6 has 6 zeros.
By Rouche’s theorem, By componendo-dividendo
f (z) and f (z) + g (z) = z6 - 9z2 + 11 have the same 3w − 3i
z=
number of zeros inside the circle z = 3 i.e. w + 3i
6 zeros inside z = 3 which is the required bilinear transformation.
This page is intentionally left blank.
Bibliography
Churchill, RV and Brown, JW, Complex Variables and Applications, 5th Ed., McGraw Hill, 1990.

Jain, RK and Iyengar, SRK, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa Publishing House, 2006.

Norman Levinson and Raymond M Redheffer, Complex Variables (Holden-Day Inc.), Tata McGraw
Hill, 1980.

Pipes, LA and Harvill, LR, Applied Mathematics for Engineers and Physicists, McGraw Hill, 1970.

B-1
This page is intentionally left blank.
Index
A complex function 2-7–10, 3-1, 5-2, 5-3, 6-1, 6-8, 7-1,
8-1
analytic functions: definition of analyticity 2-9 complex line integral 4-1–4, 4-16, 4-17
properties of 2-11, 4-1 definition of 4-3
evaluation of 4-4, 4-16,
B antiderivative (indefinite integral) method 4-4
Bessel functions 1-29–37 parametric representation method 4-4
differential equation reducible to Bessel’s complex sequence 5-1
equation 1-35 conditions for conformality 8-2
expansion of sine and cosine terms 1-37 conformal mapping by elementary function 8-3
generating functions for 1-32 general linear transformation 8-3
integrals of 1-36 identity transformation 8-3
of half-integral order 1-34 rotation transformation 8-4
of order zero and one 1-30 stretching, scaling or magnification 8-4
of the second order 1-29, 1-32 translation transformation 8-3
orthogonality 1-35, 1-36 conformal mapping 8-1–3, 8-11, 8-17
orthogonal set, orthonormal set 1-35 connected set 2-7, 4-2
recurrence relations of 1-33 continuity at z0 2-7
beta function 1-1, 1-6–10 contour 1-10, 4-1–3, 4-18, 4-20, 4-22, 6-1, 6-8–13,
Euler’s integral of the first kind 1-6 6-15, 6-17, 6-20, 6-22–27, 6-29–33
integral of circular functions 1-8, 1-10
bilinear or Mobius or linear fractional D
transformation 8-17, 8-18, 8-26
differentiability 2-8, 2-11, 2-12, 3-1
boundary point of a set 2-7
Dirichlet’s integral 1-14, 1-15
bounded set 2-7
domain 1-13, 1-14, 2-7, 2-9–11, 2-19, 2-25, 4-1, 4-2,
4-4, 4-6, 4-13–18, 4-22, 4-23, 5-1, 5-9, 6-2, 6-5, 7-1,
C 7-3–5, 8-1
Cartesian coordinates 2-3, 2-9, 3-1, 8-5, 8-6
Cauchy–Goursat theorem 4-13, 4-14 E
Cauchy–Riemann equations in polar coordinates 2-10
exponential function 1-3, 1-4, 3-1–3, 3-7, 3-10, 4-18,
alternative method 2-11
5-4, 8-11
Cauchy–Riemann equations 2-9, 2-10, 2-11, 2-16,
periodicity of ez 3-2
2-17, 2-25, 3-1, 4-13, 4-14,
fundamental region of ez 3-3
Cauchy’s generalised integral formula 4-1, 4-22–25,
4-29, 4-30, 6-3, 7-4
F
Cauchy’s residue theorem 6-1, 6-5, 6-9, 6-15, 6-19–21,
6-23, 6-24, 6-26, 6-28, 6-30–32, 7-1 fixed points of a transformation 8-18, 8-25, 8-26
closed curve 4-1, 4-2, 4-13–15, 4-20–23, 4-25, 5-9, cross-ratio of four points 8-19
5-18, 7-1–3, 7-5 formulas for residues at poles 6-3

I-1
I-2 Index

formulas for residues at poles (Cont’d) Frobenius method 1-17

residue at a pole of order m 6-4 regular and singular points 1-16
residue at simple pole 6-3 generating function for Legendre polynomials
Pn(x) 1-21
G Laplace’s first integral for Pn(x) 1-25, 1-26
Laplace’s second integral for Pn(x) 1-26
gamma function 1-1–3, 1-9, 1-12, 1-14 Legendre polynomials Pn(x) 1-18, 1-20, 1-21,
Euler’s integral of the second kind 1-1 1-23, 1-26–28
geometrical representation of complex numbers Rodrigues’ formula for Legendre polynomials
2-3 Pn(x) 1-20
orthogonality of functions 1-23, 1-35
H orthogonality of Legendre polynomials
higher derivatives of analytic functions 5-18 P n(x) 1-23
hyperbolic functions 3-1, 3-5–7, 3-10, 3-11, 5-4, 7-1 power series method 1-15–17
relation between complex trigonometric and recurring relations of Legendre functions 1-21
hyperbolic functions 3-6, 3-7 Legendre’s duplication formula 1-10
limit of a function 2-7
I Liouville theorem 7-4
logarithm 1-4, 1-16, 3-1, 3-7, 3-8, 3-10, 3-11, 3-15,
improper integrals involving trigonometric 5-4, 8-11
functions 6-23
integer powers: DeMoivre’s formula 2-5
M
interior point of a set S 2-6
open set 2-6 maximum modulus theorem for analytic functions
2π
integrals of the type ∫ F (cos θ,sin θ ) dθ 6-8 7-4
0
∞
Milne–Thomson’s method 2-12, 2-19, 2-22–25
ML-inequality 4-18, 6-15, 6-16, 6-28, 7-4, 7-5
integrals of the type ∫ f ( x )dx 6-14
Morera’s theorem 4-23
−∞
interior point of a set S 2-6 multiplication and division in polar form 2-5
inverse hyperbolic functions 3-10, 3-11 multiplication formula 1-10
inverse trigonometric functions 3-10 multiply-connected domain 4-2, 4-14, 6-5
inversion transformation 8-4
O
J
open set 2-6, 4-2
Jordan’s lemma 6-24–26, 6-28 orthogonal trajectories 2-17, 2-18
applications of 6-25
Joukowski airfoil 8-12
P
L path independence 4-4
polar coordinates 1-3, 2-10, 2-11, 8-6, 8-12, 8-13
Laplace’s equation: harmonic and conjugate harmonic polar form of complex numbers, powers and roots
functions 2-19 2-4
exact differential method using CREs 2-19 poles on the real axis (indentation) 6-28
Milne–Thomson’s method 2-19, 2-22, 2-23–25 integration around rectangular/sectorial
Laurent’s series 5-1, 5-9–17, 5-19, 6-3, 6-4, 6-13 contours 6-32
Legendre functions 1-15, 1-17, 1-21 power series 1-16, 1-17, 5-2, 5-3
Betrami’s result 1-24 circle of convergence 5-2
Christoffel’s expansion 1-24 convergence of power series in a disk 5-2
expansion of f (x) in a series of Legendre radius of convergence 5-2
polynomials 1-26, 1-28 region of convergence 5-2
Index I-3

R zeros of cos z and sin z 3-5

types of singularities 6-1, 6-2
recurrence relation or reduction formula 1-1
the generalised factorial function 1-1 essential 6-2
relation between beta and gamma functions 1-9 singularity at infinity 6-2
relation between real and complex line isolated 6-1, 6-2
integrals 4-4 non-isolated 6-1, 6-2
Rouche’s theorem 7-1, 7-3, 7-4, 7-6, 7-7, 7-10
removable 6-2
S
U
simple curve 4-1
uniform convergence of a series of functions 5-2
simply-connected domain 4-2, 4-4, 4-13, 4-16, 4-18,
4-22, 5-3
W
smooth curve or arc 4-1
Weierstrass’s M-test 5-3
T
Z
Taylor’s theorem 5-3, 5-7–9, 6-3
trigonometric functions 3-3, 3-5, 3-10, 6-23, 7-1 zeros and singularities 6-1

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Engineering Mathematics Volume III

Uploaded by

Engineering Mathematics Volume III

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Engineering

Chennai • Delhi • Chandigarh

5. Complex Power Series 7.5 Rouche’s Theorem 7-3

Question Bank A-1

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-1 — #1

algebraic and transcendental functions xn , an xn , = pŴ(p), [JNTU 2003S] (1.2)

The gamma function, denoted by Ŵ(p), is defined by Ŵ(2) = 1Ŵ(1) = 1 = 1! ∵ Ŵ(1) = 1

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-2 — #2

1-2 Engineering Mathematics III

1.3.2 Some Standard Results

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-3 — #3

Special Functions 1-3

∂(x, y) cos θ −r sin θ Z 1

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-4 — #4

1-4 Engineering Mathematics III

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-5 — #5

Special Functions 1-5

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-6 — #6

1-6 Engineering Mathematics III

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-7 — #7

Special Functions 1-7

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-8 — #8

1-8 Engineering Mathematics III

Solution Beta function is defined by 1.6.6 Form VI: Integral of Circular

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-9 — #9

Special Functions 1-9

Solution 1.6.8 Form VIII: Beta Function in

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-10 — #10

1-10 Engineering Mathematics III

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-11 — #11

Special Functions 1-11

Put q = p, we get pŴ(p)Ŵ(q) + qŴ(p)Ŵ(q)

B(p, q) = B(p + 1, q) + B(p, q + 1) Example 1.14

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-12 — #12

1-12 Engineering Mathematics III

The limits are x = 0 ⇒ y = 0; 1 −5 1

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-13 — #13

Special Functions 1-13

When x → 0, θ → 0 and when x → 2, θ → . Solution We know that

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-14 — #14

1-14 Engineering Mathematics III

Solution Let y + z = 1 − x = a, then z ≤ a − y

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-15 — #15

Special Functions 1-15

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-16 — #16

1-16 Engineering Mathematics III

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-17 — #17

Special Functions 1-17

But xp(x) = 1 and x2 q(x) = x2 − p2 are analytic at y(x) = ar xr (1.19)

2x ′ n(n + 1) r(r − 1)ar · xr − · · · − 2 · 1a1 x − 2 · 2a2 x2 − · · ·

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-18 — #18

1-18 Engineering Mathematics III

(r + 2)(r + 1)ar+2 + [−r(r − 1) − 2r 1.10.5 Legendre Polynomials Pn (x)

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-19 — #19

Special Functions 1-19

n(n − 1) n(n − 1) (2n)! ∞

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-20 — #20

1-20 Engineering Mathematics III

We obtain a solution of Eq. (1.17) as 1

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-21 — #21

Special Functions 1-21

which is Legendre’s differential equation having where u = 2xt − t 2 .

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-22 — #22

1-22 Engineering Mathematics III

From these we have, on multiplying the first by t Rewriting RR1 as

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-23 — #23

Special Functions 1-23

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-24 — #24

1-24 Engineering Mathematics III

Squaring both sides we have (2n − 1)Pn−1 =Pn′ − Pn−2

P02 (x) + t 2 P12 (x) + t 4 P22 (x) + · · · + 2[tP0 (x)P1 (x) ′ ′

Equating the coefficients of t 2n on both sides, we 1.10.11 Christoffel’s Expansion

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-25 — #25

Special Functions 1-25

= 3 · [P3 (x)P2 (y) − P3 (y)P2 (x)] ⇒π n

“EngMathÿIII_ÿChÿ1” — 2010/7/8 — 16:25 — page 1-26 — #26

5. Complex Power Series 7.5 Rouche’s Theorem 7-3