REF. NO.

TU/ENG/LS-Y1S1
REV. DATE 04-11-2015

MECHANICAL/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME

FLOW MEASURING APPARATUS

SAFETY REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS

Students performing experimental work in the Engineering laboratory must follow and
abide by the following safety regulations and guidelines. Students must complete a safety
declaration form before they are allowed to work in the laboratory.

GENERAL

• Students are not allowed to enter the laboratory without the permission of the lecturer
or laboratory assistant.
• Unauthorized experimental work in the laboratory is strictly
forbidden.
• Prior to the use of laboratory out of timetabled periods, students must apply for usage
from relevant laboratory staff.
• Students are not allowed to work alone in the laboratory.
• Bags and books must not be left on benches or on stools and should be placed
in designated area. Do not block passageways or fire exits.
• All working spaces must always be kept clean.
• Long hair, ties, jewellery and clothing must never be allowed to hang loose, since any
of these items can easily become entangled in the moving parts of machinery, and hence
cause serious injury.
• Suitable clothing must be worn; long trousers or jeans are recommended for boys
and dresses, slacks or jeans for girls. In particular, sleeveless t-shirts and sleeveless
blouses are prohibited.
• Students must wear covered footwear during laboratory and workshop sessions.
Sandals, open-toed shoes, slippers or similar footwear are prohibited. Students may
be refused entry to the laboratory or workshop if not in proper footwear.
• Storage and/or consumption of food and drink, smoking and the application of
cosmetics in the laboratory are not allowed.
• Indiscipline in the laboratory or workshop (e.g. whistling, horseplay etc.) will not
be tolerated.
• No reagent, solution or apparatus is to be removed from the laboratory without
approval from the lecturer.
• Do not pour waste down the sink unless authorized to do so by your
lecturer.
• Defective equipment or broken glassware must be reported to the lecturer or lab
assistant.
• Do not run in the laboratory or along corridors. Exercise care when opening and
closing doors on entering and leaving the laboratory.
• Laboratory doors must be kept closed at all times during practical
classes.

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OBJECTIVES:
1. To demonstrate the characteristics of several different commonly used methods of
measuring fluid flow rates.
2. To determine the head losses associated with each flow measuring methods.

APPARATUS:
1) Flow measuring apparatus,
2) Volumetric Hydraulic Bench/Water, and
3) Stop Watch.

1. INTRODUCTION

The flow measuring apparatus is designed to accustom students to typical methods of

measuring the discharge of incompressible fluid, whilst at the same time giving applications
of the Steady Flow Energy Equation (Bernoulli's Equation). The discharge is determined
using a venturi meter, an orifice plate meter and a rotameter. Head losses associated with
each meter are determined and compared as well as those arising in a rapid enlargement and a
90-degree elbow. The unit is designed for use with the Hydraulic Bench, which provides the
necessary liquid service and gravimetric evaluation of flow rate.

2. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
Figure 1 shows the Flow Measuring Apparatus. Water from the Hydraulic Bench enters the
equipment through a venturi meter, which consists of a gradually-converging section,
followed by a throat, and a long gradually-diverging section. After a change in cross-section
through a rapidly diverging section, the flow continues along a settling length and through an
orifice plate meter. This is manufactured in accordance with BS1042 from a plate with a hole
of reduced diameter through which the fluid flows.
Following a further settling length and a right-angled bend, the flow enters the rotameter.
This consists of a transparent tube in which a float takes up an equilibrium position. The
position of this float is a measure of the flow rate.
After the rotameter, the water returns via a control valve to the Hydraulic Bench and the
weighing tank. The equipment has nine pressure tapings as detailed in Fig. 2; each of which
is connected to its own manometer for immediate read out.

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Figure 1. Flow Measuring Apparatus.

Figure 2. Explanatory diagram of flow measuring apparatus.

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3. BACKGROUND
An effective way to measure the flowrate through a pipe is to place some type of restriction
within the pipe and measure the pressure difference between the low-velocity, high-pressure
upstream section (1) and the high-velocity, low-pressure downstream section (2) as shown in
Fig. 3. So the principle is “an increase in velocity results in a decrease in pressure” as the
famous Bernoulli’s equation states.

Figure 3. The steady-flow energy equation.

For steady, adiabatic flow of an incompressible fluid along a stream tube shown in Fig. 3,
Bernoulli's equation can be written in the form:

p1 V1 2 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + H 12 (1)
g 2 g g 2 g

where p/g is the hydrostatic head.

V 2 / 2g is the dynamics head ( V is the mean velocity i.e. the ratio of
volumetric discharge to cross-sectional area of tube).
z is potential head.
p / g + V 2 / 2 g + z represents the total head.

The head loss H12 is created due to the viscous media. Because the flow is viscous a wall
shear stress then exists and a pressure force must be applied to overcome it. Also, because the
flow is viscous, the velocity profile at any section is non-uniform. The specific kinetic energy
(k.E per unit mass) at any section is then greater than V 2 / 2g and Bernoulli's equation
incorrectly assesses this term. The fluid mechanics entailed in all but the very simplest
internal flow problems is too complex to permit the head loss H to be obtained by other
than experiment means. Since a contraction of stream boundaries can be shown (with
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incompressible fluids) to increase flow uniformity and a divergence correspondingly

decreases it, H is typically negligibly small between the ends of a contracting duct but is
normally significant when the duct walls diverge.

Principle of Rotameter
The cause of the pressure difference is the head loss associated with the high velocity of
water around the float periphery. Since this head loss is constant then the peripheral velocity
is constant. To maintain a constant velocity with varying discharge rate, the cross-sectional
area through which this high velocity occurs must vary. This variation of cross-sectional area
will arise as the float moves up and down the tapered rotameter tube.

From Fig. 4, if the float radius is Rf and the local bore of the rotameter tube is 2Rt then,

 (Rt2 − R 2f ) = 2R f  = Cross sectional area

= Discharge / Constant peripheral velocity

Now  = l, where l is the distance from datum to the cross section at which the local bore is
Rt and  is the semi-angle of tube taper. Hence, l is proportional to discharge. An
approximately linear calibration characteristic would be anticipated for the rotameter.

Figure 4. Principle of the rotameter.

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4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
a) Close the apparatus valve fully then open it by 1/3 open with the air purge closed.
b) Switch on the bench and slowly open its valve until the water starts to flow, allow the
apparatus to fill with water then continue to open the bench valve until it is fully open.
c) Close the apparatus valve fully.
d) Couple the hand pump to the purge valve and pump down until all the manometers read
approximately 280 mm.
e) Dislodge entrained air from the manometers by gentle tapping with the fingers.
f) Check that the water levels are constant. A steady rise in levels will be seen if the purge
valve is leaking.
g) Open the apparatus valve until the rotameter shows a reading of about 10 mm. When a
steady flow is maintained measure the flow with the Hydraulic Bench as outlined in Fig. 2.
h) During this period, record the readings of the manometers in a table of the form of Fig. 5.
i) Repeat this procedure for a number of equidistant values of rotameter readings up to a
maximum of approximately 220 mm.

5. RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

1) Calculations of Discharge
The venturi meter, the orifice meter and the rotameter are all dependent upon Bernoulli’s
equation for their principal of operation.

a) Venturi meter
Since H12 is negligibly small between the ends of a contracting duct, the z terms, can be
omitted from Eq. (1) between stations (A) and (B).

From continuity, V A A A = V B AB (2)

The discharge, Q = ABVB (m3/s)

1
 2g  PA PB  2
= AB  
2 
−  (3)
1 − ( AB / AA )  g g 

Taking the density of water as 1000 kg/m3, the mass flow rate will be,

1
 2g  PA PB  2
m = 1000  AB   − 
1 − ( AB / AA )
(kg/s) (4)
 g g 
2

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Figure 5. Form of results table.

Manometric levels (mm) Water m(k/s) H/inlet kinetic head

Rota- Rota-
mass Time Weigh Rota-
Test meter Venturi Orifice meter Venturi* Orifice Diffuser Elbow
A B C D E F G H I m t (s) tank meter
No. (cm) (4) (8) Calibration (10)/(11) (12)/(13) (18)/(19) (21)/(22)
(kg) m/t (15)/(16)
curve

* Numbers between brackets refer to the equation numbers

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b) Orifice Meter
From Fig. 6 between tapping (E) and (F), H12 in Eq. (1) is by no means negligible.
Rewriting the equation with the appropriate symbols

V F2 V E2  PE PF 
− = −  − H 12
2 g 2 g  g g 
(5)

i.e. the effect of the head loss is to make the difference in manometric height (hE-hF) less than
it would otherwise be.

An alternative expression is

VF2 VE2 P P 
− = K 2  E − F  (6)
2g 2g  g g 

where the coefficient of discharge, K, is given by previous experience in BS1042 (1943) for
the particular geometry of the orifice meter. For the apparatus provided K is given as 0.601.

The expression for the discharge of the orifice meter can be obtained in exactly the same way
as for venturi meter,

The discharge, Q = AFVF

1
 2g  PE PF  2
 Q = KAF   −  (7)
1 − ( AF / AE )  g g 
2

Again the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, the mass flow rate will be

1
 2g  PE PF  2
m = 1000  KAF   −  (kg/s) (8)
1 − ( AF / AE )  g g 
2

Figure 6. Construction of the orifice meter.

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c) Rotameter
The mass flow rate is plotted as a function of rotameter scale reading as shown in Fig. 7. An
approximate linear calibration characteristic would be anticipated.

Rotameter Calibration curve

0.6
Mass flow rate (kg/s)

0.5

0.4

0.3
y = 0.02x + 0.0131
0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

Rotameter scale reading (cm)

Figure 7. Typical rotameter calibration curve.

2) Calculations of Head Loss

By reference to Eq. (1) the dimensionless head loss associated with each meter can be
evaluated.

a) Venturi meter
Applying the equation between pressure tappings (A) and (C), the head loss is expressed as;
PA PC
− = H AC (9)
g g
i.e. hA − hC = H AC (10)

This can be made dimensionless by dividing it by the inlet kinetic head, VA2 / 2 g
2
VA2  AB   1  PA PB 
Thus =   
2 
−  (11)
2 g  AA  1 − ( AB / AA )  g g 

b) Orifice Meter
Applying Eq. (1) between (E) and (F) by substituting kinetic and hydrostatic heads would
give an elevated value to the head loss for the meter. This is because at an obstruction such as
an orifice plate, there is a small increase in pressure on the pipe wall due to part of the impact
pressure on the plate being conveyed to the pipe wall. BS1042 (Section 1.1.1981) gives an
approximate expression for finding the head loss and generally this can be taken as 0.83 times
the measured head difference.
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Therefore H EF = 0.83(hE − hF ) (mm) (12)

The orifice plate diameter is approximately twice the venturi inlet diameter, therefore the
orifice inlet kinetic head is approximately 1/16 that of the venturi.

VE2 1 V A2
Thus = (13)
2 g 16 2 g

The dimensionless head loss can be calculated by dividing it by the inlet kinetic head of
orifice meter which is based on the venturi's inlet kinetic head.

c) Rotameter
For this meter, application of Eq. (1) gives

 PH  P 
 + z H  −  I + z I  = H HI (14)
 g   g 

Then as shown in Fig. 8:

hH − hI = H HI (15)

Figure 8. Rotameter head loss.

Since the connecting tube has a 26 mm bore the inlet kinetic head is as it is with the venturi meter.

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VH2 V A2
Thus = (16)
2g 2g
d) Wide-Angled Diffuser
The inlet to the diffuser may be considered to be at (C) and the outlet at (D).
Applying Eq. (1),

PC VC2 PD VD2
+ = + + H CD (17)
g 2 g g 2 g

hC − h D = H CD (18)

Since the area ratio, inlet to outlet, of the diffuser is 1:4, the outlet kinetic head is one–
sixteenth of the venturi's inlet kinetic head.

VC2 1 V A2
Thus = (19)
2 g 16 2 g

e) Right-Angled Bend
The inlet to the bend is at (G) where the pipe bore is 51 mm and outlet is at (H) where the
bore is 26 mm. Applying Eq. (1);

PG VG2 PH VH2
+ = + + H GH (20)
g 2 g g 2 g

hG − h H = H GH (21)

The outlet kinetic head is now approximately sixteen times the venturi's inlet kinetic head.

VG2 V A2
Thus = 16 (22)
2g 2g

6. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Comment on the fluid discharge, head loss of various methods of measuring fluid flow rate.

REFERENCES:
1. Massey, B.S. (1989). Mechanics of Fluids. 6th Ed, Chapman & Hall.
2. White F.M. (1994). Fluid Mechanics. 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill.
3. Van Dyke M. (1982). An Album of Fluid Motion. Parabolic Press.
4. Coulson, J.M.; and Richardson, J.F. Chemical Engineering, Volume 1., 6th Ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann.

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Last updated on 4/11/2015 by Dr Nassir