1.

7 Me mo ry - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- ~ o u
- - - - - -- ~ - -- - -- - - - - - -- - - ds a faci lity for sto ring the unproces_~:loc a t i
• Any s~·ste m whi ch proc esse s dig ital dat a nee The c
process ed and complet ely process ed dat a.
sto re all the abo ve mentioned dr.An d 1
• A sub sys tem of s uch digi tal processi ng sys tem whi ch can
The n
as m em ory . larg e
• Ear lier the rnem ory used to be of magn etic type.
1.10 Expanding the Memo~ Size .
~ . • vailable ,nemory chip is n ot. s uffi cient. Jfr-n, ,.
1
In ma ny applica tions the ca pae1ty of th~ smg e_ a . lied ex ans ion of rne m ory. '"'
1
to increase it by us ing more than on e chips. Th.1s s ca P
The memory expans ion can be of foJlowing two types:
1. Expansion of word size. (increase in N).
2. Expanding the word capacity (increa se in M ).

.10.1 Expanding the Word Size

1-Ier e we want n word size "n" which is greater than the word s ize ''N" of th e a v ai la hi e memory d , ,
For exam.ple convers ion of 16 x 4- memory into a 16 x 8 memory will require expans io n of w,,,~"
fro1n 4 to 8.
Note that number of words M = 16 remains constant.
The foJlowing example explains the word size expansion process.

1.10.1 : A 16 x 4 size memory is available. Expand its word size so as to obtain a 16 x 8 memory•
n.
:p 1 : Decide number of memory chips
If the required word size is denoted by "n" and the available word size is denoted by ~ , lh~-
oumber of I Cs required is an integer given by,
Number of I Cs, X > n/N.
Here n = 8 and N = 4 hence X = 2. We have to use 2 ICs, each with a capacity 16 x 4.
• 2 : Connections
Since the number of locations does not change (16), the number of address lines will not change ;·
be equal to 4, and they will be common to both the memory !Cs.
As the word size is to be expanded, we will use the data lines of IC-2 as the MSB lines ( D 7• D,.., f;
whereas the data lines of IC-I will be used as LSB lines (D3 , D 2, D 1, D0 ).
 11 ,Cla ssif icat ion and Cha ract eris tics of Mem orie s
t ..,,
eters used as
The mem ory devices can be classified, on the basis of vario us param eters. The param
is of classificati on a re a s follows :
(1) Principle of op era ti on (2) Phys ical chara cteris tics
(3 ) Mode of acces s (4) Technology used for fabrication
\
e',12 · Clas sific atio n Bas ed on Prin cipl e of Ope ratio n
1.12.1.
The class ificat ion of mem ories based on the principle of opera tion is show n in Fig.
 - • A
1.15 Random Access Memory (RAM)
• \\ ·c know that RA..\1 is a memory that can be read as well as written .
• R..A..\f is a volatile memory so it loses the stored data when power is turned off.
Types of RAM
There are two t ypes of RAM :
, 1J Static RAM. (2 ) Dynamic RAM.
1.16 Static RAM (SRAM)
• It is possible to imple ment the static RAM us ing the bipolar as well as MOS technoh~
• It is possible to s tore data as Jong as power is applied to the chip.
 Introduction to Microprocessor (UPTU)
1-22 In troduction to Mieroi,. ,,
• Th.is EPROM there is a quartz lid or window ()n the pa ~ e.
, . Pl'OM b}' exposi ng it to the u ltrav1olet ( UV) w.,, ~
• We co n er ase t,11s '- •
light through the quartz wind<>w.

• The exposure period should be JO to 15 minutes . 0

Note that ihc UV rays will erase al l the ceUs at time and a ll the
• Fig. 1.13.l : UV EPRO.\f
locations in the eras!!d EPROM will store a 1.

Disadvantages

l. Selective eras ing is not possible to achieve. All the locations get erased.
2. The EPROM has lo be removed from the socket and put in the eraser for eras i:ng.

1. 13.3 Volatile or Non-volatile Memories

Volatile Memory
If the informa tion stored in a memory chip is lost when the electrical power is s witched OF'F, lh-
memory is c-nllcd as volatile memory. RAM is a volatile memory.
Non-volatile Memory
• ff the information once stored in memory chip does not change unJess altered delibera tely are -
as non-volatile memory. 1j
• Such memories can hold the information even alter switching off the power s upply . Read
memories (RO Ms) of a.II types are examples of non-volatile memory.

1.14 Read Only Memory (ROM}

• We know that the information stored in a ROM is of permanent nature. I t can be only read and
written.
• Following advantages make the ROM a n important part of many digital systems :
(1) Low cost
(2) High speed
(3) Flexibility i.o system design.
(4) ROM is a nonvolatile memory.
1.14.1 Appllcatlons of ROM

Some of the important applicatio!lS of ROM a.r e:

• For implementation of combinational circuits.
• For implementation of sequential circuits.
• In character generation.
• Look up tables.
• Storage of microprocessor program.
• Suitable for the LSI manufacturing process.
1.14.2 ROM Manufacturing

• The t:ech11ologies used for ROM man ufacturing are:

I. Bipolar Technology and
2. MOS technology
• Bipolar ROMs a.re faster and they have higher driving cnpabilitv wherea.~ M -
area and consume less power. The improved MOS ROM h . . OS ROMs req u1rt"
to those of bipolar devices). s ave iniproved speeds I typically e<Jui,J
 ROM

S.polar ROM MOSROMs

1 l l l l
Mask programmable PROM M11sk PROM EPROM
ROM programmable
ROM
1
EEPROM
Fig.LI-ti : ROJ\I classifi culion

The important information regarding the RO~ls is as given below ·

ROM
♦

:\tas k Programmable Programmable ROM Erasable

ROM Programmable PROM
In this. dat.a paltem l l This device is electrically ll In Ll11s. menwry d11ta
mu stt be program.med al' programmable. Here user cu n be written any
a part of manufacturing can pr0b'Ta ro the chip. number of ti me~
process. Norma.Uy PROM are OTP
(one time programmable!.
~l ~ot reprog-ramm ab le. 2) Not reprogra mma ble. 2) Chip can be erased by I
I exposinJ? it U> UV rays
called El'ROM OR it
can be electri cally
erased referred a."
EEPROM rE2 PROMI.
3) Normally s h.ifted for 3) Normally used for 3) This is used when one
high volume usage due production purpose. wan is to develop
to low cost. d igital computer
system.

4.3 ROM Organization

A ROM is an array of selectively unid irectional contacts. The contacts can be open or closed sclect1,·el~
to program the required information into a ROM.
A 16-bil ROM array is shown in Fig. 1.14.2. II uses Lwo 2 - 4 addrei,s decoders. 16 locntaon.~ :ind 1-d:u.n
outpui. So t'his is a 16 x 1 ROM.
The mel.bod of addressing is called as two dimens ional. X - Y or coincident select ion. nddn.-ssm"
A unidirectional switch is included at th e junction of every row and colum n.
The lower tv.•o add ress bits (A 1 A 0 ) a re dL>coded by the dernder 0 1_. The output:< uf th, ~ dl-codt'r sr,e u.,,.J
to select one out of the four rows.
The high two address bits ("'1 A) a re dewded by the dt' codt'r Dw Tht:> four oulpu ll' of th1 ~ llc'Cnd rr 1tn•
used to select. one out of th e four column sense nm plifil'rs.
 I ,>II

t,')11 ,-h ,11,.ltt" I'\" 1·1111 11111 1,,, wo•ol 11, ., 1 tt111l 0 111 11 , , ' " " 11 ,. , 111 111 , l"M •• 111 . , It \ \ I 1 ,., I"
t.'l\ ,,,
'l'h ,· .,,· I • ,, ,. 111 tlni; h nw, unn , h q1 ..,-,, 11 1µ1111111•, I 111 111 h 1 "' I\ , h 11 ,1,,., ,. 111 ti , f'r tuut
m · 1 , 111 ,1 111 •111 ~h · 111 111 n ll ni<h l l1 •n1 •· 11 , 11 11 11 111 1 " Fl1111h M1 ·m11n

1 » I t,· h 11 1,111 n , llt•d ltowlt•r N111'1lh1•1111 t 11 n,wll tt,II( t 11 ~,'il for ,•r 1 m 1,1 t h, ' ""'' nt•
1 11
• " ,,,, I ' 111'1•· I ll nw,h l\lt •n 1111 1 11r1• htl{lo ~ P l '"' ' l,w llfWl \1 11111,t " ''' ljff' I\ '""' , . ,.. ;,r

, d ·q I

.,,,q, ... 1 •m o i RAM and RO~

l .,1,11 I •• l
1· lu\M IU 1\1
8,,.
l:,·,11h111,1 uni ,
I''' ,11" .s l 11 n 1i.:1• qq t•,inn ul ••nl
:,-- I• \ I , It' ' , , l'HI >~I. 1- l 'ltl 1'.I ~:I• 1•1(11 \1

' O ., ,,,ut a nd Output Devices

t\ pp lirnl 11111
I l ' 11 lr 11l1110 1
('11 111 Jlll l• •r
I 'nm p11l• r-1. 1111, rup, 1>t, ""' r

111 1•111. • ,ll pu1 ck vi1:p,- 111·, • llll·nn,i. th n 111µh " '" 1 It•• 1111 , •11r,,. ,,.. ,1r 111111 , 11111n11111..-11•,.. • th ,tar
••u t ,1d, world
Tlw mir n .>l"l>t:1•:t:-tor unit 11 Ct'1•p111 1111' fi n' 1/ m l r-111 ·1,,111 ,, Ir 111 h, 111101• ,t,
C(11l\"t•r1<' r l'l, ,1111I • • d.s lh l· t'l'!<l.llt io fllll p ttl '"' ' " ' a Uil,1• I I 1 )
Th,•n • nn · ti,f;,., ·' , • n <li; h., · w htl'h t hr• I'll ,1,.,, , ~, ,
,r1111< r (
,1,fi,.,I t
,r· • •J!! Ids., knvt• '1rtl

, ,, ~11,...1 ,_, .,. ;. b.t

\/ U

, ddn-
whd1• ot hc-r •l "-l' r. 1,: ,,. ld rt•R.~ Tlwy 111'1 '
t:l l nrnppt.'CI l/0 111 11•·1 , r.1I rnapp,·d 1/()
:-.1.. 111 nry mupp<.•il 1 ·11
UO mapped VO (Peripheral Mapped UO)
In 1hi;. type of 1/0. thl' mic ropnx·C's:•or unit lll<L'i< l'l)!hl n rl1l n, luw , 111 1d1•n 11 rv II m1ou• "' ttU ' pu
d, •1· i ..·1•.
lt 1i; nn R bit numbcrin~ 11y1Ht•111 for l/ Os 11/ll"d i11 ronjunr1wn w 11!i 1h,• mput 1ml ,natf•"I 111•tn,("\
11 1.s nll'o rnllcd as 1/0 i"pncc II i:; di lforcnl frum nwmor,v i< prw ,• , , ., \Ii h11 numho•nn11 • .,_,,
Th i' l'1ght ndclres." lim•,a hnv .., 'J. = 256 cuml11 nnti11n1, of 111lil n ·--••, n111•, th,• nu,, ..,,,.. , ... n~ ,
0

1dl'nt1(v 256 1/ 0 devices with 11ddrc1111 rnnge:; rnn1t1n)I: from llO I I to FFII
> Mappt>d 1/0 11/0 Port Addn•ss ing]
In 1h1s case the 1/0 devir1• is trl'nled u,; 1/0 1k•v1c,• only
Each 1/0 dev ice uses ciJ,:hl hits nf 11dtlr1'!III lin,·• nml no111 rnl "111 n , l• lt1R Input 1u • pu\ .,..
fTTW tJ nput uu tpu l writt- l
Tlw acldresh bus tJf 80Hf, rni,·rup ro1:1•RS11r ,,. of 16 lHt.,, . hut h,r l '( I d, , 1u ,,111 - I I I U;Oal 'I.

t 1, 1rnpll'llll'lll I hu, t ho• Ii ltit odd rt'& 1R 1r11n1<l1•rn'(I 0 11 l,mh otl,lr• ,, 11r"\I I" •• \ 1, \ I I \ \
Th,• 1:un1e11l.!l 11v1.u lohl1• an• 1m nw . ~o 1111•• 1·.111 " " ' ,111~ 11111· i;rnup I I ' \ 11 \ \ ' \.
()f IJ1 c two ,::ruu pi,
I ..<·I u s r ons id1•r II n ••x11111pl1• , f 111 Id r,.,... 111 Iii J ti, ,. 11 • • • :,n 11

"li u.- ~un t,·11 Ls t r1111,., l,•rr1•d 1111 ,\u 1,, A" " , 11 I• 11 ft1 l lt•"

A, , \, \,
A 1•, i\11 A1 .I\ I.' A 11 A ,, \ \, \ \ \
'
II l) I)
u 0 (I 0 (I

:,0 11 '\JI II
 ~ on 10 M,croprocesSOf (UPTU) lntr0tlucll1111 to Mlcroprocossor
A PROM can be progrnmm.-<l nnly one,• nficr 11.S li1hr11·nt i,111 Al\,•r prnt,: rn 111111i11i,: I lw runt ,•nt~ will
1.iccomc pcnnnoenlly li:,.ed in th!' ROM.
t,~ The PROM!' Art' mnnufoct urt:>d without any Jnta ,:t,,n•d 1111111 1lw111 11!11•_1 11n· hln ull I
_.bte and programmable RO M

A,: till' nnme ,:ugi:,:,st.~. thr;1e HOM,: con ht, ,·rns,-<I fmd prui;rrnmnwtl ui:nm 11ml ai,:11i11.
Thr commonly Ul'ed techniqu1'1' fnr 1•rnsi11i,: nr,• ns li•llnws :
1 11 Era,:;ing ll!;int,: ultr1wwl,· t rndinlion .
121 Em:-inJ! usinJ! olrc tri ciLy.
The rrnsable pmgrammnblc ROl\'t us inµ ultrtwillh•t ,•rnsi ni: is rnll,•d 11:: l~l'tlO M .
Ar,d th!' ROM that U!1es thP clcrt.ric:il ,·ol~lt,:P for c r11s ini,: ii: known 11,: 1•l1•<·t rk111ly 11lt,1•r11 bl1• HOM
<EAROMl .
)f.

j ~ 12.4 content Accessable Memories ( CAM )

It is a ~pccial type of RAM.
It can perform assoc iation operation in a ddition to thu rend/w rit.,• 111wr:1ti11n,: pl•rfornu·<l h_v th,·
conventional memories.

Classification Based on Physical Characteristics

-.13
'
The das:;ilicat ion has l•d on Lhc physical l'lrnrnrte ri,;t.ics as ,:hown i11 Fi~. 1.1::I. I.

8 '-'<t_ Memories
.M I
l
Vol111tle or
Erasable or
non erasable non vo11111te
Fig. I. LU : C(a>;;!,ifkat iun hast-d 1111 11hysk11l r h11ntrh'rislks

.13.1 Erasable or Non-e rasable Memories

l lll; An e rasable memory is tha t in which Lhe ,;tored information cnn he crnscd ond ne w informal inn can
be stored.
The infonnaLion stored in the non -ernsal>le me mory ca nnot be c rn:scd. For cxmnplc HOM is u non-
:omp orns11ble memory.
The e rasable me mories can be further catei:orised in Lwn cln,;scs as follows :
(1 ) Location-by-localion e rasable mmnories.
on rr
(21 All locations s imult1rneo11sly crni:able.

>Cation by location erasable memories

In this type. the desired memory locations can be e rased one by one and the n the ne w information i;;
stored.
EAR0M, RAM and CAM are the examples of location-by-location tinisnble memory.
In EAROM, t he contents o f !he location s hould be e rased first before cntorini: the new informution.
Howeve r in RAM and CA.M. e rasing operation i,- performed automatically when n new informa tion 1s
to be e ntered.

pfll-'11 l ocations simultaneously erasable memories

T hese are the memories in which. contents of all Lhc locations of a me mory are t'nl:Sl'd simul!ancoui:lv.
•b~r/ For example when w e ex-pose an EPROM to t he ultraviok,t radiation. the content:; of all thc loculion::
get erased simultaneously.

,13.2 Ultraviolet Erasable Programmable ROM

The EPROM which can be erased usi ng t he ultra violet ra_vs is 1>hown in l-' ig. l . t :3.2.
 SR AM an d OR A M
1 _17 . 4 c om pa ris on of
. , M nncl SRA~t i:-. ;i1- ~h ow n .. ~
ThC' com pn n~on nfO ltA ,n I ahl1• I I' I
. . f ~R \ \I an d l>R \ \ I
T11hlr 1. 17. 1 : ( nm r,H r l',Oll o .

Sr . P ara m<'ter SR A~I l)J v\i\1

No. j
I. l'irc-u1t Ea r h SH ,\M rrl l h ,1 f IIp l·..11 h I H< \ \I I II It
ron fig urn tio n nop. nf 11111' \ f P~ f· F1
r ,l p,11·11nr
- -
2 Nu mber of ~1n n• I , ,-:c: •o nh t\, n
compone nt ~ p<'r rcll
,- • j

3 Memo ry c-<·ll!-fun1t 1,c:-s thn n DR ,\~ t ~lnrr• 1h.111 ...;Jt \\l

, I I'(' 0

I-
..J RPfre 1-1 hi11g Not rc•q u I n •d RNp11rul
:') Co sl
~
~to rr 1,,, ,...
6 Arcei::s tim e I..<'~:- So the se nrc- fas t Pr
mc•rn11n<'!-
,\tn ri "-• rt, p in ~.
n,r•n111r1t ,

1 . 18 EE PR OM (E 2 PR O M
)
• Th e Ion{! fom, of EE PR OM i!-i
c l,•r t ril'nlly ,•rn'-a hlt · l'HO~ I
• Th ese are ,·e ry s im ilu r lo EPRO
M s nn d u..,,. t lw MOS r1rr1111 ry
• The da ta is s tor ed in thf ' fom1
of r ha rµ, •. Pn•sl• nc· 1· nf drn q.w
o. rr-p n •,,•nt q I .1nrl ,t...
• A ,·olta ge as low as 20 to 2f>
,•o h$ can be us rd fo r t•rn HillK
• It is pos.sible to era se a nd pro or prnJ.rra mmmL'!
gra m n p:1 r11 cu lar me mo ry loc
not ne ce ssa ry to era se 11II Ltw ati on Th , ,., .. ,· ,ll1·1I .u-1,·rtt,
nw mo ry location l-. r ·•
It is howeve r pos:-ibl<' 10 l'n tH
' all Lhc> loc a tio n wi thi
:-pec1al mo de . n abou t 10 m,.. tn 0J)(' r,111 n.:
th• f ~
Th is period is ve ry s ho rl ns
co mp are d to tha t r rq ui rPd for
EPRO M . lht · 11lt r., nn ll" l r,1d1 ll1 : •·"i
i
An oth er :1d,·an tng e of EE PROM
i!'; t h nt it ca n he <'rn s Prl :in d
con n~ t.ed in the ci rcu it. r,·p ro~ r.,m nw ,d \~ h,·11 , h,
Howe \·e r the di:-advantaj!t• of
EE PROM 1)-, vt•ry 1·x1w11 !-- l\'t' .in
d h., ... , ,·n )11\1. 111-n~,, \
.1 9 Fl as h M em or y

It i~ a :-pt.-cwl typ<: of HA.\!.

ft 1~ a no n-, ulat1l1· 11w 1Tw r~
whid1 11- powPrt.•d c-1111t 1n u11u
Th e er w-.lllJ: an d µru~rn111111ang ,h
of 1111 .. nh'11lllr_\' t:d <1•-. plm·•• hlo
Out- LO th i-, prcK't"•" lh t• nu.. h , I,,. h, bl,-..· ~
rn 1·11111r11·.. r,r,· 111, tt•r th ,111 FE
tht- b~ 1t' It-, d l 'Hl l \t \\ llll h. I,~,
 1n1ro0upr,,n 10 1.-l
,,
Odl
CIOP' · '""' ru PT U )
~
lo ck D ia g ra m fa M e m o rv o e v lc e
I 12 1n110'l11c.1..-,r , ·r, ,, ,,_,,,., •f.,
1. ,8. 2 8 o
( m o..-,
• I •II I ., ~, '" '" ' 1lu· I•I0 • - k , It • 1,C r!Ufl fl U l'l ll" r,. . II I
f
n w n· ,,. . I h r,• t• I \' JI<"' (I I II P' II to un , 1 • .._ a1'•mur,.· d••v1e1· na I·
• m ..- : ,
I ;\d tl rt " ", I' " I
Ii n,
·
Jilli ,
1 input ,,.,. ..
1"11111rol 111 pu l"
•1 .• N numb<-r of
• \1111 1h .-r 1• 111 00111 uu LpuL hn
. >u l,; . Tiwr{' l'" Ad11 t•rccr-, ~J Ut ':.
nr t ' -n u m he r of daUJ
:-; -~-•
• U nl .n in 1 TI. tP ..,,..c;
10 P ut hu t•~
daUt LO I,(• s wrc'{I
11 ts pu l on
1h, r hn t'"• "". urtI h ..., 0 rd w it h f•i,ch "' d , . l .., , t -l tr,!.!;
I l)ut11 w pu L~ ., ) or ,, . >t L ,, t f"IV'jf'TV' ry
n· al .. n ra llNI a
t111~ . , IJ ,1Ul b u ,
A <l dr t•RS tn • ~ . T h rr r an · :,"11.tt: 1n~~t..h
pU u, • • p · numl,.,.r of IN ,
.uld rt ., ,n pu l h I ,,,.•
n h . T hn,P hm•s I
p(-<•f,, ih c ·uctrtre art· us r , tr,
s• ·
uf tl v, n- qu m -d
lt1t nt ,un, for n •ud1 m<•m or }
"n tm !( 11 ne " da l11
nl( th e nlrn1d; ~t
t Jtc fn Fig I Fl
on,d rla ta o r
21. i
C<;n Ir ol l"f. J •. 5
I- ig . I il .Z : Bl oc k
di ag ra m of m1:m
rn acr1•11s an y "n . o11 c.
•• of M po s!< thh· loca11nn ._ we: need p ad d re'ls hn
I lw
• es s uch t.haL
Fur f•xompll ,f M •
• 16 lo ca l in
2'' I = ~I I
l' - 4 Sn we m,1o .
com hinolmn'- ~rom ll()()O l O I I I In,Sn . Llwn - . . . ,d 4 a dd n.,,-s I1 n•~•s Ln ha ve SIJ(U:E
•,d fi
d n ,s s 1s SJ>("CI 1e tl h . bi na rv fo rm - :1\
If 1lw 111ldr1·,,. inpu • in t l
1h,· m,• nl lln' cl np
t., A A, A, A =
11 , , h o "n 1n
' • • • lh 2 • •
I IOO '·"' I 1" cn w e w ill Ix· ah le t.o ac cess t he
tw el th Ir ->
Fi}: I R.:1
¢(

LocalK>n 0 w,th ad dres s ,npul 11 00

AJ th& 12~ IOCatJon
tS ,.ccessea
" LocaUon I
J
Th e da la In lo ca
uo n 12 11111 oo
Ao ... J
Ll lc a~on 2 r011d 0 1 w nnon
J

~
I
l.oclltlon 12
...
D at a ou tp ul

Lo ca tio n 13
O..ta {
,n pu l
"'
V Lo c,t llO O 14

l.o c,t hO O 15

i' ~

Con1rol sign
al
Fi1,:. U I. J : Se le ct
io n or a lo ca tio n
' lw I' ud dr cs s lrn I.bing th e ad d re
cs ar t' ca lled as ad ss li ne s
11 pr.ll'Uce th r ad
dr es s in pu ts or ad
d re ss in p u t is ap d ress bu s.
n th e P lines, pl ie d to a P to M
th e decoder ou tp de co de r. D ep en dj n g on
ut s will select th th e bi n a r y n u m b
,t pu t li ne s e desi re d m em or er ...
y loca ti on .
i t• d at aavailnhlc m th e se
lected m em or y lo
tl ' nu m be r of dat.a li ca ti on ca n b e ~r ea
ne s is N i.e. eq ua d~ on th e d at a o
lll'<i as ou tp ut d at l to th e n u m b er ut p u t li ne s.
a b us of b it s p er w or d. T h
) U t an d ou tp
e o u tp u t d at a li
ut d at a buse s ar e ne s ::ft
m o:;t of th e m em un id ir ec ti on al . T h at m ea n s th.e
or y ch ip s th e sam d at a flows on ly
·h II clatn bu s is ca e se t o f d ata li oe s is u se in o n e di re ct io n.
lled as bi -d ir ec ti d fo r d at a in p u t
" n U l Fig. I.SA . on al d at a bu s an as w el l as d at a ou
d it is re p rese n te tP-
d w it h ar ro w s on
bo th ; ;;:,
 >t
1n 1rod ucil on to 1,11(, (C,l) <OCC'll,l
1- 17
••,croprOC0"50<
-
(UP TU)
- d (RO I · pu t uf the ovi •ral l
on to.. . - l now net O.K rea . :".
\ odlJCI'
- lhl' reo d (RO > inp ul of bot.h ICs t.og e lhe r. It wil . lhA ·hip f!elecl 1( Sl mp ul.
\ . OR wo 11 11>< u c
eon nod s .r thin i: ;,. tru e for lhe wri t.o (W lU inp ut,
rn,--.11lory. ~ am
=ti ons MC tul sh ow n in Fig. P. 1. 10 . 1.
Tht• COiln ~~

, A3 A:i 03
. 0,
.,
i A2 A.i.
Chi p •2
02

I"
... I A, A, o,
I - Ao Ao Do
cs RD WR 16 >< 4
8 • btt dat a
,,.., cs (Inp ut or Out put)
RD
WR

•
}~
- A:i 03

02
~
A.i.
Chi p •1
A, o, o,
Ao Do

16 >< 4
u.-.lng two 16 x 4 me mo ry chi
ps
FiR, P. 1.10. 1 : A 16 x 8 me mo ry

pa cit y
- ..1 0.2 Ex pand ing Wo rd ca
ng ed.
n<l, '-'
me ans inc rea sin g the val ue ofM , kee pin g the word size (N) un cha
Expanding word s ize ry the n we ho,
16 x 4 chi ps are ava ilab le and we wa nt to hav e a 32 x 4 me mo
For example if
per for m the word capaci ty exp an:
sion .
the wo rd cap aci ty exp ans ion .
The following exa mple illu str ates
ry using 16 x 4 me mo ry chips.
x. 1.10.2 : Obtain a 32 x 4 memo
on. ~oln
ir .... •
ltep l : Nu mb er of me mo ry
ch ips
nu mb er of
ry of cap aci ty m wo rds usi ng me mo ry chi ps wit h M words each, the
To obtain a me mo
required is giv en by,
X 2: m/M

Where Xis an int ege r.

ln th.is exa mp le, m =32 and M
=16
are req uir ed.
/, tt :. X = 2 i.e. 2 chi ps of cap aci ty 16 x 4
kep 2 : Co nn ect ion s
in the following ma nn er :
The two 16 x 4 chi ps are con nec ted
. Th at me ans ou t
are con nec ted to the add res s lin es of two chi ps ind ivi dua lly p
The add res s lin es
res s lin es) the 4 LS B lin es A At A, Ao wil l be i;am e for eac h chi
address lin es (we nee d 5 add
3

ect chlp-1 or chi p-2.

MSB lin e A 4 sho uld be use d to sel
ed.
[),.
with A, = 0 chip-1 sho uld be sel ect
ed.
With A4 = 1 chi p-2 sho uld be sel ect
l:t"t.
?!!!1-uci,on_!.O M,crQ Proce ssor (UPT U)
1· 13 lnlr0 duc11011 10 MicroprQl'.w,~.r,r
"11rol LInes
The control lin<':< inclu de the rced /w ril1,, line
and the chip selec t hne lwht th ael,1 n.-. llu- l•n11
The bi-dirl'Ct,onal bus is used a11 inpu t dnt hh• mpu ll
n bus for so me specific Lime whe n inpu t dntu
tnl.O 11wmo ry l wrtl f' oper atio n I. 111 to h, • IQod ed
And ,t is 11.l!led as uulp ut cintn bus for
specifit· lime whf' n the slor ed dnt11 tl>
1read opcr ouon l.
to he r<>nd
Tht! t,i -di rccli onnl data bus t hu s saves N data
line s.
Ther e i~ only one cont rol line ullott,ed lo the
n•ud
,,, ond wnt e oper otio n. It is deno ted by R/ W
lin<' in
Fil(. LR.4 . Mom ory
If th i!i line is al logic I leve l. then "rea chip
ding "
opcrotion take s plac e whe reas for logic O on 8 1(IIIOCIIOMI / ' - , ~c-- -' '\
lb.is da l.t bus
line the "wri te" oper atio n take s plac e.

With R/ W = I. lhc data bus ac~ ns an

outp ul CS (chip =led I
AI W
duto bus and with R/W = 0. it acts as lhc (Read I Wriiii )
inpu t
clnt.o bus.
FiJ!. l.!1..1 : l\h-mory ch ip with hi-di r cctin nul
th1111 hu,
1put chip Enab le
'\.
The chi p sele cl mpu l is un activ e high inpu
t. Whe n CS = 1 then only the chip is cnab l rd
~ writ ing will take pinc e. ancl rt-ndm1,t
lower supply Lines
, \./ In oddiUon to t.he ncld ress, cont rol and
data li nes. ther e arc two more pin!- requ ired
uppl y and grou nd. for the pow er

t.9 _!!lt ern al Org ani zat ion of Me mo ry

The inte rnal orga niza tion of a 16 x 4 mem ory
chip is show n in Fig. 1.9.1. It cons ists of 4-ad
lu have Hi addr esse s. For 4 to 16 line conv ersio drcil!- hnc,-
n wo have a 4 to 16 line deco der used .
D3 D2 D1 D0 (Data Input llnos)

I bt1 mom ory cell

Wnle (W 1
........3_.._ _.._
2 O i Loca hon a
_... __- r ,- --~ ---o
Location 1
A3
410
Address Az 16
,nput s line
'---+ ---11 --0 cs
A, deco der
Mem ory c hip
Road (R\
Ao
Location 14
3 2 1 O LOCdloon 15
........ ......................
Oulp ul :
Bullers !
"··· ········ ... , ................,
D3 Dz o, Do (Data oulpul l,ne._q)
,,-
~ - 1.9.1
The re are 16 location s each one capable ol'
stor ing a 4-bi t wor d.
 I ;10 lttlwd u, 11r,11 10 _.
tn1rod uc1ton 10 M1c1oprocossor (Uf' 1U) 1

'
Meru oriu

I
T t,n,t l
llond only
l
(:orth U)I Adt-1t fl r.1.1Jtf. ,
R t t.' ltf
n,,-,,no rlt Hl rnornr-,t1,, •
11h1fnOr h •$ wrllo m o tnort(t~
trlWM or n AMI I llOMJ ICAM)
I
l I
Stull Ch111g il l'.oupl od j l l l
ll>glSIOI S dw1e ..s (C:CD) ROM PHO M [PROM ~ AROM

' J,' li:. I. 12. 1 : Ml'n tnr) d o..._,mr nt lnn lm,t•cl on prln dplt-
of OIJi'r n l lon
1 . 12. 1 Seq uen tial Mem ori es

• Tlw rxn mplP;; of Sl'fJ llt'nl 111 • I nwm ory

a rr 111111..-nt•1·u • t 111x· ··111rl lo/v11lc•o c111-1Retl l'
• In thl' s1•1111l'nt111l m1•111or11•, th1• llll' 11Hlr y loc-1111011:-
0

'

n rt orµn111z in 11 1,('"., U('llC'f' ( Ont' n fl l'r th,, 1

• , " "

• Th t• rl.'n1l1·11J,!lwn1111
· · µ frr1111 · ·
i<ur h 1111•1111ir1l.':- 11< 11 :<l!Qll tlll1·111 I proc1
• • •11·:< l ll'nr<• tlw t111w rt·q u1rt·<I Ir,
rnt'mory lur ntion 1for renclint-t or writ 1nt-tl 11; clifTcrcn
t for d11Tc rc11t local 101111
• The• seq uf•ntiul memorie:< 11rt- 1"1111h1•r clni<silied into
two ty pes
(II Shill rci-ri:<ters
(2) Chu rge cuu pk•d dt'vices (CC' D l
1 . 12.2 Ran dom Acc ess Me mor y (RW M
or RAM )
• lu1111 lom ncc·r:;:; mcm on · 11< nlsn .-nllNI 11s rc•nd wr il<•
nw mory <RWM !.
• Thi' mcm n!)· locnliun~ in th1:< typl' of nll'm ory
are ort-tnnizccl in i< uch n wny Lb_a l lhl• a ct
requirerl for occcssinK uny lncnt.ion ii- t he :,;11111 ..
1•. This 1s I he• odvn nl.l.11(e of u;;11·1Jit RAM
scqucnt111l memorit':< .
• RAM s also ca n be further class ilicd into two l,y
pc>R n11nw l.v the s tntic R/\M nnd clyn um ic
RAM s con be fubricutl'd usin g l'ith cr bipo l:ir tc.> chn HAM
• olot-t.v 11r unip olnr ll•ch nnlo gy
, 1.12 .J Rea d Onl y Mem orie s ( ROM )
• Thes e mt'mori1 •1< a re <lesi i;ined only for ruml ing th
e infor11111t ion whk h iR nlre ady s tore d 011 tl: -
user cann ot writ e any new mfor mation on t hem .
• Thes e are simil ur to t he prl'• rcco rder cns11 t'ttc1,.
• A man ufactun> r or i.ome onr cl:<c can writ e
ROMs, but the writ ing proc ess is muc h mort ' com
as com pare d lo I.hat of a RAM .
• ROM is used to store fixed infom 1atio ns such us
look up t able s . instr ucti ons . fixed dntn etc.
• It is possi ble to orgn nize ROM :; in such a way
that read ing time requ ired for any locnt1nn • :i
sam e.
• The ROMs a re fu rthe r class ified in to th ree cala1
tories as followii :
( 1) Read - Only ml'mory.
r2) Prog ramm a ble Read OnJy Mem ory (PR OM)
.
(3) Eras able and Prog ram mab le ROM ( !!:PROM).
~ead - only mem ory

Th ese mem or ies in true sens e are t h e read only

of man ufac turin g.
mem orie i;. beca use t h ev are pr ogra mm! 'd at •
·
The prog ra mmi ng is done as per lhc requ irem
man ufactu r ing of RO Ms. e nts of l hc user and it 1,; Lh ,• ln.-.1 pn•

Such RO Ms a rc called as cuHl.om pro gram med

or mas k prog ,-nm med . \\1 , t·n nnot ch., :t
prog ram med da LU a~or fo bricaLion . 1

The se f<OMs are cost ly so ore s ui t able only for

hulk u :;p (num ber nf chip:<
111 1111 11,l)n :< >.
:>gra mma ble Rea d Only Mem orie s (PRO M)
A user can proi,rrnm t hese HO MR us int-t 1.1 P HO M
p roi:r nmn wr.
 1.17 Dynamic RAM (DRAM )
• In the dyn nm1c RAM . t h£• do t.a is s torC'd in t lH• fo rn1 of
Contro l (Column) signal
char)!<' on t ht> capaci tor.
MOSFET swrtch
• The drna tnic RA}.1 ce ll i~ as :-.h own in Fig. 1. 17 . 1. The
sense a nd con trol lin es a rc used as co lum n a nd row
.
•
!'-1f!11a Is.
\~·hen both t hese lin es ar e h igh. lhe MOSFET acts as a
dosed s wiLch and ch a rges the capacito r.
\\~hen t he con tr ol and sense both ar e lo,v, th e MOSFET
Co ntrol (Ao w)
signal
J;
•
tu rns OFF a nd the ca pacit or retains its charge. Th us
logic 1 bit is stor ed . F'ig. 1.1 7.1 : D)1 namic RA~f
1 .17.1 Advantages of Dynamic RAM
• The single bit dynami c RAM, is form ed us ing only two componen ts, on e MOSFET and a capacito:
• Hence it needs very s ma1J area as comp a red to s tatic RAM. Hence t h e DRAM consis ts of more ,n,..
cells as compared to s tati c RAM per unit area.
1.17. 2 Disadvantage of Dynamic RAM
The ch arge held by th e capacitor needs to be refreshed after every few milliseconds . H ence a!or.;
the DRAM ce1l we h ave to use an adclitional circuitry for r efres hing the charge. This is the•
dis advantage of a DRAM.
1.17.3 Dynamic MOS RAM Cell
• Fig. 1.17.2 s hows the dynamic MOS RAM cell. If you compare it with the s tatic RAM cell then you
s ee that here we n eed four MOSFETs instead of six. Hence the packaging d ens ity of t h is roeJJl
better than that of t h e static RAM.
• The dynamjc MOS RAM cell of Fig. 1.17.2 can store one bit of information (0 or 1).