Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY1004

The Impact of Pit Latrines on the Pollution of

Groundwater in the District of Rwamagana, Rwanda
NDAGIJIMANA INNOCENT
Department of Environmental and Development Studies,
University of Lay Adventists of Kigali, P.O Box 6392 Kigali, Rwanda

Abstract:- The composition and condition of a water body economic progress have caused an increase in the number of
change over time and across different locations due to impoverished individuals living in informal settlements,
internal and external factors. In many rural and peri- putting strain on the country's environmental health resources
urban communities in Rwamagana, the lack of treated (MININFRA, 2016).
water has increased reliance on groundwater for various
household and community needs. Groundwater sources Communities in informal settlements lack essential
are essential for meeting the water demand in these government services such as clean water, sewage, and waste
regions. An investigation was carried out in the disposal. This results in poor environmental and sanitary
Rwamagana district of the eastern province of Rwanda to conditions, endangering people's health. It's widely known
evaluate the influence of pit latrines on groundwater that children from underprivileged families in urban or
quality. The research examined the water quality of four densely populated areas have worse health outcomes
boreholes with hand pumps and 18 improved springs compared to children from affluent households. According to
located near pit latrines. The evaluation specifically a recent survey, 27.6% of urban Rwandans lack access to safe
looked at total coliforms (TC), electrical conductivity drinking water. The situation is even more dire in rural areas,
(EC), turbidity, and pH. The proximity of the pit latrines where only 56.8% of the population can obtain safe drinking
to the boreholes or springs was considered in order to water (NISR, 2018). Consequently, providing clean,
determine the presence of fecal coliforms in the dependable, and safe drinking water in rural areas and urban
groundwater, with the goal of establishing a minimum slums remains challenging despite the larger population.
safe distance between the pit latrines and water sources. When clean water is unavailable, people are compelled to
The physicochemical indicators of the water samples met consume contaminated water, spreading water-borne diseases
the drinking water quality criteria set by the World (Haruna, R., Ejobi, F., & Kabagambe, 2005).
Health Organization (WHO). However, the levels of
biological contaminants exceeded the WHO's drinking Human excrement is disposed of without treatment at
water quality standards. The highest coliform counts on-property disposal sites such as pit latrines. By their very
detected in the study were 99cfu/100ml of water. The design, pit latrines create concerns about contamination of
research findings suggest a clear relationship between groundwater, particularly boreholes and springs on the land
fecal microbes from pit latrines and their impact on that are used as drinking water sources. Pit latrines are not
groundwater quality, with the contamination effect recommended in this situation unless the water table is
extending up to 322.4m for improved springs and 266.2m shallow and the soil characteristics are unlikely to contribute
for boreholes with hand pumps. to the sensitivity to groundwater pollution (Kulabako, N. R.,
Nalubega, M., & Thunvik, 2007). One of the essential
Keywords:- Contamination; Water Quality; Pit Latrines; variables affecting pathogenic organism removal and
Boreholes with a Hand Pump. eradication from groundwater is the adjustment of
wastewater's initial concentration between the source of
I. INTRODUCTION contamination and the point of water abstraction. Due to very
low unsaturated flow velocities, the unsaturated zone contains
Safe drinking water is often seen as a fundamental the key to defense against fecal pollution of aquifers (Majuru
human requirement and a crucial element of civilization. B, Michael MM, Jagals P, 2011). The water well should be
Developed countries have started assessing and categorizing located topographically higher than the pit latrine site, at least
water quality as water is a finite natural resource. Many 322 meters away from the pit latrine, and at least 2 meters
people in underdeveloped nations residing in unplanned areas above the water table, despite the difficulty of providing a
like slums do not have access to sufficient and safe water general guideline for all soil conditions. Pit latrines and
(Cronin, A. A., Hoadley, A. W., Gibson, J., Breslin, N. and F. groundwater aquifers coexisted in the past, mostly in rural
K., Haldin, L., 2007). Such people rapidly increase due to locations where land was not a limitation for the necessary
high population growth, particularly in peri-urban and rural distance between pit latrines and boreholes, according to
regions. The United Nations has predicted a fast urban JICA's Rwasom project (JICA, 2019). Poor hygienic
population growth between 2000 and 2030, leading to a practices, such as open defecation by children and waste
decrease in municipal sanitation and the availability of safe dumping near wells, allow bacteria and other organisms to
drinking water (WHO, 2011b). Rwanda's rapid expansion and migrate from fecal contents into underground water due to the

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Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY1004

proximity of pit latrines to boreholes in urban slums. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Contamination and the spread of water-borne diseases could
arise because of this. A. Study Area
RWAMAGANA is a district in Eastern Province,
The presence of biological, chemical, and physical Rwanda. Its capital is KIGABIRO city, which is also the
impurities and environmental and human activities in drilled provincial capital.
well water affects its quality. Previous studies on
groundwater quality in Rwanda have primarily focused on the  Its total area is 682km2,
impact of leachate from waste dump sites, with little or no  Population (2012 census): 313,461
consideration given to other on-site sanitary conditions,  Density: 460/km2
particularly the effects of pit latrines, according to literature
data. There are no specific guidelines for placing wells near Water samples have been taken from 24 springs and
pit latrines, and acceptable distances must be determined for nine boreholes in 10 sectors, namely: MUYUMBU,
each case due to the varying dynamics of different FUMBWE, KIGABIRO, KARENGE, GISHARI,
contaminants in different subsurface soils. In the Rwamagana GAHENGERI, MUNYAGA, MUHAZI, NZIGE, and
district, appropriate intervention options should be identified NYAKALIRO.
to enhance groundwater protection, including measures
related to pit latrines and boreholes to ensure water
potability.(Reddy, D. V., Nagabhushanam, P., & Peters,
2011).

Fig 1: Map of Surveyed Springs and Boreholes

B. Water Resources The most significant water source is the lake MUHAZI,
RWAMAGANA District disposes of essential resources located near RWAMAGANA. Water was treated and
in water issues because water sources are rare, and the distributed through the pipeline. Due to the topography of this
identified sources are at a lower elevation than the position of district, the water failed to reach all villages. Therefore,
villages to be served, which requires the use of pumps. boreholes and protected springs are used as an alternative
source of drinking water.

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Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY1004

Table 1: Number of Sampled Springs and Boreholes

Sector Number of boreholes Number of springs
Fumbwe 0 5
Gahengeri 3 10
Kigabiro 0 1
Muhazi 2 0
Munyaga 3 6
Muyumbu 1 0
Nzige 0 2
Total 9 24

C. Fieldwork were examined using membrane filtering methods. A

membrane filtration approach was used for bacteriological
 Preliminary Survey analysis, and an Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP)
In August 2019, an initial investigation of the study area spectrophotometer was used for hydrochemical analysis. To
was conducted. The survey involved gathering current perform total and fecal coliform tests, 100 samples were
groundwater data to determine the main characteristics of the filtered using a 0.45 m Millipore membrane filter and a
natural groundwater quality within the specific area and to vacuum pump. The membrane was cultured for 24 hours on
serve as a reference for assessing variations over time, Slantez and Bartley media at 37°C and 45°C, respectively, for
potentially influenced by pit latrines. fecal and total coliform, and for 48 hours on Membrane
Lauryl Sulphate broth (MLSBOXOID MM0616) at 45°C for
 Sampling fecal streptococci, after a one-hour recovery period. Bacteria
A total of 33 samples were taken from groundwater, on the membrane developed visible colonies. These colonies
nine from boreholes, and 24 from springs, as indicated in the were counted and converted to a count per 100ml using a
table provided. Sampling stations were chosen near pit membrane counter. Cations and anions were studied at low
latrines. The stations were sampled both during the wet (short concentrations (0.01g/L) using coupled plasma-mass
rains) and dry seasons. Water samples were gathered in clean spectrography (ICPMS- Japan 7500). Major cations (0.1
500ml plastic bottles after being cleaned with O.1m HN03 mg/L) were determined using Coupled Plasma Optical
(aq) and rinsed three times with the water being sampled. Emission Spectrography (ICP-OES-5300, DV, USA). After
When collecting samples from each borehole, a hand pump removing the outliers, the fecal coliform (FC) values were
was used to pump at least three casing volumes of water to regressed against the measured distances from the
waste before collection. In wells, samples were collected by groundwater to the pit latrines to determine the minimum
lowering a weighted bottle (a bottle with weights inside to aid distance between the pit latrines and the groundwater.
sinking) to the water level, while in springs, samples were
collected from the reservoir pipe. III. DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

D. Analytical methods A. Physico-Chemical Quality

Measurements of dissolved oxygen, pH, and The results showed that the samples' physicochemical
conductivity on-site were carried out using a pH meter parameters were typically aligned with WHO drinking water
(Oenway Model 3100), an oxygen meter (Jenway Model quality criteria. Turbidity was only detected in a sample taken
9010), and a conductivity meter (Jenway Model 4070) from a borehole in the Gahengeri sector, which was
respectively. The temperature was gauged using a determined to be 9NTU. Turbidity in drinking water is caused
temperature probe connected to the pH meter. The chemical by particle matter in the water source due to insufficient
oxygen demand was established using the dichromate reflux filtering. These particles can both shield germs against
method. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) was computed disinfection and accelerate bacterial growth. The nitrate
based on the variance in dissolved oxygen levels over five levels were under the WHO's 50 mg/l nitrate in drinking water
days of sample incubation. Before incubation, aeration was recommendation. A high nitrate concentration in surface and
conducted using an aerator. shallow groundwater often indicates contamination and can
be attributed to poor sanitation and latrine building. The pH
TSS was determined by filtering 100ml of a sample ranged from 6.1 to 8.4 on the scale. The highest pH value was
using 0.45µm filter paper, followed by drying the filter paper found in a sample taken from a borehole that had been
with solids in a 60°C oven for 30-50 minutes before adequately capped at the top. On the other hand, the observed
weighing. The samples for chemical and bacteriological pH levels were within the acceptable range for drinking water
analysis were transported to the laboratory in an ice pack at quality recommendations. Electrical conductivity
approximately 4oC. The reagent containers were rinsed with measurements varied from 325 to 989 S/cm within WHO
distilled water prior to being filled with the water samples for standards.
chemical analysis. The water samples collected were stored
in a sterile 500mL container that had been rinsed three times
with the sample water before being collected for analysis. The
chemical and bacteriological parameters of the water samples

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Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY1004

B. Bacteriological Quality inadequately submerged infiltration pipelines, and fecal

Total coliform and fecal coliform in drinking water matter infiltration are all possible causes of spring pollution.
should have zero readings (0cfu/100ml) (WHO, 2011a).
According to the findings, bacteriological parameters (total My findings are consistent with those of Ahaneku and
coliform) in 60 percent of springs and 55 percent of borehole Adeoye's research (Adeoye, 2017). The difference is the
samples studied were considerably over-acceptable, making greater distance between pit latrines and groundwater in my
them unfit for drinking without treatment. The sample had a study. The high coliform count could be linked to the
maximum total coliform bacteria count of 99cfu/100ml. The groundwater's closeness to pollution sources such as open
closeness of pit latrines to wells was found to play a defecation, pit latrines, and waste dumps, which allowed
significant role in the bacteriological contamination of contaminants to migrate quickly, particularly those upstream
groundwater. Contamination is less likely with sources of the spring and boreholes. According to that study, a
appropriately covered at the top and lined outside the distance of up to 19.7 meters between the pit latrine and the
Borehole. In both springs and boreholes, there is a strong link groundwater source can improve groundwater quality.
between total coliform and pit latrine distance. According to Boiling is the suggested approach for treating total coliform-
the findings, bacteria were found in almost all springs and contaminated water because bacteria cannot resist high
borehole samples near pit latrines. Backfilling, drainage, temperatures.

Table 2: Total Coliform Distribution (per 100 ml) for Boreholes and Springs
Number of colonies Boreholes Mean distance Springs Mean distance
(CFU/100 ml) (Number) (m) (Number) (m)
0-20 8 80.59675 22 151.262
21-40 0 0
41-60 0 0
61-80 0 0
81-100 1 49 2 25.1445

C. Minimum Distance between Pit Latrine and Groundwater Source

 Minimum Distance between Pit Latrine and Springs

Fig 2: Minimum Distance between Pit Latrine and Springs

The graph of the distance between spring and pit latrines reduces and vice versa. For a shallow well to be TC-free, TC
against total coliform is shown in this graph, and the must be set to zero [18]. As a result, if we set equation (1) to
relationship's regression equation is as follows: zero, we get:

TC = -0.0507*distance + 16.347 -0.0507*distance + 16.347 = 0 (2)

R2 = 0.0863 (1) Equation 2 shows that in the Rwamagana district, a

minimum distance of 322.4 meters is required between pit
A negative linear function is Equation (1). As the latrines, open defecation, waste dumping, and springs to
distance between the pit toilet and the pit latrine grows, FC achieve TC-free water.

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 Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY1004

 Minimum Distance between Pit Latrine and Boreholes

Fig 3: Minimum Distance between Pit Latrine and Boreholes

The graph of the distance between spring and pit latrines B. Recommendations
against total coliform is shown in this graph, and the
relationship's regression equation is as follows:  It is Advised to Implement the following Steps to Minimize
TC = -0.0329*distance + 8.7587 the Contamination of Springs and Boreholes:

R2 = 0.0374 (3)  Communities with contaminated springs and boreholes

should receive support to purify their water sources using
Therefore, setting equation (1) to zero, we have: chlorination. In the absence of chlorine, communities can
boil water before consuming it.
TC = -0.0329*distance + 8.7587 = 0 (4)  Make sure to keep the area surrounding the apron dry and
tidy and ensure that the drainage functions correctly.
Equation 4 shows that a minimum distance of 266.2  Ensure a minimum separation of 322.4m between springs
meters is required between pit latrines, open defecation, waste and boreholes and 266.2m between springs and pit
dumping, and boreholes in the Rwamagana district to achieve latrines. If feasible, position pit latrines on the lower side
TC-free water. of the slope.
 Fencing should be carried out at least one hundred meters
Furthermore, poorly designed pit latrines and upstream from the collection area to prevent cattle and
insufficient protective measures taken during healthy other animals from contaminating the water in places
building may cause groundwater contamination to escalate where surface water is present.
once more. Water-borne illnesses, including diarrhea and
typhoid, are constantly increased in such settings. REFERENCES
IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS [1]. Adeoye, P. (2017) ‘Impact of Pit Latrines on
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Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY1004

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