ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS I

[I3681EC]
Dr. E. HAMATWI, Email: [email protected], Office #: E231
Jose Eduardo dos Santos Campus
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
School of Engineering and the Built Environment
 UNIT 5:
AC POWER
 INTRODUCTION
▪ RECALL: The power delivered to a load at any instant is defined by the product of the applied
voltage and the resulting current;
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 (1)
~ v and i are sinusoidal quantities. Consider a general case, where;

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 (2)
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
▪ The chosen v and i include all possibilities:
- For a purely resistive load, 𝜃 = 0°
- For a purely inductive load, 𝜃 = 90° {v leads i}
- For a purely capacitive load, 𝜃 = −90° {i leads v}
 INTRODUCTION
▪ Substituting the equations of v and i into the power equation will result in:
𝑝 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
(3)
▪ Applying a number of trigonometric identities, the power equation will result in: {refer to Boylestad txtb, pg. 592.}

(4)
▪ V and I are the rms values.
▪ If Eq. 4 is expanded to the form,
(5)

- The average power appears as an isolated term that is time independent.

- Both terms that follow vary at a frequency twice that of the applied voltage or current.
- Their peak values have a very similar format.
 AC POWER: RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
▪ For a purely resistive circuit, v and i are in phase, and 𝜃 = 0°.
▪ Substituting 𝜃 = 0° into Eq. 4, we obtain,

𝑃𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 0° 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝑉𝐼 sin 0° sin 2𝜔𝑡

= 𝑉𝐼 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 0

(6)

▪ 𝑉𝐼 − 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑐 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚.
▪ −𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡 – a negative cosine wave with twice the frequency of either input quantity (v or i)
 AC POWER: RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
▪ Plotting the waveform for 𝑃𝑅 ,
▪ 𝑇1 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠.
▪ 𝑇2 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑅 .
▪ Power curve passes through two cycles
abouts its average value of VI for each
cycle of either v or i.
→𝑻𝟏 = 𝟐𝑻𝟐 𝑶𝑹 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏
▪ Peak and average values of the power
curve are the same.
▪ Curve is always above the horizontal axis.
▪ The total power delivered to a resistor will be dissipated in the form of heat.
 AC POWER: RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
▪ The power dissipated by the resistor at any instant of time 𝑡1 is found by substituting the time 𝑡1
into Eq. 6 to find 𝑝1 . (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒)
▪ The AVERAGE (REAL) POWER is;

(7)

▪ Energy dissipated by the resistor (𝑊𝑅 ) over one full cycle of the applied voltage is;
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡
- P is the average power and t is the period of the applied voltage; that is,

OR (8)

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇1 = 1/𝑓1
 AC POWER: RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
▪ EXAMPLE: For the resistive circuit in the figure below,

a) Find the instantaneous power delivered to the resistor at times 𝑡1 through 𝑡6 .

b) Plot the results of part (a) for one full period of the applied voltage.
c) Find the average value of the curve of part (b) and compare the level to that determined by eq. (7)
d) Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one full period of the applied voltage
 AC POWER: RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
▪ EXAMPLE:
SOLUTION
 AC POWER: RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
▪ EXAMPLE:
SOLUTION cont…

Eq. (7)

Eq. (8)
 APPARENT POWER
▪ The product of the voltage and current is not always the power delivered,
▪ It can be taken as a power rating - of significant usefulness in the analysis of sinusoidal ac
networks
- The maximum rating of a number of electrical components and systems.
▪ Referred to as APPARENT POWER, represented by symbol S.
▪ Units of measurement: volt-amperes [VA].
▪ Its magnitude is determined by;

(9)

(10)

▪ Apparent power: the product of the rms values of voltage and current.
 APPARENT POWER
▪ The average power to the load is,

(11)

(12)
▪ Power factor: ratio of the real power to the apparent power.
OR: the cosine of the phase difference between the voltage and current.
OR: the cosine of the angle of the load impedance. (13)
→Power factor ranges from 0 to 1. FOR A PURELY RESISTIVE LOAD
 APPARENT POWER
▪ In general, power equipment are rated in volt-amperes (VA) or in kilo-volt-amperes (kVA) and not
in watts.
▪ Knowing the VA rating and the rated voltage of a device, the maximum current rating can be
determined.
10000𝑉𝐴
▪ EXAMPLE: a device rated at 10kVA & 200V has a maximum current rating of 𝐼 = = 50𝐴.
200𝑉
▪ The volt-ampere rating of an equipment is equal to the wattage rating only when 𝑭𝑷 = 𝟏.
▪ The condition exists only when the total impedance of a system 𝑍∠𝜃 is such that 𝜃 = 0°.
▪ The current demand of a device, when used under normal operating conditions, can be determined if
the wattage rating and power factor are given instead of the volt-ampere rating.
▪ However, the power factor varies with the load sometimes, thus, it is recommended to give the volt-
ampere rating.
 INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT AND REACTIVE POWER
▪ For a purely inductive circuit, v leads i by 90°. Thus, 𝜃 = 90°.
▪ Substituting 𝜃 = 90° into Eq. 4, we obtain,
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑽𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟗𝟎° 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝎𝒕 + 𝑽𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎° 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝎𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝑽𝑰 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝎𝒕.
(14)

- 𝑇1 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠.

- 𝑇2 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝐿 .
- Over one full cycle of 𝑃𝐿 (T2 ), area
above the horizontal axis = area
below the axis.
-
Thus, power delivered by the source to the inductor = power returned to the source by the inductor.
▪ The net flow of power to the pure (ideal) inductor is zero over a full cycle, and no energy is lost.
 INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT AND REACTIVE POWER
▪ The power absorbed or returned by the inductor at any instant of time 𝑡1 is found by substituting
the time 𝑡1 into Eq. 14.
▪ The peak value of the curve VI is the REACTIVE POWER associated with a pure inductor.
▪ Generally, the reactive power associated with any circuit is defined to be 𝑽𝑰𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽.
▪ Reactive power is denoted by Q, its unit of measurement is volt-ampere reactive (VAR).

(15)

▪ 𝜃 – phase angle between V and I.

▪ For the inductor, (16)

OR (17)
 INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT AND REACTIVE POWER
▪ The energy stored by the inductor during the positive portion of the cycle is equal to that returned
during the negative portion of the cycle.
▪ The energy can be determined as follow: 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡 (18) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tNcj_-o9udo

- P is the average value for the interval and t is the associated internal of time.
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑇2
- Average value of the positive portion of a sinusoid = 2 and 𝑡 = .
𝜋 2

(19)
∴
Since the frequency of the power curve (21)
(𝑓2 ) is twice that of the input quantity,

OR ▪ Thus, the energy stored or released by the inductor in

(20) one half-cycle of the applied voltage,
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇2 = 1/𝑓2
(22)
 CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
▪ For a purely capacitive circuit, i leads v by 90°. Thus, 𝜃 = −90°.
▪ Substituting 𝜃 = −90° into Eq. 4, we obtain,
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑉𝐼 cos −90° 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝑉𝐼 sin −90° sin 2𝜔𝑡 = 0 − 𝑉𝐼 sin 2𝜔𝑡.

(23)

- 𝑇1 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠.

- 𝑇2 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝐶 .
- Over one full cycle of 𝑃𝐶 (T2 ), area
above the horizontal axis = area
below the axis.
-
Thus, power delivered by the source to the capacitor = power returned to the source by the capacitor.
▪ The net flow of power to the pure (ideal) capacitor is zero over a full cycle, and no energy is lost.
 CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
▪ The power absorbed or returned by the capacitor at any instant of time 𝑡1 is found by substituting
the time 𝑡1 into Eq. 23.
▪ The peak value of the curve VI is the REACTIVE POWER associated with a pure capacitor.
(24)

(25)
OR
▪ Proceeding in the same manner to that used for the inductor, the energy stored in the capacitor:

𝑇2 = 1/𝑓2 𝑓2 = 2𝑓1

▪ The energy stored or released by the capacitor in one half-cycle of the applied voltage,

(26)
 THE POWER TRIANGLE
▪ The average power, apparent power, and reactive power can be related in the vector domain by,

(27)

▪ For an inductive load, the phasor power S is defined by,

(24)
▪ For a capacitive load, the phasor power S is defined by,

(25)
▪ For a network with both capacitive and inductive elements, the reactive
component of the power triangle is the difference between the power delivered to each element.
 THE POWER TRIANGLE
▪ In an L-C circuit, the total reactive power is the difference between the reactive powers of the
inductive and capacitive elements.
▪ Can be graphically demonstrated as follow, considering Eq. 14 and Eq. 23:

• Curve of the resultant reactive power:

determined by the algebraic resultant of the
two curves at each instant of time.
 THE POWER TRIANGLE
▪ An additional verification, by considering the impedance diagram of a series R-L-C circuit.
▪ Multiplying each radius vector by the current squared 𝐼 2 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛

▪ Since the reactive power and active/real power are always angled 90° apart, the three powers are
related by the Pythagorean theorem as,
(28)
 THE POWER TRIANGLE
▪ The vector form of the apparent power of a system can be obtained as follows, called the
COMPLEX POWER:
(29)

▪ V - voltage across the system, and 𝑰∗ - complex conjugate of the current.

▪ EXAMPLE: for the simple R-L circuit shown,
𝑉 10∠0° 10∠0°
𝐼= = = = 2𝐴∠ − 53.13°
𝑍𝑇 3Ω+𝑗4Ω 5∠53.13°

The real power (the term real derived from the positive real axis of the complex plane)
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 22 × 3Ω = 12𝑊
 THE TOTAL P, Q AND S
▪ The total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-amperes, and the power factor of any
system can be determined using the following procedures:

▪ NB:
- The total apparent power must be determined from the total average and reactive powers and
cannot be determined from the apparent powers of each branch.
- The total real, reactive or apparent power is independent of whether the loads are in series,
parallel, or series-parallel.
 AC POWER: EXAMPLES/ TUTORIAL
QUESTIONS
▪ QUESTION 1:

a) Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, volt-

amperes and the power factor 𝐹𝑃 for the network given on
the right.
b) Sketch the power triangle.

c) Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one full cycle
of the input voltage if the frequency of the input quantities is
60Hz.
d) Find the energy stored in, or returned by, the capacitor or
inductor over one half-cycle of the power curve for each, if
the frequency of the input quantities is 60Hz.
AC POWER: EXAMPLES/ TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1: SOLUTION
a) Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, volt-amperes and the power factor 𝐹𝑃 for
the network given on the right.
AC POWER: EXAMPLES/ TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1: SOLUTION cont…
a) Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, volt-amperes and the power factor 𝐹𝑃 for
the network given on the right.
AC POWER: EXAMPLES/ TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1: SOLUTION cont… c) Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one
full cycle of the input voltage if the frequency of the
input quantities is 60Hz.
b) Sketch the power triangle

d) Find the energy stored in, or returned by, the

capacitor or inductor over one half-cycle of the power
curve for each, if the frequency of the input quantities is
60Hz.
AC POWER: EXAMPLES/ TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
QUESTION 2: An electrical device is rated 5kVA, 100V at a 0.6 power-factor lag. What is the
impedance of the device in rectangular form?
SOLUTION:
POWER
FACTOR
CORRECTION
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
▪ RECALL:
- Power factor: ratio of the average power to
𝑃
the apparent power 𝐹𝑃 =
𝑆
- Apparent power 𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑄
▪ The more the power factor is close to 1, the
more efficient a system or power plant’s
operation is, thus reducing the losses.
- Less reactive power and more active/real
(useful) power.

▪ Power factor correction: the process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage
or current to the original load.
▪ Since most loads are inductive in nature, a load’s power factor is improved by installing a
capacitor in parallel with the load. This reduces the total reactive power.
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
▪ When a capacitive element is added to the network, 𝑄𝑇 reduces [remember 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝐿 − 𝑄𝐶 ].
▪ Meaning 𝑺 moves more towards being equal to 𝑷.
▪ The network appears more and more resistive at the terminals.
▪ Thus, bringing the power factor closer to unity/one.

▪ By placing the capacitive element in parallel, the load still receives the same terminal voltage and
draws the same current 𝐼𝐿 .
▪ But the power factor gets improved, meaning more useful power is availed.
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

▪ Solving for the source current in the network,

▪ If 𝑋𝐶 is chosen such that 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔 = 𝐼𝐿 (𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔 ), then

▪ Result – a source current whose magnitude is equal to the real part of the load current.
- Considerably less than the magnitude of the load current.
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION: EXAMPLE
▪ A small industrial plant has a 10kW heating load and a 20kVA inductive load due to a bank of
induction motors. The heating elements are considered purely resistive (𝐹𝑃 = 1), and the
induction motors have a lagging power factor of 0.7.
a) If the supply is 1000V at 60Hz, determine the capacitive element required to raise the power
factor to 0.95.
b) Compare the levels of current drawn from the supply before and after the power factor
correction.
SOLUTION:
a)
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION: EXAMPLE
SOLUTION cont…
a)

▪ Thus changing the power triangle to,

 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION: EXAMPLE
SOLUTION cont…
a)
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION: EXAMPLE
SOLUTION cont…
b) Compare the levels of current drawn from the supply before and after the power factor
correction.

∴ Adding a 16.93𝜇𝐹 in parallel with the load(s) resulted in a 10% reduction in the supply current.
27.93 − 25.27
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑠 = × 100 = 9.5 ≅ 10% 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
27.93
END OF UNIT